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Pygmalion and Employee Learning: The Role of Leader Behaviors
Abstract and Figures
The aim of this study was to investigate which leader behaviors mediate the relationship
between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Based on
Rosenthal’s Pygmalion model, five potential mediators of the Pygmalion effect were distinguished:
leader–member exchange relationship, goal setting (i.e., goal specificity, goal difficulty),
providing learning opportunities, and feedback. Data from 904 manager–subordinate
dyads in six organizations showed that leader expectations were related to employee engagement
in learning activities. Goal specificity, goal difficulty, and providing learning opportunities proved
to be mediators. These findings suggest that goal setting lies at the heart of the Pygmalion effect.
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... Employee learning-oriented behavior refers to discretionary actions in ongoing learning activities to master new knowledge, skills, and abilities (Bezuijen et al., 2009). The goal orientation literature (Heimbeck et al., 2003;Matsuo, 2019) indicates that a learning orientation can facilitate mastery of challenging tasks and deeper engagement with the task (Hirst et al., 2009). ...
... We propose that employee learning-oriented behavior can be one of the effective bottom-up approaches. Based on the diversity theories (Van Knippenberg et al., 2004;Van Dick et al., 2008) and employee learning literature (Maurer, 2002;Bezuijen et al., 2009), we argue that employee learning-oriented behaviors may help to alleviate the negative impact of workforce diversity. That is, those who are more learning-oriented may perceive diversity as a learning opportunity and try to make use of such differences (e.g., knowledge, skills, and experience differences) among colleagues to facilitate their own tasks. ...
The workforce has become more diverse than it used to be. Although organizations actively capitalize on workforce diversity to enhance team innovation and organizational performance, it is found that workforce diversity also has potential risks, among which interpersonal conflict is the most salient one. However, we still know relatively less about why workforce diversity may link to higher interpersonal conflict and, more importantly, how to mitigate the negative impact of workforce diversity. Based on the workplace diversity theories (e.g., the categorization-elaboration model), this study examined how workforce diversity was positively related to interpersonal conflict through impacting one’s affective states, and to what extent this indirect effect can be weakened by organization-initiated practices (i.e., the inclusive human resources management (HRM) practices) and employee-initiated behaviors (i.e., employee learning-oriented behaviors). Using two-wave surveys from 203 employees from various organizations in China, we confirmed our hypotheses. Our results showed that perceived workforce diversity was positively related to interpersonal conflict through increasing negative affect (after we controlled for the objective diversity level calculated by the Blau index), and this indirect effect was weakened when the levels of inclusive HRM practices and employee learning-oriented behaviors were high. Our study suggests that it is important for organizations to be aware of the detrimental impact of workforce diversity. In addition, it is essential to use both the top-down (e.g., inclusive HRM practices) and bottom-up (e.g., employee learning-oriented behaviors) approaches to managing the challenges presented by diversity so as to unlock more potential of diversity in the workplace.
... Bunun nedenini Niari ve diğerleri (2016, s. 40) yetişkinlerin çocuklara göre daha deneyimli olmaları, öğrenme yollarını tercih etmeleri ve kişilikleri oluştuğu için öğretmenlerin yetişkinleri etkileme gücünün sınırlı olduğu şeklinde açıklamaktadırlar. Fakat yetişkinler adına eğitim alanında değil, işletme alanında işverenler ve çalışanlar arasında yönetici ya da lider beklentilerinin çalışanların performanslarını nasıl etkilediğine dair çalışmalar kısıtlıdır (Livingston, 2003;Bezuijen, 2009;Dvir vd., 1995;Stedry ve Kay, 1996). Bu nedenle, Pigmalyon etkisinin, yetişkinler üzerinde de aynı etkiyi yaratıp yaratmadığı ya da iş dünyasında yönetici beklentilerinin çalışan performansını etkileyip etkilemediğine dair daha fazla deneysel çalışmaya ihtiyaç duyulduğu ortadadır. ...
