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Lumiere's Arrival of the Train: Cinema's Founding Myth

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Abstract

The Moving Image 4.1 (2004) 89-118 Louis Lumière's film Arrival of the Train shows, in only fifty seconds, an everyday occurrence, a familiar experience for spectators: a train pulls into a station, the passengers go back and forth on the platform. Despite its brevity and the banality of its subject matter, this film has attained fame, entering film history as an icon of the medium's origins. Just how important the film had become in constructing the founding myth of cinema's birth became clear during the centenary of cinema, which provided ample opportunity to recall the film. In Germany, as well as in other countries, numerous television and press reports attested to cinema's undiminished vitality, using this film as evidence: already pronounced dead several times, cinema was said to be capable of resisting even new electronic media by asserting its peculiar power to fascinate the senses and to appeal to audiences. In this context, Lumière's cinematographic locomotive and its startling effect is mentioned repeatedly as an illuminating example from the first days of cinema. Thus, Hellmuth Karasek writes in Der Spiegel: Even the German Railway's customer magazine picks up the gag, visually embellishing the supposedly panicky reaction: "The spectators ran out of the hall in terror because the locomotive headed right for them. They feared that it could plunge off the screen and onto them." The Munich Abendzeitung purportedly knew that "at the time, people, appalled by Arrival of the Train, were said to have leaped from their chairs." These journalistic claims are of course backed up by the standard works of film history. In Gregor and Patalas we can read that "according to handed-down knowledge, the locomotive terrified the audience." In connection with the menacing effect of Nosferatu, Lotte Eisner recalls that "the spectators in the Grand Café involuntarily threw themselves back in their seats in fright, because Lumière's giant locomotive pulling into the station seemingly ran toward them." Georges Sadoul, in his French classic of film history, writes: "In L'Arrivée d'un train, the locomotive, coming from the background of the screen, rushed toward the spectators, who jumped up in shock, as they feared getting run over." It is beside the point that these standard works were written thirty to forty years ago. The audience's terror in view of the arriving train is still passed on as a proven fact by film historians today. Bernard Chardère laconically notes, "The locomotive frightened the spectators." In the German edition of Emmanuelle Toulet's Birth of the Motion Picture, one can read under the heading "Beginning with Terror": "The amazement at seeing windswept trees and stormy seas is followed by naked horror when the train approaching the station of La Ciotat appears to move toward them." Noël Burch also asserts that in 1896 the spectators "jumped up from their chairs in shock." Finally, Jean-Jacques Meusy simply assumes that these audience reactions are known and presents Arrival of the Train as the spectacular beginning of the medium's affective power: "The overwhelming realism of this film is proof of the complete identification of the spectator's gaze with the camera's point of view and prefigures all shocking sequences to come." The story of the audience's terror circulates as a generally agreed-upon rumor. Mainstream film historiography has provided neither evidence nor even references to contemporary sources. Film historians...

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... Silent films turned out to be an enormous business at the beginning of the film, as individuals were astounded at watching moving pictures on the screen. Indeed, even without sound, you can viably introduce a message exclusively through visuals (Loiperdinger & Elzer, 2004) According to Loiperdinger & Elzer, (2004), "Louis Lumière's film Arrival of the Train shows, in only fifty seconds, an everyday occurrence, a familiar experience for spectators: a train pulls into a station, the passengers go back and forth on the platform. Despite its brevity and the banality of its subject matter, this film has attained fame, entering film history as an icon of the medium's origins. ...
... Silent films turned out to be an enormous business at the beginning of the film, as individuals were astounded at watching moving pictures on the screen. Indeed, even without sound, you can viably introduce a message exclusively through visuals (Loiperdinger & Elzer, 2004) According to Loiperdinger & Elzer, (2004), "Louis Lumière's film Arrival of the Train shows, in only fifty seconds, an everyday occurrence, a familiar experience for spectators: a train pulls into a station, the passengers go back and forth on the platform. Despite its brevity and the banality of its subject matter, this film has attained fame, entering film history as an icon of the medium's origins. ...
Chapter
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... Silent films turned out to be an enormous business at the beginning of the film, as individuals were astounded at watching moving pictures on the screen. Indeed, even without sound, you can viably introduce a message exclusively through visuals (Loiperdinger & Elzer, 2004) According to Loiperdinger & Elzer, (2004), "Louis Lumière's film Arrival of the Train shows, in only fifty seconds, an everyday occurrence, a familiar experience for spectators: a train pulls into a station, the passengers go back and forth on the platform. Despite its brevity and the banality of its subject matter, this film has attained fame, entering film history as an icon of the medium's origins. ...
... Silent films turned out to be an enormous business at the beginning of the film, as individuals were astounded at watching moving pictures on the screen. Indeed, even without sound, you can viably introduce a message exclusively through visuals (Loiperdinger & Elzer, 2004) According to Loiperdinger & Elzer, (2004), "Louis Lumière's film Arrival of the Train shows, in only fifty seconds, an everyday occurrence, a familiar experience for spectators: a train pulls into a station, the passengers go back and forth on the platform. Despite its brevity and the banality of its subject matter, this film has attained fame, entering film history as an icon of the medium's origins. ...
Chapter
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... People may argue that VR could be akin to other media, that over time, its impact will diminish-referring to the often reported incident where people ran out of an early cinema because the film depicted a fast approaching train, even if there is some doubt about whether this incident actually occurred (Loiperdinger and Elzer, 2004). However, VR is quite different to cinema. ...
Article
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... The arts have always shown their power in enabling the feeling of shared time and space: be it by making the audience feel so empathetic about a character on stage that they can't stop crying (Singh, 2012), or by being so realistic that it may trigger a stampede of people trying to run away from the movie screen (Loiperdinger & Elzer, 2004). Although many such stories may be nothing more than myths, they elucidate the human desire to create new spaces and times for shared existence through art. ...
Article
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... The film's first audience supposedly ran terrified from the screening, believing an actual train was approaching them. Scholars have, however, laid to rest the idea that this actually happened or that anyone was fooled into thinking the train was really crashing through the screen in this early, silent, black-and-white film (Gunning, 1989;Loiperdinger, 2004). One need not believe the train is real or really approaching, however, to be dazzled by the illusion. ...
Article
The release of multimodal generative artificial intelligence (AI) models in 2022, including DALL-E, Midjourney, and Stable Diffusion, has opened up new avenues to producing images. This new paradigm has implications for ideas of vision, illusion, and representation. Computer vision research has long used photographic images as a way to enable machines to see. Generative AI, on the other hand, uses data and techniques from computer vision to create images. This is possible thanks to the use of artificial neural networks that process vast datasets of training images, many of which are photographs, and the text associated with them. This article considers the relationship between image creation, illusion, and the notion of space in multimodal models. The photographic form of AI-generated images, coupled with a lack of understanding or experience of space undergirding their creation, reveals the illusion and artifice that is part of all photography.
