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Managed Aquifer Recharge as a component of sustainable water strategies–a brief guidance for EU policies
... However, it has been pointed out that there are inconsistencies not only between the federal regulatory requirements and states' regulatory standards, but also between the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act [9]. Therefore, efficient establishment and implementation of a related legal system are considered a key factor in determining the success of such projects [9,18]. Many countries have tried to resolve various legal issues by establishing related acts and legislation either directly or indirectly. ...
... However, it has been pointed out that there are inconsistencies not only between the federal regulatory requirements and states' regulatory standards, but also between the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act [9]. Therefore, efficient establishment and implementation of a related legal system are considered a key factor in determining the success of such projects [9,18]. ...
... Most European Union countries do not have an integrated domestic law regarding direct application and regulation of ASR/ASTR projects, with only a few exceptions: Spain and Switzerland. They individually establish and implement management policies based on the general laws concerning water resource management [6,18,30,36]. Therefore, the issue of legal rights to surface water regarding ASWQE projects cannot be determined uniformly and accurately with only the relevant legal system itself. ...
The aquifer storage and water quality enhancement (ASWQE) method is a potential alternative to overcome the limitations of water resource policies that focus on surface water and act as an effective measure against water shortage caused by climate change. According to the physical/technical characteristics and operational complexity of the ASQWE, there are various legal/institutional issues to be considered at every stage in the development and implementation of the project. However, in Korea, there is no legislation or legal basis directly related to the ASWQE projects, resulting in large gaps between the initiatives of ASWQE and the relevant laws and statutes. In this respect, this study, to introduce approaches for the establishment of a legal system in line with the requirements of ASWQE projects, mainly analyzes the gaps between the abovementioned principal legal/institutional issues/subjects and the indispensable elements at each phase of the project’s process in the existing Korean legal system concerning the ASWQE, particularly based on the issue tree approach. Through this comprehensive, systematic, and comparative case study, large gaps have been definitely identified between the initiatives surrounding ASWQE projects and the existing Korean legal system, and to conclude, legally multilateral approaches to fill and make up for the gaps have been presented. It is expected that the Korean government will continue to pursue the establishment of a comprehensive and integrated legal system in line with the requirements of ASWQE projects based on this research’s findings. When these attempts succeed, the expected legal achievement for the development and implementation of ASWQE projects could serve as an exemplary legal case for the entire world.
... This situation pushes towards the search for innovative ways to preserve and increase freshwater resources availability, focusing on sustainable water management techniques. Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR), the intentional recharge of aquifers potentially using water from various sources, has surged worldwide in the last 60 years as one of these options [4][5][6][7]. ...
Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR), the intentional recharge of aquifers, has surged worldwide in the last 60 years as one of the options to preserve and increase water resources availability. However, estimating the extent of the area impacted by the recharge operations is not an obvious task. In this descriptive study, we monitored the spatiotemporal variation of the groundwater temperature in a phreatic aquifer before and during MAR operations, for 15 days, at the LIFE REWAT pilot infiltration basin using surface water as recharge source. The study was carried out in the winter season, taking advantage of the existing marked difference in temperature between the surface water (cold, between 8 and 13 °C, and in quasi-equilibrium with the air temperature) and the groundwater temperature, ranging between 10 and 18 °C. This difference in heat carried by groundwater was then used as a tracer. Results show that in the experiment the cold infiltrated surface water moved through the aquifer, allowing us to identify the development and extension in two dimensions of the recharge plume resulting from the MAR infiltration basin operations. Forced convection is the dominant heat transport mechanism. Further data, to be gathered at high frequency, and modeling analyses using the heat distribution at different depths are needed to identify the evolution of the recharge bulb in the three-dimensional space.
... At present, most studies have focused mainly on notions of environmental risk (Devaux 1999;Wintgens et al. 2012;Dillon et al. 2009b). These risk assessment studies consider three types of risks: (i) potential theoretical risk, (ii) potential experimental risk, and (iii) real risk. ...