Günümüzde örgütlerin önemi gün geçtikçe daha da artmaktadır. Ulus ve uluslararası örgütlerin çoklu fonksiyonları ve etkileri, örgüt kültürü ve örgütsel davranış alanında yapılacak olan yeni çalışmaları/araştırmaları zorunlu kılmaktadır. Kitabımızda hitap etmeyi amaçladığımız hedef kitleyi bu yeni kavramlarla tanıştırmak ve yapılacak yeni araştırmalara zemin hazırlamak öncelikli gayemiz olmuştur. Örgütsel davranış alanındaki kavram ve araştırmalara ilgi duyan araştırmacılara, akademisyenlere, karar vericilere, uygulayıcılara, öğrencilere bilgi ve ulusal yazına katkı sağlamayı amaçlayan kitabımız 28 yazarın katkı sunduğu 21 bölümden oluşmaktadır. Serimizin ilk kitabının konu dağılımından da anlaşılacağı üzere bu çalışmalar örgütsel davranış alanında çok önemli bir boşluğu dolduracağı gibi yeni çalışmalara da kaynaklık edeceği iddiasını taşımaktadır. Ülkemizde yaşanan asrın felaketi olarak adlandırılan Kahramanmaraş merkezli on bir ili etkileyen depremlerden dolayı oldukça zor, sıkıntılı ve stresli bir süreç içerisinde kitap çalışmamızı tamamlamış bulunmaktayız. Bu depremlerden doğrudan etkilenen bölüm yazarlarımızın zor şartlarda kitabımıza katkı sağlamış olmaları takdire şayandır. Bu nedenle öncelikle bu eserin ortaya çıkabilmesi için yoğun bir emek, özveri, sabır ile katkı ve destek sağlayan birbirinden değerli, alanında uzman tüm bölüm yazarlarımıza teşekkürlerimi ve şükranlarımı sunmayı bir borç bilirim. Ayrıca kitaba sunuş yazma inceliğini göstererek bizleri onurlandıran, sahip olduğu bilgi ve tecrübelerle her zaman yolumu aydınlatan ve bana rol model olan Değerli Hocam Prof. Dr. Mustafa TAŞLIYAN’a, kitabın yayına hazırlanmasında titizlikle çalışan Özgür Yayınevi ve çalışanlarına, kitap yazım sürecinde desteğini esirgemeyen ve bugünlere gelmemi sağlayan aileme, değerli hocalarıma, arkadaşlarıma ve siz değerli okuyuculara sonsuz teşekkürlerimi ve saygılarımı sunarım.
... Bunun nedenini Niari ve diğerleri (2016, s. 40) yetişkinlerin çocuklara göre daha deneyimli olmaları, öğrenme yollarını tercih etmeleri ve kişilikleri oluştuğu için öğretmenlerin yetişkinleri etkileme gücünün sınırlı olduğu şeklinde açıklamaktadırlar. Fakat yetişkinler adına eğitim alanında değil, işletme alanında işverenler ve çalışanlar arasında yönetici ya da lider beklentilerinin çalışanların performanslarını nasıl etkilediğine dair çalışmalar kısıtlıdır (Livingston, 2003;Bezuijen, 2009;Dvir vd., 1995;Stedry ve Kay, 1996). Bu nedenle, Pigmalyon etkisinin, yetişkinler üzerinde de aynı etkiyi yaratıp yaratmadığı ya da iş dünyasında yönetici beklentilerinin çalışan performansını etkileyip etkilemediğine dair daha fazla deneysel çalışmaya ihtiyaç duyulduğu ortadadır. ...
Günümüzde örgütlerin önemi gün geçtikçe daha da artmaktadır. Ulus ve uluslararası örgütlerin çoklu fonksiyonları ve etkileri, örgüt kültürü ve örgütsel davranış alanında yapılacak olan yeni çalışmaları/araştırmaları zorunlu kılmaktadır. Kitabımızda hitap etmeyi amaçladığımız hedef kitleyi bu yeni kavramlarla tanıştırmak ve yapılacak yeni araştırmalara zemin hazırlamak öncelikli gayemiz olmuştur. Örgütsel davranış alanındaki kavram ve araştırmalara ilgi duyan araştırmacılara, akademisyenlere, karar vericilere, uygulayıcılara, öğrencilere bilgi ve ulusal yazına katkı sağlamayı amaçlayan kitabımız 28 yazarın katkı sunduğu 21 bölümden oluşmaktadır. Serimizin ilk kitabının konu dağılımından da anlaşılacağı üzere bu çalışmalar örgütsel davranış alanında çok önemli bir boşluğu dolduracağı gibi yeni çalışmalara da kaynaklık edeceği iddiasını taşımaktadır. Ülkemizde yaşanan asrın felaketi olarak adlandırılan Kahramanmaraş merkezli on bir ili etkileyen depremlerden dolayı oldukça zor, sıkıntılı ve stresli bir süreç içerisinde kitap çalışmamızı tamamlamış bulunmaktayız. Bu depremlerden doğrudan etkilenen bölüm yazarlarımızın zor şartlarda kitabımıza katkı sağlamış olmaları takdire şayandır. Bu nedenle öncelikle bu eserin ortaya çıkabilmesi için yoğun bir emek, özveri, sabır ile katkı ve destek sağlayan birbirinden değerli, alanında uzman tüm bölüm yazarlarımıza teşekkürlerimi ve şükranlarımı sunmayı bir borç bilirim. Ayrıca kitaba sunuş yazma inceliğini göstererek bizleri onurlandıran, sahip olduğu bilgi ve tecrübelerle her zaman yolumu aydınlatan ve bana rol model olan Değerli Hocam Prof. Dr. Mustafa TAŞLIYAN’a, kitabın yayına hazırlanmasında titizlikle çalışan Özgür Yayınevi ve çalışanlarına, kitap yazım sürecinde desteğini esirgemeyen ve bugünlere gelmemi sağlayan aileme, değerli hocalarıma, arkadaşlarıma ve siz değerli okuyuculara sonsuz teşekkürlerimi ve saygılarımı sunarım.