... Here I would like to contrast with the fabled reaction to Lumiere brothers' 1895 documentary L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat, which showed footage of the train driving towards a camera. The audience, quite understandably considering this was one of the first films ever made, supposedly panicked believing the train would physically drive out from the screen and into them (Loiperdinger and Elzer, 2004). There's some dispute over the truth behind this story, but the prevalence of the myth is the thing of interest here (ibid.). ...
Article
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#LearnOnTikTok was a 2020 initiative from the social media company which invited accounts to facilitate audience education during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. As previous digital marketing and storytelling strategies can rarely be successfully transposed from other social media platforms to TikTok, organisations must create (and recreate) their own form of entertaining education. TikTok may become a classroom, but that does not guarantee there will be students. A new form of pedagogy must encompass the technological and cultural specificities of TikTok to reach, and then retain, the desired audience. Drawing from my own professional experience as a social media manager, I will examine how the materiality of TikTok videos shape a performance-based memetic culture, and how this in turn, transforms the pedagogic relationship between the institution and the audience. Using examples from DuoLingo and Planet Money, I will show how engaging in TikTok’s culture in a manner that is read as “authentic” by potential students is fundamental to an institution’s performance as “the Main Character”, which is essential to their capacity to educate on the social media platform.
... This provides an alternative to the working hypotheses that underpin most research on children and movies and indeed the work of many moviemakers: that as an iconic medium, movies look and sound like real life (Pierce, quoted by Wollen, 1998, p. 83) and constitute "a message without a code" (Barthes, 1977, p. 17). The famous-and probably exaggerated-accounts of audiences recoiling or screaming when in 1896 or soon afterwards they saw the Lumière brothers' 50-second movie L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat formed, as Loiperdinger argues, the 'founding myth' of moving image media: that viewers are supposed to instinctively believe they are viewing 'real life' (Loiperdinger, 2004). ...
Book
Prospective readers should know that this is NOT the full text of the book but just the introductory chapter. ResearchGate insists on listing it as the book and I now can't change it!
... The cinematographic image in fact communicated and conveyed the impression of a real, intimate, direct encounter, whose effect Brunetta (1999) did not hesitate to compare to Lumière's cinématographe's famous "shock of the train". Admittedly, the image of the locomotive rushing at full speed toward the crowd of (supposedly) 'primitive' and 'defenceless' spectators (Bottomore, 1999;Loiperdinger, 2004;Sirois-Trahan, 2004) was certainly more "traumatizing than the first appearance of the pope on the screen […], with his entry on the stage in the carriage and his subsequent apostolic blessing", which "precisely, seemed designed to soothe". Yet it would not have been any less 'exciting' , as it carried a sense of a 'real event': "The Pope emerges from the darkness of the Vatican interior with his white robe and smiling face, and is so close to the eye of the camera […] that it almost makes one want to reach out and touch him" (Brunetta, 1999, p. 552). ...
Article
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This paper presents an exploratory examination of video-mediated classroom interaction in School and University settings, a modality of teaching and learning which has recently experienced a rapid growth as a consequence of the COVID-19 emergency. Based on a corpus of audio and video recorded virtual classes, we analyze how instructors and students cope with the challenges of not being physically co-present and lacking direct visual contact in the virtual enviroment, and discuss how fundamental mechanisms of face-to-face classroom interaction –participants’ mutual orientation in the opening phase, speakers’ identification and recognition, as well as instructors’ actions like comprehension checks, solicitations for questions/comments, questions and evaluations– are partially modified in the virtual environment, making it more complex, for instructors, to enhance students’ active participation. Final considerations are devoted to the possible implications of these preliminary findings.
... This anecdote is questioned byLoiperdinger and Elzer (2004). The authors argue that there is no evidence that the panic of the audience really happened. ...
Thesis
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This research investigates the production and experience of immersion in architecture and virtual reality (VR), aiming to disclose VR’s cognitive effects and to understand why architects still underuse it for designing. Assuming that cognition is not restricted to a subject’s brain, this study adopts an enactivist perspective on cognition, implying that it extends through the entire organism, including its sensorimotor coupling with the environment. Immersion is approached from a phenomenological standpoint, prioritizing, whenever possible, the author’s first-hand experiences. Some theoretical aspects that emerged were investigated through practice, whether experiencing third-party immersive experiences or producing the two ‘practice studies’ developed for this thesis. The concepts of technology and immersion were studied to evaluate the pertinence of the term ‘immersive technologies’ and to ground theoretically the possibility of an ‘art of immersion’. Immersion in architecture and VR is analysed, arriving at the concept of atmosphere as a possible common ground between experiences. The notion of representation, in its turn, guides the discussion on the production of architecture. The relationship between body and architectural representation is also investigated, disclosing how efficiency became increasingly the standard, which implied the reduction of subjective aspects and the disengagement of the body in designing. The findings show that the software available for developing VR immersive experiences are either too complex, demanding the development of skills that are not usually part of the architects’ domain, or too limited, restricting experimentation. The analysis of the perception of immersion and atmosphere disclosed some subjective aspects related to the instrumentalizing of architects’ imagination, which hinders the perception of alternative uses of VR. Finally, it is argued that the most significant potential of VR for architects is related to the unlikely atmospheres it can bring to presence, allowing architects to experience and be affected by spatialities that are not only a digital reproduction of the look and/or behaviour of a physical environment.
... Cinema as an art form has evolved with many technological advances since 1895. One hundred and twenty-five years after Lumiere Brothers' first screenings at the Grand Cafe in Paris (Loiperdinger & Elzer, 2004), the world has experienced a global pandemic that has changed many crucial things in our lives. According to the World Health Organization, the novel Coronavirus 2019, known as COVID-19, was first recognized and documented in Wuhan, China, on December 31, 2019 (Bruns, Kraguljac, & Bruns, 2020 COVID-19 has affected many fields and industries during 2020. ...