As covered in Chap. 2, many of the world’s aquifers are rapidly being depleted. Nearly one quarter of the world’s population – 1.7 billion people – live in regions where more water is being consumed than nature can renew (Gleeson et al. 2012). Over-exploitation occurs when groundwater abstraction is too intensive, for example for irrigation or for direct industrial water-supply like extracting fossil fuels (Pettenati et al. 2013; Foster et al. 2013). When groundwater is continuously over-pumped, year after year, the volume withdrawn from the aquifer cannot be replaced by recharge. Eventually, the groundwater level is much lower than its initial level and even when pumping stops, the aquifer has trouble rising once again to its original level. In continental zones, over-exploitation can lead to groundwater drawdown and, ultimately, to subsidence through development of sinkholes when underground caverns or channels collapse. In coastal areas, the decrease in groundwater recharge results in saltwater intrusion into the aquifer formation (Petalas and Lambrakis 2006; De Montety et al. 2008). Preserving local groundwater resources is an environmental and economic issue in coastal zones and is vital in an island context. The increasing demand for water caused by a growing population can lead to the salinization of groundwater resources if these are systematically over-exploited. Limiting the salinization of coastal aquifers is consistent with the groundwater objective of the European Union Water Framework Directive, which is to achieve a good qualitative and quantitative status by 2015. The economic advantage of preserving these threatened water resources is that, when there is a growing demand, a local water resource is sustained and there is no need to import water. Transporting water can cost 2–10 times more than limiting the intrusion of saltwater into a coastal aquifer.
In recent decades, groundwater overexploitation has caused an important aquifer level decline in arid zones each year. In addition to this issue, large volumes of effluent are produced each year in metropolitan areas of these regions. In this situation, an aquifer storage and recovery system (ASR) using the reclaimed domestic wastewater can be a local solution to these two challenges. In this research, a post-treatment of reclaimed municipal wastewater has been investigated through unsaturated–saturated porous media. A large-scale, L-shaped experimental model was set up near the second-stage wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in the west of greater Tehran. The water, soil, and treated wastewater of the experimental model were supplied from the aquifer, site, and WWTP, respectively. The 13 physicochemical parameters, temperature and fecal coliform were analyzed every 10 days in seven points for a period of four months (two active periods of 40 days with a 12-h on–off rate (wet cycles) and a rest period of 40 days (dry cycle) between the two wet cycles). The results showed that the effects of the saturated zone were twice as great as those of the unsaturated zone and two-thirds of the total treatment efficiency. Furthermore, a discontinuous wet–dry–wet cycle had a significant effect on effluent treatment efficiency and contaminants’ reduction. In conclusion, an aquifer storage and recovery system using treated wastewater through the unsaturated–saturated zones is a sustainable water resource that can be used for agriculture, environmental and non-potable water demands.
In Europe the last two decades has witnessed growing water stress, both in terms of water scarcity and quality deterioration, which has prompted many municipalities to look for a more efficient use of water resources, including a more widespread acceptance of water reuse practices. This paper reviews European water reuse practices and sets out the map of the water reclamation technologies and reuse applications. The data are based on a conventional literature survey, on the preliminary evaluation of an in-depth survey of a large number of European water reuse projects and on the findings of a dedicated international workshop. The preliminary evaluation indicates that for an increased utilisation of reclaimed wastewater, clearer institutional arrangements, more dedicated economic instruments and the set-up of water reuse guidelines are needed. Technological innovation and the establishment of a best practice framework will help, but even more, a change is needed in the underlying stakeholders' perception of the water cycle.