... Firstly, individual learning (determined by factors such as learning security, level of participation, and knowledge absorption) is a direct factor in the generation of competence for work role transitions. Individual learning refers to the active behavior of individuals in acquiring new knowledge, skills, and competencies in the course of their work [53]. Adaptation to new roles, e.g., "personal change" and "role innovation", is related to learning [54]. ...
The competence to change work roles is a key factor for individuals in achieving a successful work role transition. In this study, we analyzed in-depth interview data of 31 “double-qualified” teachers and related teaching managers in higher education institutions using the grounded theory method and constructed a model of the structural dimensions of teachers’ work role transition competence and its generation mechanism. The model was also interpreted using work role transition theory, the Job Demand–Control–Support (JDCS) model, and employee learning theory. The research results show that the work role transition competence of teachers in higher education institutions is mainly composed of four dimensions: old role detachment, psychological adaptation, new role cognition, and resource reserve capacity; the four factors of work role demand (initiation factor), role breadth self-efficacy (internal contextual factor), social support (external contextual factor), and individual learning (direct factor) follow the theoretical logic of “demand–context–learning–competence” to influence the formation of work role transition competence. This study enriches and expands the theory of work role transition, which can help teachers in higher education institutions to effectively apply it in their work role transitions and can help higher education institutions to further improve the corresponding norms of human resource management practice.
... In doing so, a basis for theoretical development and integration could be provided. Of all 105 reviewed studies, only four used more than one leadership theory (Bezuijen et al., 2009;Evers et al., 2016;Vermeulen et al., 2022;Xie, 2020). ...
Contemporary organizations must be adaptive and agile as the environment changes. To respond to change, leaders must find ways of integrating learning into everyday work experiences. This invites the question: how do leaders facilitate individual, group and organizational learning? Several studies have examined relationships among leadership and learning and potential mediating and moderating variables. However, because this literature is extensive and fragmented it is difficult to discern what is known about how leadership contributes to individual, group and organizational learning. Accordingly, there is a pressing need to assemble and evaluate the existing studies. To address this limitation of the literature, this paper presents a systematic review and critique of literature in this field. Our review of 105 studies suggests that there are statistically significant relationships between different types of leadership and learning at the individual, group, and organizational levels. Furthermore, the findings indicate that these relationships are often mediated by other variables. However, little is known about moderators and boundary conditions. Based on the findings, it would be premature to say with certainty that leadership causally influences learning, since the empirical basis for such a claim is lacking. We outline the conceptual, theoretical, methodological, and empirical refinements needed to guide future research on learning-oriented leadership and advance this research trajectory. The findings of our review and our conclusions will be informative for researchers and practitioners.
... Karenanya dalam literatur, ketertarikan untuk belajar lebih memilih peran pelatihan pemimpin daripada peran penuntun (Omar Bakar, Sulong, & Chowdhury, 2020). Pemimpin bertanggung jawab untuk mendukung dan mengelola kegiatan belajar (Bezuijen, van den Berg, van Dam, & Thierry, 2009). Akibatnya, investasi dalam pengetahuan staf, keterampilan, dan pengalaman memiliki efek positif dalam mengembangkan keterampilan staf dan melaksanakan tugas-tugas organisasi (Bezuijen et al., 2010). ...