Book
New Communication in the Post-Pandemic Era: Media, Education, and Information is a collection of contemporary post-positivist research and cultural/interpretative studies that explores new areas, redefines old concepts, and proposes rare discourses over communication theories, and portrays a new scene upon the edge of the global crisis by COVID-19 pandemic, which might lead to an ultimate paradigm shift pushing the post-industrial societies to a new complex of multi-layered structural regressions. Covering a broad range of multidisciplinary topics, –including consumer behavior, advertising strategies, public relations, blockchain technologies, new education channels, labor economics, disaster politics, health engagement, corporate communication, information systems, streaming services, music reception, reality television, animation, filmmaking, new personality models, and brand-new aesthetic styles– this manuscript of selected essays and articles is optimally designed for academics, researchers, educators, media professionals, entrepreneurs, executives, organizers, scientists, artists, public relations specialists, and students who intend to enhance their understanding of how the structures of ‘New Communication’ resist, accept, or repurpose the new historical conditions of the global crisis through media, education, and information.
... According to a (probably invented) anecdote, the audience at the premiere of the early cinema film L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat (1895) is said to have fled the auditorium in terror when a steam locomotive arrived in a station during the 50-s recording (Loiperdinger 2004). This was made possible by the immediacy effect of the new technology, which charged the film's actually manageable plot with unexpected force. ...
Article
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Virtual reality (VR) has had the reputation of being a revolutionising technology ever since it emerged in the early 1960s, but virtual is not yet a successful reality in journalistic practice. Examining VR’s current situation and the factors preventing it from reaching its predicted potential in digital journalism, this paper analyses the user comments (n = 770) on 15 journalistic VR apps offered by media organizations, with the help of a qualitative-reductive content analysis. Deductive categories of analysis contain the constructs of immersion, emotion, usability, and utility, which are further specified by inductive subcategories in the course of the analysis. Results show that users positively highlight different aspects of emotion and immersion that the VR apps elicit, and criticize journalistic VR apps for their low levels of utility and usability. Implications for journalistic practice and research are subsequently drawn.
... The cinema of attraction, as it has been called, featured a wide variety of visual wonders, including technological marvels of industrialization, the unfamiliar flora, fauna, and indigenous cultures of Europe's far-flung empires, scenes of contemporary European everyday life with an emphasis on the surprising and grotesque, and short clips of fiction with little narrative depth (Gunning 1986;Gaudreault 2011). Audiences were enthralled with the new moving images although reports about intense immersive incidents, for instance, of film spectators stampeding out of movie theaters when confronted head on with a moving train on the screen, seem to be more urban legend than historical fact (Loiperdinger 2004). Put differently, the sense of pleasurable unease with which today's audiences might react to violent movie and TV fare contains more than faint repercussions of the anxiety felt by early movie audiences. ...
Chapter
A Cultural History of Memory in the Twentieth Century cannot be written without taking into account the massive impact of the nation state on collective memory formation. This volume explores the power of the nation as a framework for the operation of collective memory but, in line with recent memory theory, the contributions also warn against the pitfalls of ‘methodological nationalism’ which risks subsuming society under the rubric of the nation-state. Likewise, it would be hard to imagine a cultural history of twentieth century memory which did not accord the Holocaust a central place in that history. As such, several chapters in this volume address this genocide. One key concern which emerges in this book is the question of periodization: how should we conceive of patterns in memory over the course of the twentieth century? Many developments in memory across the globe are connected by the fact that political, social and cultural forces in the twentieth century have been and remain global in reach. As such, this volume underlines the importance of progressing the agenda of ‘transnational memory’ studies. In doing so, A Cultural History of Memory in the Twentieth Century emphasizes the need to move beyond a focus on memory of war and genocide and seeks to offer a rich and diverse study of memory in the modern world.
... The myth says that people started to run in fear from the cinema as they believed the train was real. There is no real evidence that this happened, and most scholars consider it an urban legend(Loiperdinger 2004). ...
Article
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This paper is focused on the portrayal of media, more precisely television and new media, in television horror shows in the context of globalization and the implications of this portrayal. The media and their technologies have always been de-monized in one way or another. Every new invention, every new means of communication is viewed with a mix of awe and suspicion. New technology and new media become objects of phobia. Once a new medium is introduced, it usually takes the position of a phobic object, relieving the old one from this burden. However , a certain level of anxiety remains with the old medium. No genre shows this quite as well as horror. In the horror genre, the media and their physical forms are often shown either as a threat itself or bringer of thereof. The internet and social media are just as monstrous. But how are these monsters, material or not, portrayed in the media itself? In this paper I will analyze how television horror shows mediate the anxiety about threats linked to new media, social media, and television itself. In the first half of the paper, I focus on haunted media as a travelling concept in the television landscape. In the second half, I use the TV show Evil (2019-) as a case study, analyzing how it portrays new media as an ultimate threat in the era of globalization.
... En este punto, se hace interesante revisar aquella vieja historia según la cual los espectadores abandonaron la sala de proyecciones corriendo despavoridos ante la amenazante imagen viva del tren aproximándose en La llegada de un tren a la estación de La Ciotat (L'Arrivée D'un Train En Gare De La Ciotat, Auguste Lumière y Louis Lumière, 1895). A pesar de que la misma ha sido desacreditada como un falso mito (Loiperdinger y Elzer, 2004;Duckett, 2014), que no pertenece sino a la leyenda de la que el naciente medio cinematográfico se recubriría, bajo ella se evidencian dos condicionamientos muy claros que operan sobre el espectador: el primero es la naturaleza de la propia experiencia colectiva, compartida, que supone la proyección pública; en tanto que el segundo, ya nos insinúa la irrupción de una seminal estrategia de marketing, diseñada con el objeto de generar interés por dar a conocer del naciente espectáculo cinematográfico, para estimular su consumo. ...
Article
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La experiencia cinematográfica se desarrolla siempre bajo un estado de ánimo o un conjunto de circunstancias que delimitan y determinan la recepción de la obra, así como la naturaleza de los procesos cognitivos desencadenados por la misma, o el propio valor comunicativo que puede llegar a ser extraído por parte del público. En definitiva, esta experiencia se formula o construye sobre un determinado pacto de consumo, sobre el que inciden acciones o estrategias planificadas con el objeto de condicionar de la manera más eficaz posible el impacto emocional y comercial de la obra. El cine de terror nos brinda un escenario privilegiado para la evaluación y el análisis de algunas de estas medidas que han acreditado su efectividad en el curso de los años, a la luz de las valiosas aportaciones realizadas en el ámbito de la psicología experimental. En el presente artículo analizamos diferentes estrategias aplicadas sobre el espectador antes de que acceda a la propia sala de proyección y lo condicionan en su experiencia cinematográfica. A través de estas estrategias se logra sensibilizar al espectado y hacerlo más vulnerable ante el film de terror que va a experimentar.