In this study the fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products which are irrigated on arable land with treated municipal wastewater was investigated. In Braunschweig, Germany, wastewater has been irrigated continuously for more than 45 years. In the winter time only the effluent of the sewage treatment plant (STP) of Braunschweig is used for irrigation, while during summer digested sludge is mixed with the effluent. In the present case study six wells and four lysimeters located in one of the irrigated agricultural fields were monitored with regard to the occurrence of 52 pharmaceuticals and two personal care products (PPCPs; e.g. betablockers, antibiotics, antiphlogistics, carbamazepine, musk fragrances, iodinated contrast media (ICM) and estrogens). No differences in PPCP pollution of the groundwater were found due to irrigation of STP effluents with and without addition of digested sludge, because many polar compounds do not sorb to sludge and lipophilic compounds are not mobile in the soil-aquifer. Most of the selected PPCPs were never detected in any of the lysimeter or groundwater samples, although they were present in the treated wastewater irrigated onto the fields. In the groundwater and lysimeter samples primarily the ICM diatrizoate and iopamidol, the antiepileptic carbamazepine and the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole were detected up to several mugl(-1), while the acidic pharmaceuticals, musk fragrances, estrogens and betablockers were likely sorbed or transformed while passing the top soil layer. Potential estrogenic effects are likely to disappear after irrigation, since the most potent steroid estrogens were not measurable.
The developments made in the field of pharmaceuticals, hormones and fragrances in treated wastewaters, rivers and streams are discussed. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PCCP) are present in the water treatment plant effluents, because they are either partially removed or not at all removed. Ozonation is one of the method to eliminate these PCCPs by undertaking a broad upgrading of municipal waters, the risks associated with current effluent quality and then required risk reduction for upgraded works. Ozonation and membrane filtration reduces the emission of pathogens from treatment works into receiving waters. It is possible to define a combination of conventional and advanced treatment technologies to effectively remove PCCPs and microorganisms, that would create a multiple barrier system.
The world's supply of fresh water is finite and is threatened by pollution. Rising demands for water to supply agriculture, industry and cities are leading to competition over the allocation of limited fresh water resources. This paper examines how water reuse increases the available supply of water and enables human needs to be met with less fresh water. The paper is illustrated with water reuse case studies in agriculture, urban areas, industry and water resource supplementation in Australia and other countries. The links between water reuse and sustainable water management are examined. Water conservation and water reuse produce substantial environmental benefits, arising from reductions in water diversions, and reductions in the impacts of wastewater discharges on environmental water quality. Some examples are presented demonstrating the environmental benefits in quantitative terms. The paper also describes the economic and environmental benefits identified in a number of recent integrated water cycle planning studies in Australia.
Artificial recharge of groundwater is achieved by putting surface water in basins, furrows, ditches, or other facilities where it infiltrates into the soil and moves downward to recharge aquifers. Artificial recharge is increasingly used for short- or long-term underground storage, where it has several advantages over surface storage, and in water reuse. Artificial recharge requires permeable surface soils. Where these are not available, trenches or shafts in the unsaturated zone can be used, or water can be directly injected into aquifers through wells. To design a system for artificial recharge of groundwater, infiltration rates of the soil must be determined and the unsaturated zone between land surface and the aquifer must be checked for adequate permeability and absence of polluted areas. The aquifer should be sufficiently transmissive to avoid excessive buildup of groundwater mounds. Knowledge of these conditions requires field investigations and, if no fatal flaws are detected, test basins to predict system performance. Water-quality issues must be evaluated, especially with respect to formation of clogging layers on basin bottoms or other infiltration surfaces, and to geochemical reactions in the aquifer. Clogging layers are managed by desilting or other pretreatment of the water, and by remedial techniques in the infiltration system, such as drying, scraping, disking, ripping, or other tillage. Recharge wells should be pumped periodically to backwash clogging layers. Electronic supplementary material to this paper can be obtained by using the Springer LINK server located at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0182-4.
A model-based estimation of the wastewater reclamation and reuse potential in a European context is presented, and the effects of different water management scenarios on the appraisal are quantified. The impact of climate change on water availability and variation in the demand pattern and water use of considered countries is the modifying variable in these scenarios. The simulation demonstrates that there is a significant potential for an increased utilisation of reclaimed wastewater in many European countries, specifically in the Mediterranean region. Aspects related to the factors that will definitely drive or slow down the development are addressed.