The study examined the effects of open-mindedness and humble behavior on innovation through the role of learning. Quantitative design was used to collect data through questionnaire-based surveys distributed to 210 respondents at a construction company located in Jakarta. The results showed that open-mindedness, humble behavior, and learning had a positive and significant effect on innovation. Furthermore, there is an indirect effect of open-mindedness and humble behavior on innovation through learning. Originality in this study is to try to examine the influence of open-mindedness and humble behavior on worker innovation with learning as a mediation variable in the construction sector in Jakarta.
... Another prominent example from psychology is the Pygmalion effect [Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968]. It refers to the phenomenon that high expectations lead to improved performance, which is widely documented in the context of education [Bezuijen et al., 2009], sports [Solomon et al., 1996], and organizations [Eden, 1992]. Examples of such performativity abound, and we hope to have convinced the reader that the performative effects studied in this work should be taken into account in algorithmic prediction. ...
Predictions about people, such as their expected educational achievement or their credit risk, can be performative and shape the outcome that they aim to predict. Understanding the causal effect of these predictions on the eventual outcomes is crucial for foreseeing the implications of future predictive models and selecting which models to deploy. However, this causal estimation task poses unique challenges: model predictions are usually deterministic functions of input features and highly correlated with outcomes, which can make the causal effects of predictions impossible to disentangle from the direct effect of the covariates. We study this problem through the lens of causal identifiability, and despite the hardness of this problem in full generality, we highlight three natural scenarios where the causal effect of predictions on outcomes can be identified from observational data: randomization in predictions or prediction-based decisions, overparameterization of the predictive model deployed during data collection, and discrete prediction outputs. We show empirically that, under suitable identifiability conditions, standard variants of supervised learning that predict from predictions can find transferable functional relationships between features, predictions, and outcomes, allowing for conclusions about newly deployed prediction models. Our positive results fundamentally rely on model predictions being recorded during data collection, bringing forward the importance of rethinking standard data collection practices to enable progress towards a better understanding of social outcomes and performative feedback loops.
... LGO, managers can provide a learning opportunity, give positive feedback on their employees' learning activities, or set specific learning goals for their employees to cultivate their LGO (Bezuijen et al., 2009). ...
Although project failure is commonly considered a negative event, it can provide valuable resources for learning. Despite well documented research on the antecedents of learning from project failure at the individual level, individuals' attitude toward failures, a relatively proximal antecedent of learning from failure, has attracted limited attention in organizational studies. To address this paucity of research, based on the sensemaking theory, in the current study we specifically focused on individuals' failure aversion and explored how it would influence learning from failure through the process of arguing and expectation. Using a sample of 774 employees from R&D teams in China, our findings revealed that individuals' failure aversion enhanced their learning from failure through inducing a loss-focused coping, but failure aversion negatively affected learning from failure through increasing the individuals' perceived loss of self-esteem. We also found that individuals' learning goal orientation (LGO) weakened the negative relationship between the loss of self-esteem and learning from failure; however, LGO did not moderate our hypothesized relationship between loss-focused coping and learning from failure. Our study extends the literature on learning from failure in two ways. First, it explores the learning from failure process at the individual level based on the sensemaking theory and second, it sheds light on the underlying cognitive mechanisms operating between failure aversion and learning from project failure.
We study the optimal disclosure policy in a sender–receiver communication game where the receiver's morale, defined as his expected state of the world, affects his performance. The sender observes the state and chooses whether to disclose it to the receiver, who then decides whether to participate in a task. The receiver wins if his performance in the task meets a target. No disclosure is optimal if the receiver wins with average morale in each state. Otherwise, in the threshold disclosure equilibrium that Pareto‐dominates full disclosure, the receiver quits as the sender discloses the worst states and wins as the sender withholds the rest. The receiver wins in more states in the Pareto‐optimal equilibrium as the sender chooses a non‐monotonic disclosure policy. Our theory reveals a trade‐off between transparency and efficiency when morale affects performance. It has applications in a broad range of areas including military, family, education and business. Nous étudions la politique de divulgation optimale dans un jeu de communication émetteur‐récepteur où le moral du récepteur, défini comme son état attendu du monde, affecte ses performances. L'expéditeur observe l'état et choisit de le divulguer au destinataire, qui décide alors de participer ou non à une tâche. Le receveur gagne si sa performance dans la tâche atteint un objectif. Aucune divulgation n'est optimale si le receveur gagne avec un moral moyen dans chaque état. Sinon, dans l'équilibre de divulgation de seuil qui domine la divulgation complète de Pareto, le récepteur quitte lorsque l'expéditeur divulgue les pires états et gagne lorsque l'expéditeur retient le reste. Le récepteur gagne dans plus d'états dans l'équilibre optimal de Pareto lorsque l'expéditeur choisit une politique de divulgation non monotone. Notre théorie révèle un compromis entre transparence et efficacité lorsque le moral affecte la performance. Il a des applications dans un large éventail de domaines, notamment l'armée, la famille, l'éducation et les affaires.