... but there it lay, quite silent under its ashen sky. it was as though i could have heard even wind and church bells if only i had been more attentive". as in the case of brentano and kleist's 5). in the course of its reception, this event has become the "founding myth of cinema" (Loiperdinger, 2004). According to this myth, the film caused a panic among the spectators, because they mistook the approaching train on the screen for a real one. ...
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Deviating from Oliver Grau’s notion of the panorama’s immersive features, this article will discuss the receptive impact of virtual travel media of the 19th century in a more ambivalent and nuanced manner by employing two theoretical texts by Walter Benjamin, Clemens Brentano and Heinrich von Kleist. In Berlin Childhood around 1900 Benjamin draws on and reflects his childhood experience of the Kaiserpanorama in Berlin. Brentano and Kleist’s text elucidates the authors’ ‘strange feeling’ towards Caspar David Friedrich’s painting Monk by the Sea. What both texts share is a fundamental experience of ambivalence regarding the topographies depicted in both media. Other than merely being ‘enchanted’ and taken into a far distant land, it is precisely the mediality of the Kaiserpanorama and the Friedrich painting that provides a more complex experience, oscillating between distance and familiar terrain, between immersion and media reflexivity, between past, present and future. After introducing and discussing both theoretical accounts, I will apply their receptive principles to the analysis of the virtual travel media panorama and early cinema.
... We can also draw on our experience of other media, for there is no reason to believe that VR will be any more likely to deceive us than older media forms, which were once described as equally magical. In January 1896, when audiences first saw the Lumière Brothers' Arrival of a Train at Ciotat Station, they did not run from the theater in terror thinking it was an actual train as the oftrepeated legend has it, though they were no doubt startled and disoriented (Gunning, 1995;Loiperdinger and Elzer, 2004). As the film historian Tom Gunning (1995: 133) has explained, 'the first spectator's experience reveals not a childlike belief, but an undisguised awareness [of] (and delight in) film's illusionistic capabilities.' ...
Article
With the advent of mass consumer virtual reality (VR) headsets and controllers in the second decade of the 20th century, some experts have predicted we are on a path toward losing the distinction between the real and the virtual. These predictions overstate the empirical evidence for the effects of VR; ignore its technical limitations; take for granted highly speculative claims about the nature of consciousness; and, most fundamentally, lose sight of the continuities between VR and other representational media. This article argues against thinking of VR as a magical technology for creating seamless illusions. Instead it situates VR as an emerging medium within an evolving community that is beginning to develop the media conventions to support sustained interaction and immersion. The future of VR is not an inevitable and delusional metaverse but a medium of representation that will always require our active creation of belief.
... Spectators did not want to see reality on the screen, but rather images of reality, which were different from reality". See (Loiperdinger and Elzer 2004). 41 (Plate 2017, p. 9). ...
Article
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American science fiction stories, such as U.S. historical narratives, often give central place to white, Western male subjects as noble explorers, benevolent colonizers, and border-guarding patriots. This constructed subjectivity renders colonized or cultural others as potentially threatening aliens, and it works alongside the parallel construction of white womanhood as a signifier for the territory to be possessed and protected by American empire—or as a sign of empire itself. Popular cultural narratives, whether in the world of U.S. imperialism or the speculative worlds of science fiction, may serve a religious function by helping to shape world-making: the envisioning and enacting of imagined communities. This paper argues that the world-making of American science fiction can participate in the construction and maintenance of American empire; yet, such speculative world-making may also subvert and critique imperialist ideologies. Analyzing the recent films Arrival (2016) and Annihilation (2018) through the lenses of postcolonial and feminist critique and theories of religion and popular culture, I argue that these films function as parables about human migration, diversity, and hybrid identities with ambiguous implications. Contact with the alien other can be read as bringing threat, loss, and tragedy or promise, birth, and possibility.
... The anecdote about the spectators frightened by the reality of the Lumières' L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat (1895) has already been disproven as a historical fact, but it is not entirely false. Even though it is unlikely that anyone really mistook the image for an actual train, Martin Loiperdinger and Bernd Elzer (2004) have pointed out that the spectators were nonetheless thrown off by its hyperreal quality. The moving image's deep focus and distorted proportions were unfamiliar features that assaulted the audience, displacing the more traditional grammar of perspective representation to the background of their perception. ...
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Movie Circuits: Curatorial Approaches to Cinema Technology attempts to grasp media in the making. It delves into the underbelly of cinema in order to explore how images circulate and apparatus crystallize across different material formations. The indisciplinary experience of curators and projectionists provides a means to suspend traditional film studies and engage with the medium as it happens, as a continuing, self-differing mess. From contemporary art exhibitions to pirate screenings, research and practice come together in a vibrant form of media scholarship, built from the angle of cinema’s functionaries — a call to reinvent the medium from within. Order it at https://www.aup.nl/en/book/9789089648907/movie-circuits
... This fifty-second film became particularly famous due to the illusion it created: the moviegoers of that time were amazed by the fact that the approaching train looked like it would break the screen and, instead of arriving at La Ciotat, would arrive right into the middle of the movie theatre. It is even believed that some viewers were so scared that they ran away from the theatre (Loiperdinger 2004). All this is wellknown. ...
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Contemporary humanities do not seem to be interested in answering questions that begin with why. Why, before 1900, paintings were mostly mimetic, but, after 1900, mostly abstract? Why did the Russian novel reach its height in the second half of the nineteenth century – not earlier or later? Why does vers libre prevail in contemporary lyrical poetry? We hardly know. Probably these ques-tions are not impossible to answer, but there has been little effort made to address them. Humanities have tended to ask adjacent questions instead, those beginning with when, how, or who. So why is why underappreciated? I think that this lack of interest is rooted in a much larger, fundamental problem: we do not yet have a theory of art that would let us answer (or even pose) the why questions – a diachronic theory of art. Charting Artistic Evolution: An Essay in Theory presents a project of precisely that. It argues that the ideographic approach practiced in the humanities would benefit from accompaniment by a different, nomothetic approach, common in the sciences. We should look not only for the particular – a book, an author, a stylistic device – but also for the general: large historical trends, macro-patterns, tectonic shifts in the artistic field. The new discipline of digital humanities moves in this direction; it detects broad patterns and trends in the data. However, this growing stack of information, collected through sophisticated methods – from sentiment analysis to topic modeling – needs to be explained. How can we make sense of the diachronic changes? In my dissertation, I have employed the cultural evolution theory to understand artistic history. Art forms – devices, plot formulas, genres – get invented (through a random serendipity or intentional bricolage); they gain or lose their popularity depending on how successfully they press the buttons of the “emotion keyboard” in our brains; successful art forms are reproduced by the subsequent generations of writers or film directors who keep them “alive” for decades, or even centuries. I present these and many other general principles of artistic evolution and use them to explain various cases in art history. Why did Hollywood film crews become larger over time? Why do mystery movies obtain more complex temporal structure? Why is the literary field so unequal: a handful of famous authors and a majority of forgotten ones? Why do certain social environments boost artistic creativity? I demonstrate that all these why questions can be answered with suitable methods: quantitative and qualitative – and a suitable theory: cultural evolution.
... When applying expectancy-value theory (Barrow & Swanson, 1988;Edwards, 1954;Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975;Tolman, 1932) to these early films, it is difficult to assess the direct response from audiences without access to modern metrics to measure viewership and gauge receptiveness. History documents that the Lumière brothers films were popular with audiences and that some were so enamored by the images, they screamed and hid under café tables at the sight of an oncoming train pulling into a station (Loiperdinger & Elzer, 2004). The works of Eisenstein and Vertov have survived the changing times because of the films' influence and importance as deemed by historians and enthusiasts (Aufderheide, 2007). ...
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After the ratings success of the documentary film, Blackfish, CNN launched a new documentary initiative branded as CNN Films. Looking back at the history of the documentary genre on broadcast and cable/satellite television, one can see that the medium has had a troubled past in terms of ratings generation, although there have been notable exceptions. Unfortunately for documentary enthusiasts, a number of channels that once embraced documentary programming have since abandoned the genre and replaced it with nonfiction reality shows. Incorporating expectancy-value theory, one can assess that in order for a documentary initiative to be a successful ratings generator, the content must build a high amount of expectation among viewers and deliver a high amount of value. But it has been quite difficult for programming executives to successfully predict which documentaries will generate the solid ratings they seek. Given these factors, this article argues that the CNN Films push is a risky move by CNN President Jeff Zucker, and it is doubtful that the strategy can deliver the ratings surge the embattled network needs to beat its competition.
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In 1896, movie-goers in Paris viewed a SO-second-long silent film called L'Arrivee d'un train en gare de La Ciotat ("The Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat Station") in which a train is pulling into a train station. The film's directors, Auguste and Louis Lumiere, posi­ tioned the shot such that the train seemingly rushed straight toward the camera, and thus, straight toward the audience (Figure 21.1). Rumored accounts say that audience members were astonished by the illusion of this moving image, with some reports claiming that individuals ran to the back of the theater because they were overwhelmed with fear and panic that the train was coming directly at them [1]. This early account of media effects persists to this day as an example of the proposed nai:vete of audience members in believing information fed to them from the mass media. Luckily, society­ and our understanding of media effects and the use of media-has evolved to recog­ nize that we have a more nuanced relationship with mass media than is depicted in this folklore story. Mass media, in the most basic sense, are simply the technologies used to deliver content to a wide audience. (Note: media is plural for "medium.") However, from a pragmatic and scholarly perspective, the term mass media has evolved to incorpo­ rate the production, distribution, and consumption of content across a variety of mass media platforms, such as radio, television, and, increasingly, digital media such as social media platforms [2]. Health and mass media have always been intertwined, with the ability for health-related messages to reach large portions of the general public through the mass media's reach. In the early 1900s, for instance, New York­ based NBC broadcast health-related radio programs to its affiliates featuring experts speaking on topics such as baby's health and preventing cancer [3]. On the other hand, much of the health information that the general public encounters in the mass media is not always accurate, and may even be downright quackery [4]. Fraudulent medical advertisements promoting "cures" like the one shown below were common in the twentieth century and could be found in magazines and mass mailings (Figure 21.2). And, while it may be easy for us to look at such messages and be puzzled about how anyone could believe the information, we know that health misinformation in the mass media today represents perhaps an even bigger threat than it did back then. In this chapter, we first provide a broad historical overview of the major areas of mass media and health research. This includes mass media effects theories, mediated health interventions, and individual's health information seeking through the use of mass media. We then review several critical issues in the study of mass media on health. Finally, we conclude with directions for future research and practice. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a broad overview of the traditions of mass media research as pertaining to health and well-being; other chapters in this section elaborate on specific topical areas and the issues and opportunities for understanding how mass media is used within, and for, linguistically diverse populations. Through it all, we hope the reader will come to recognize that though the mass media are not an all-powerful force (nor does it have the ability to leap off the screen and hurt us!), individuals' lives and their well-being are nonetheless affected by the cumulative and overarching power of the mass media.
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The earliest instances of cinematography can be traced back to "Actuality Films" which portrayed the everyday lives of society. These films mechanically captured genuine footage, providing an accurate depiction of fleeting moments in existence that were brought into the limelight. Numerous endeavors aimed at capturing and presenting reality were eventually recognized as the birth of cinema in 1895. Although the initial films had a documentary nature, the term "cinema" itself emerged several decades later, becoming linked to the authenticity, credibility, and educational aspect of the content. Over the course of time, the narrator's voice and background noise were incorporated into the footage, while the shooting techniques, angles, and perspectives underwent improvement. The introduction of editing provided authors with even more powerful means to communicate their message to the viewers. Collectively and individually, these elements have given documentaries an immeasurable opportunity to influence the audience's emotions, knowledge, and sentiments. The historical analysis uncovered that inventors' aspiration to portray events with utmost precision in motion went far beyond the initial objective of creating cinema. In fact, it was solely through concentrated efforts on technical advancements that the first "actualities" emerged. This paper consistently demonstrates, through the content analysis of documentary films, how the stages of technical development have impacted the forms and methods of depiction as well as the dissemination of socio-cultural trends in society over time. It also sheds light on how the authors' visions, aspirations, and objectives underwent transformation. In parallel with irreversible technical and technological progress, the media landscape witnessed the emergence of new genres. Documentaries gradually embraced contemporary storytelling techniques. Eventually, by blending journalistic approaches with cinematography, a novel hybrid form known as "television documentary" emerged.
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Echoing the current research on mobilities, performative practice and the performative documentary, railway journey in screen texts is increasingly seen as a complex embodied, experiential and performative practice. However, although train films have received some attention in film criticism, little is known about the performative potential of train travel in experimental film. To fill this gap, I take a phenomenological stance on railway journeying to demonstrate how several stylistically distinct and rarely screened experimental films stage passengering through the display of window views or larger sections of trainspace, turning it into productive site of contemplation, creative activity and artistic expression.