The present study investigates the relationship between a leader's expectation, Leader-member exchange (LMX), training & development (T&D), organizational culture (OCL) and employee performance (EP) in the context of the banking sector of Pakistan. It also examines the relationship between leaders' expectations, LMX, T&D, organizational culture and employee performance with the mediating effect of organizational commitment. Furthermore, this study examines the moderating role of gender between employee performance and organizational commitment. This study was motivated by the inconsistent findings in the literature on the leadership, in particular the Pygmalion effect (leaders' expectation) and leader-member-exchange on employee performance with the mediation of organizational commitment and moderation role of gender. These inconsistencies led to a new stream of research that indicates the importance of examining especially the effect of leader’s expectation and leader-member-exchange on individual productivity with the mediation of organizational commitment. With this purpose in mind, this study considers these theories, the social exchange theory is the main one and Pygmalion mechanism and leader-member exchange are supportive theories of mapping and positioning the potential relationships between the variables within the conceptual framework. The data was collected through an online questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed to 650 middle level bank employees in the top ten banks in three major cities of Pakistan, Lahore, Islamabad, and Karachi. Out of the 650 questionnaires, 350 were returned, of which 280 were deemed usable for actual data analysis using smart PLS-SEM. The direct relationship as well as the mediation of organizational commitment between the variables was analysed by using smart PLS-3 software. Findings showed that Leader's expectation, LMX, organizational culture and organizational commitment have a positive relationship with employee performance except T&D. Furthermore, the results supported the moderating role of gender between organizational commitments and employee performance. The study identifies practical, methodological and theoretical implications and recommendations for future research.
Uniting separate research streams on situational and dispositional goals, we investigated goal setting and goal orientation together in a complex business simulation. A specific learning goal led to higher performance than did either a specific performance goal or a vague goal. Goal orientation predicted performance when the goal was vague. The performance goal attenuated correlations between goal orientation and performance. The correlation between a learning goal orientation and performance was significant when a learning goal was set. Self-efficacy and information search mediated the effect of a learning goal on performance. Goal setting studies have their roots in organizational psychology, in contrast to research on goal orientation, which has roots in educational psychology. The focus of goal orientation studies is primarily on ability, whereas that of goal setting is on motivation. Consequently, the tasks used in goal setting research are typically straightforward for research participants, as the emphasis is primarily on effort and persistence. The tasks used in studies of goal orientation are usually complex, as the focus is on the acquisition of knowledge and skill. Performance is a function of both ability and motivation. Yet one research camp rarely takes into account findings by the other. The result is increasing confusion in the literature between a performance goal and a performance goal orientation; between the roles of situational as opposed to dis-positional goals as determinants of behavior; the circumstances in which a learning goal versus a learning goal orientation is likely to increase performance ; and whether goal orientation is a mod-erator of the goal-performance relationship. The purpose of the experiment reported here was to draw connections between these two related yet separate streams of work in organizational behavior , namely, goal setting and goal orientation.
Existing theory fails to provide strong and consistent prediction of individual job performance. This paper argues that the failure stems from a neglect of an important dimension of performance—the opportunity to perform—and the interaction of opportunity with known correlates of performance. A three dimensional interactive model of work performance is proposed; suggestions for future research and for managerial practice are offered.
This study examined protege characteristics that mentors reported were most influential when choosing a protege. Based on existing research, two variables were identified related to protege selection: perceptions regarding the protege's potential/ability and perceptions regarding the protege's need for help. The relationships of these two factors with perceived barriers to mentoring others, mentor advancement aspirations, and mentor gender were investigated. Data from 282 mentors revealed that mentors were more likely to choose a protege based on perceptions regarding the protege's ability/ potential than based on perceptions regarding the protege's need for help. Additionally, women were more likely to choose a protege based on the protege's perceived ability than were men. Copyright (C) 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Following a review of literature on the leader-member exchange model of leadership, the model's methodological and theoretical problems are discussed. First, it is argued that leader-member exchange is a multidimensional construct and should be measured accordingly. Second, it is noted that the leader-member exchange developmental process has not been fully explicated. In addressing these problems, a three dimensional conceptualization of the leader-member exchange construct is proposed and a model of the leader-member exchange developmental process is presented.