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With the rise of far-reaching technological innovation, from artificial intelligence to Big Data, human life is increasingly unfolding in digital lifeworlds. While such developments have made unprecedented changes to the ways we live, our political practices have failed to evolve at pace with these profound changes. In this path-breaking work, Mathias Risse establishes a foundation for the philosophy of technology, allowing us to investigate how the digital century might alter our most basic political practices and ideas. Risse engages major concepts in political philosophy and extends them to account for problems that arise in digital lifeworlds including AI and democracy, synthetic media and surveillance capitalism and how AI might alter our thinking about the meaning of life. Proactive and profound, Political Theory of the Digital Age offers a systemic way of evaluating the effect of AI, allowing us to anticipate and understand how technological developments impact our political lives – before it's too late.
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In film theory, discursivity has been studied from the perspective of semiotics and cognitivism. An approach to film from Lacanian discursivity supposes different perspectives on the world filmed and the objects in it, and offers an insight into how to understand cinema as a philosophical event that changes the coordinates to represent time, movement and language. In order to do this, four Lumière films, some of the most well-known in the history of cinema, will be understood as representatives of the master, university, hysteric and analytic discourses, respectively. Access: https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1057/s41282-022-00342-9?sharing_token=ulasKfL6wXQIqhJ6O0ph61xOt48VBPO10Uv7D6sAgHvSsS4SiafQGc0DS55TFTRk4NYWzt6blPdRYyNBH8ULgD2FvOlco8K9d_vLkYHfGQzsh-ZQp2CWalZzI-FyG2YpcYlFpfr0MA9R2WXQBtwMecZAIdy2ZkJXIxFxZ-xCBco=
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In a number of postwar films, and most notably in director Francesco Rosi’s (1979) adaptation of Carlo Levi’s (1945) memoir, Cristo si è fermato a Eboli, Basilicata has been figured as Italy’s forgotten region, a place situated outside of time and untouched by modernity. This essay suggests that even in Cristo si è fermato, viewers can find traces of powerful, often exploitative, petrocultural forces—specifically, oil exploration and production—that have long been present in the region. Daniele Vicari’s Il mio paese (2006), a documentary film based on the Dutch documentarian Joris Ivens’ film L’Italia non è un paese povero (1960), takes petroculture’s legacy of wounded landscapes and uncertain affective and economic futures as its explicit subject. Drawing upon the philosophy elaborated in Franco Cassano’s Southern Thought, I then consider director Rocco Papaleo’s Basilicata Coast to Coast (2010), filmed on location in the region, and Antonio Oliviero and Christian Carmosino’s La lunga strada gialla (2016), which recounts the story of a longer voyage through Southern Italy, from Sicily to Rome. These two films are examples of itinerant cinema, as they focus their energies on long journeys that unfold on foot. In the process of walking across stretches of Italy, the films’ protagonists (and, ultimately, the films themselves) plant seeds of resistance that can challenge viewers to envision new energy regimes, new forms of posthuman relations, and new shapes for cinema.
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The substantial popularization of film only became a reality in China after the Chinese Communist Party sent down projection teams to the countryside in the 1950s to build a nationwide network of film propaganda. As rural viewers witnessed simultaneously the earliest arrival of cinema and the propagation of socialist ideas at the time, a study of their experiences offers an alternative understanding of early spectatorship which has long been structured by the conception of ‘the cinema of attractions’. I propose using ‘the cinema of make-believe’ to conceptualize the practices of film exhibition in rural China, indicating the isomorphism between the apparatus of cinema and that of propaganda. I argue that the capability of navigating film and reality was made prominent in rural viewers’ early reception of cinema, in which spectators were made to believe the presence of absent objects. Such ‘present-absence’ effect embedded in cinema facilitated the operation of socialist propaganda, despite obstructing the goal of universal agitation in certain circumstances.
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In Vignette A, the twins’ focused attention is indicated in posture and gaze as they watch something different from what they are used to (short movie Laughing Moon). Research on two-year-olds is rare, because of difficulties of access, consent, and failures to adopt appropriate methodologies. Longitudinal studies by family members—and thus inevitably small samples—are of most value for this age-group. The author’s experiences of child-rearing and professional work in media education led to the study of her twin grandchildren and to this book, premised on the fact that many three-year-olds can follow a feature film but most two-year-olds can’t. Bodily indicators of focused attention are seen in Vignette A; elements of an intervening learning process can be inferred from the twins’ second Laughing Moon viewing. Panksepp’s “seeking” emotion and Lancaster’s “expectations of significance” concept provide useful indicators of why children need to adopt focused attention when viewing something unfamiliar but interesting. [153 words]
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Este ensayo está enfocado a desarrollar la concepción feminista de los imaginarios como topografías del espacio y tiempo. También propone la necesidad de pensar en las dos categorías que vinculan a las experiencias con las expectativas. Los imaginarios no poseen espacios materiales y sin embargo son lugares en donde aparecen nuestras autorepresentaciones y nuestros proyectos de transformación social. Por otro lado, el cine es análogo a los imaginarios porque ambos lidian con autorepresentaciones, ya que estamos en permanente esfuerzo por autointerpretarnos. Por lo tanto, la imaginación es el espacio mediador donde aparecen nuestras prácticas de instituir y crear a los espacios políticos y sociales. Este ensayo también propone que el feminismo debe ir más allá del espacio público, lo que significa expandir el espacio de la política.
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Prvi i drugi deo studije posvećni su osnovnim postavkama Tominog razumevanja čulnog opažanja, pojmovima čulnih moći, svojstvenog i zajedničkog čulnog predmeta i značenju izraza similitudo, species i intentio. Treći deo obrađuje pet spoljašnjih čula i razmatra smisao Tomine tvrdnje da pri opažanju dolazi do duhovne promene. Četvrti deo bavi se zajedničkim čulom, a peti imaginacijom i fantazmom. U šestom je analizirana mislilačka moć i tumačena je Tomina tvrdnja da ona opaža pojedinačnosti ut existens sub natura communi. Sedmi deo posvećen je pamćenju. U osmom delu obrađeni su aspekti čulne spoznaje u kojima Toma vidi prisustvo razumskog elementa, iskustvo, prva univerzalija i priprema fantazama za apstrahovanje. U završnom delu ukratko su obrađeni problemi mesta indukcije i iskustva u spoznaji prvih principa, praktični silogizam i odnos odvojene duše i čulne spoznaje.
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Este livro propõe explorar os conceitos mais relevantes da linguagem audiovisual através da análise de alguns momentos específicos da história do cinema. Dirigido, principalmente, a alunos do ensino superior das áreas da Comunicação, Cultura e Artes, remete para notas de rodapé os elementos gramáticos audiovisuais, marcados a negrito e compilados em glossário, para facilitar a consulta. Muitas obras e movimentos cinematográficos ou autores incontornáveis não são analisados, nem sequer mencionados, tendo em conta que este trabalho não se debruça sobre a história do cinema, embora se sustente no discurso fílmico. A predominância da linguagem audiovisual na comunicação contemporânea é incontornável e, por isso, trona-se imperativo o seu domínio conceptual, estético, formal e técnico. A televisão, os videojogos, os conteúdos do Youtube, os metaversos online ou a realidade virtual, têm em comum uma base morfológica e sintática que nasceu e cresceu como o cinema. Este livro divide-se em três capítulos. No primeiro damos conta desse nascimento e da cimentação de uma linguagem que rapidamente se tornou universal. Para isso, usaremos uma metáfora: o comboio do amor. O Comboio, essa invenção anterior ao cinema, mas igualmente veloz na conquista de fãs e tão presente no cinema (como veremos). Na verdade, os passageiros do comboio anteciparam a experiência de ver imagens em movimento que o cinema trouxe, ao olharem pela janela. A influência mútua entre cinema e comboio, duas máquinas com essência na ideia de movimento, acompanhar-nos-á ao longo do livro. No segundo capítulo, falamos de idiossincrasias na criação e construção da diegese narrativa audiovisual. Perdemos o comboio quando apanhamos o batelão O Atalante, de Jean Vigo e nos desnorteamos no alegórico futuro que já é passado de Blade Runner, de Ridley Scott, mas voltamos a apanhá-lo na passagem de Disponível para amar para 2046, pela mão de Wong Kar Way. A viagem termina na estação de Montmatre, onde vamos estudar a estrutura da narrativa e debruçar-nos sobre o que ainda pode vir a ser a comunicação audiovisual. Portanto, sente-se confortavelmente. O comboio já está a apitar e vai partir.
Chapter
This chapter begins with a discussion of the ambivalent chord Méliès struck for the pioneering documentary historians for whom Méliès was rendered an uncanny, estranged autre, an incontestable rival of the (by that time) nearly century-old documentary tradition. On the one hand, Méliès was never considered to be a meaningful or even relevant player in the progression of documentarism. On the other, film historians were then—as they are now—aware of the notion that no mythology is enabled or made viable without a perfect antagonist, a role for which Méliès’s personal characteristics and professional traits were perfectly suited: eccentric, rebellious, extremely innovative, wildly imaginative, hyper-aesthetic, and outrageously creative. In this chapter I present a close reading of a nearly forgotten paragraph from his private memoirs in which he describes his epic journey, with a camera, to the storm-swept beaches of Trouville and Le Havre. Back in Paris with the developed materials, the unexpected, excited audience reaction to the naturalistic documentary marvel he had just produced inspired him to shout at the top of his lungs: “That’s it, exactly!” a cry that, half a century later, would be echoed by the masters of direct cinema. This chapter begins with a discussion of the ambivalent chord Méliès struck for the pioneering documentary historians for whom Méliès was rendered an uncanny, estranged autre, an incontestable rival of the (by that time) nearly century-old documentary tradition. On the one hand, Méliès was never considered to be a meaningful or even relevant player in the progression of documentarism. On the other, film historians were then—as they are now—aware of the notion that no mythology is enabled or made viable without a perfect antagonist, a role for which Méliès’s personal characteristics and professional traits were perfectly suited: eccentric, rebellious, extremely innovative, wildly imaginative, hyper-aesthetic, and outrageously creative. In this chapter I present a close reading of a nearly forgotten paragraph from his private memoirs in which he describes his epic journey, with a camera, to the storm-swept beaches of Trouville and Le Havre. Back in Paris with the developed materials, the unexpected, excited audience reaction to the naturalistic documentary marvel he had just produced inspired him to shout at the top of his lungs: “That’s it, exactly!” a cry that, half a century later, would be echoed by the masters of direct cinema.
Article
Deepfakes are a new form of synthetic media that broke upon the world in 2017. Bringing photoshopping to video, deepfakes replace people in existing videos with someone else’s likeness. Currently most of their reach is limited to pornography, and they are also used to discredit people. However, deepfake technology has many epistemic promises and perils, which concern how we fare as knowers. Our goal is to help set an agenda around these matters, to make sure this technology can help realize epistemic rights and epistemic justice and unleash human creativity, rather than inflict epistemic wrongs of any sort. Our project is exploratory in nature, and we do not aim to offer conclusive answers at this early stage. There is a need to remain vigilant to make sure the downsides do not outweigh the upsides, and that will be a tall order.
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Since their inception in the XIX Century, mass media have been crucial in shaping the image of the urban environment on our collective subconscious. In the early 20th Century, newspapers and magazines bustled with exacerbated but fascinating images of the city of the future, which appeared as hyperbolic portrayals of the perception that the contemporary citizen had of his own effervescing modern environment. Cinema soon joined this process, as a privileged, mechanical eye that could record, analyse and reinvent the accelerated modern city and its evolution. Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1926) epitomized the powers of the new medium, providing the viewers with a window that allowed them to see this Lacanian Other come alive, somehow encapsulating their own experience of the new urban reality. Over half a century later films such as Alien (1979) and Blade Runner (1982) took the torch as fictional future representations of postmodern space that provided the postmodern citizen with a suitably hyper-real substitute of reality. Three decades after that, the videogames and virtual reality experiences based on those very films promise to break the final barrier, allowing us to cross to the other side of the membrane, and freely move through that which is, literally, an augmented reality.
Chapter
This chapter examines the potential of media technologies in challenging established discourses regarding the Greek political, social, and financial crisis, through an analysis of two documentary projects that were launched in the same period, around 2011. The two platforms in focus, namely The Prism GR 2011 and The Caravan Project, were both initiated in an attempt to capture the onset and evolution of the economic recession in Greece, and its impact on social life and everyday politics, through the aggregation and display of micro-narratives of citizens living in the periphery of the country or of its major urban centers. By analyzing the diverse media methodologies implemented, and more specifically archival practices that are rooted in collective documentation, mobility, and interactivity, this chapter pursues a twofold goal. First, it aims to reveal the complications that arise from every act of representation, and in particular in relation to the abundance of representations of crisis in Greece, leading to a crisis of representation. Second, it addresses the complexity of the relationship between humans, technologies, narratives, material and non-material actors, and in particular in the process of filming external reality, suggesting the ability of this nexus to evoke new, critical subjectivities in times of crisis.
Article
This article explores the study of pre-cinematic toys and media within the context of a multidisciplinary childhood studies department, arguing that childhood studies and media archaeology share a number of critical preoccupations, analytical approaches, and possibilities for hands-on engagement with historical and contemporary media. From the perspective of childhood, historical media such as optical toys are linked to alternate intellectual genealogies than those that might be expected within the film and media studies classroom. Material engagement with optical toys in this distinct disciplinary space brings new critical and methodological issues surrounding objects such as nineteenth-century optical toys to the surface. The article traces several core concepts that have driven media archaeological inquiry – such as regression and play – and considers how these terms have been deployed, while the closely related concept of childhood has been excluded. Close consideration of children as historical creators and users of optical media offers new possibilities for hands-on classroom practice, from the expansion of archival possibilities and constellations of evidence to the incorporation of critical perspectives from the history of object-based education. While media archaeological inquiry encompasses technologies, devices, and apparatus of all sorts, optical toys and related playthings – of all objects – offer particularly fruitful case studies for experimental analysis. Drawing these two disparate fields together reveals important connections between children as historical creators and users of optical toys and the kinds of questions and conclusions contemporary researchers may draw in classrooms today.
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Education has always been an important factor of life, being continuously analysed, in the attempt to improve its delivery in today’s classrooms. Although much has been done to give education more interesting ways of delivery, yet there are several generic instances when educational techniques used in today’s classrooms are deemed as outdated, both by educators and their students. Subjects, which are meant to enhance the knowledge and appreciation of a culture’s heritage, can at times not be exposed to students in the most exciting way possible, so as to enhance learning and maximise understanding. A country’s heritage is the map to its history. The accumulation of its languages, including its artistic endeavours and representations, stand as a reminder of our ancestors who have toiled hard to create the story that we are nowadays striving to keep alive and further enrich through contemporary means. Technology has become a tool which stands alongside the brushes and rasps of the artists and sculptors of antiquity. Today, computers and their burgeoning peripherals have given art newer twists and further methods of expression, which can in turn augment the way students are drawn into the magical world of their country’s heritage. This project is endeavouring to capture film language and transpose it into a 360-degree film environment, which combined with the enrapturing use of spatial sound will recreate an epic moment in the fairly unknown initial stages of the Great Siege of Malta. This immersion is aimed not only to excite the young minds of students through the narrative techniques used, but further create compassion through an increased sense of empathy.
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The Cambridge World History of Violence - edited by Louise Edwards March 2020
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Tracing the origins of the documentary from its birth as a non-fiction film medium in 1895 to its use by the Government of Canada as an influential promotional tool to stimulate immigration, the documentary film is examined closely in these early years to explore its evolution as an instrument of social change. With particular focus on the Canadian experience, this chapter chronologically details its first use by a Manitoba farmer in 1897 and how his modest “home movies” inspired government agencies and corporate entities to establish production divisions serving as models for other countries to follow.
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Primarni cilj ove knjige je proučiti različite teorije komunikacije, vidjeti kako se spomenute teorije mogu primijeniti u svakodnevnom životu, kako na privatnom tako i na poslovnom planu. Zato je drugi cilj ovog udžbenika ujedno i dati osnovne informacije o postojećim znanstvenim spoznajama, najvažnijim teorijama i istraživanjima u ovom polju te, što je možda i najvažnije, ukazati na izvore za daljnja proučavanja komunikologije i uopće ljudske komunikacije.
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Bei aller Kritik am Begriff und den Zweifeln an der wesenhaften Neuigkeit des Phänomens ist das Etikett „Fake News“ insofern sinnvoll, als solche weniger Ursache denn Symptom einer aktuellen (Problem-)Situation sind. Diese betrifft nicht nur den Ruf und die Rolle von Journalismus in der digitalmedialen Welt oder die Regeln öffentlicher Kommunikation im Social Web, sondern den Stellenwertwandel publizistischer Faktizität. Ausgehend vom Kernbegriff der Fälschung fasst der Beitrag Fake News als aktuelle Erscheinungsformen eines, selbst im Falle etwa von Verhetzung, quasi-ironischen Spiels mit der Gattung „Nachricht“ und ihren konventionell-stilistischen Authentizitätsmarkern auf. Jenseits des propagandistischen Einsatzes, diesen aber prägend, sind sie stärker handlungstheoretisch und soziokulturell funktionalistisch in den Blick zu nehmen. Vergleichbar Internet-Memes gilt es, Fake News als Mittel phatischer Gemeinschaftsbildung und kollektiver Selbstverständigung mit bestenfalls gestischem Wahrhaftigkeitsanspruch zu verstehen. Dem ist folglich mit (Gegen-)Fakten, Warnhinweisen oder Medienkritikkompetenzbildung nur begrenzt beizukommen.
Veränderungen fangen immer wieder im Kopf an: 100 Jahre Kino: Was das Filmmuseum zum Jubiläum bietet
  • Angie Dullinger
Angie Dullinger, " Veränderungen fangen immer wieder im Kopf an: 100 Jahre Kino: Was das Filmmuseum zum Jubiläum bietet, " Abendzeitung (Munich), January 14–15, 1995.
German translation from the original French (Frankfurt am Main: Kommunales Kino Frankfurt, 1975), 100–101. This passage is missing from the English translation, The Haunted Screen
  • Lotte Eisner
  • Die
  • Leinwand
Lotte Eisner, Die dämonische Leinwand, German translation from the original French (Frankfurt am Main: Kommunales Kino Frankfurt, 1975), 100–101. This passage is missing from the English translation, The Haunted Screen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 104.
Ain't It Lifelike! " introd 1896; so far it has not been possible to identify O
  • O Winter
O. Winter, " Ain't It Lifelike! " introd. Stephen Bottomore, Sight and Sound 51, no. 4 (1982): 294–96; rpt. of New Review, May 1896; so far it has not been possible to identify O. Winter (communication from Stephen Bottomore to the author, April 2, 1996).
1896): 89; for this reference and all further information in this paragraph, I am indebted to Anne Gautier and Jean-Marc Lamotte
  • See
  • Le
See " Le cinématographe, " Science française (Paris) 6, no. 59 (March 13, 1896): 89; for this reference and all further information in this paragraph, I am indebted to Anne Gautier and Jean-Marc Lamotte, Paris.
An Aesthetic of Astonishment
  • Gunning
Gunning, " An Aesthetic of Astonishment, " 122.
There one can also find Sadoul's explana-tion of the idea to grant L'arrivée d'un train à La Ciotat the status of a plan-séquence (sequence shot), which we cannot discuss in more detail here
  • Sadoul
  • Lumière
Sadoul, Lumière et Méliès, 44. There one can also find Sadoul's explana-tion of the idea to grant L'arrivée d'un train à La Ciotat the status of a plan-séquence (sequence shot), which we cannot discuss in more detail here.