Two case studies are described that explain the role, value, limitations and policy requirements for storing reclaimed water in aquifers for indirect reuse. The first case involves aquifer storage and recovery of water, the product of tertiary treated municipal sewage effluent, via a single injection and recovery well at Bolivar, South Australia. The recovered water, like the source water for injection, is used for unrestricted irrigation of horticulture. A limestone aquifer at a depth of 100 to 160 m confined by clay and containing brackish groundwater provides the storage zone. In the second case, located at Alice Springs, trials are proceeding to assist in the design and establishment of a soil–aquifer treatment system which will allow water derived from secondary treatment of municipal sewage effluent to be stored in an unconfined alluvial aquifer for irrigation of horticulture. Intermittent infiltration from basins provides supplementary water treatment. In each case, the motivations, choice of methods, required investigations, public consultation processes, and economics of subsurface storage are presented. The lessons learned that may assist with development of policies to facilitate environmentally sustainable subsurface storage of water in water reuse projects are discussed.
Endocrine disrupting chemicals and pharmaceuticals represent two classes of emerging contaminants that are ubiquitously present in municipal wastewater effluents. Some of these contaminants have been shown to impact aquatic organisms at trace concentrations (i.e., ng/L). Moreover, the public has expressed human health concerns regarding the presence of emerging contaminants in water reuse projects. The primary objective of this investigation was to determine the efficacy of various membranes and activated carbons for the removal of endocrine disruptors, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. A suite of structurally diverse target compounds was selected for evaluation based largely upon occurrence and molecular structure. Several membrane types and applications were evaluated at pilot- and/or full-scale, including: microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis reversal, membrane bioreactors, and combinations of membranes in series. Granular activated carbon was evaluated at bench-scale using rapid small scale column tests and at two full-scale utilities. Microfiltration and ultrafiltration were found to reject very few target compounds; however, some loss of steroidal type compounds was observed. Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis were capable of significant rejection of nearly all target compounds, though compounds were detectable at trace levels in permeates. Granular activated carbon was highly effective at removing all target chemicals. However, break-through curves clearly demonstrated that compounds with greater hydrophilicity breach activated carbon faster than hydrophobic compounds. In full-scale applications, the impact of regeneration was observed as activated carbon filters that received regular regeneration had minimal breakthrough of organic contaminants, while non-regenerated filters displayed no removal of target compounds. Findings confirm that membrane and carbon processes are capable of greatly reducing the concentrations of emerging contaminants; however, several compounds are detectable in membrane permeate and carbon effluent.
The vast underground reservoirs formed by aquifers constitute invaluable water supply sources as well as water storage facilities. Because natural replenishment of the supply occurs very slowly, continued excessive exploitation of it causes groundwater levels to decline with time. If not corrected this leads to an eventual depletion of a valuable natural resource. To prevent mining and groundwater pollution, the artificial recharge of groundwater basins is becoming increasingly important in groundwater management as a way to increase this natural supply of water. Artificial recharge can reduce, stop, and even reverse declining levels of groundwater. In addition, it can protect underground freshwater in coastal aquifers against salt-water intrusion from the ocean, and can be used to store surface and reclaimed water for future use. This book is a treatise of the artificial recharge of groundwater, with particular emphasis on recharge with reclaimed municipal wastewater.
The health related risk of wastewater reclamation and reuse is usually defined by laws, rules or regulations by using only biological tools; i.e. bacteria, viruses, or other pathogens or indicators determination. Those determinations exert some influence in the costs of the mentioned practices, and it seems probable that in the near future more determinations will be required. Nevertheless, a total indication of wastewater biological quality is not given by such organisms; in fact, long-term toxicity is not detected by such means. The future of biological control of reclamation and reuse systems and the price associated to such determinations is examined through a practical application case.
Groundwater recharge with reclaimed municipal wastewater presents a wide spectrum of technical and health challenges that must be carefully evaluated prior to undertaking a project. This review will provide a discussion of groundwater recharge and its management with special reference to health and regulatory aspects of groundwater recharge with reclaimed municipal wastewater. At present, some uncertainties with respect to health risk considerations have limited expanding use of reclaimed municipal wastewater for groundwater recharge, especially when a large portion of the groundwater contains reclaimed wastewater that may affect the domestic water supply. The proposed State of California criteria for groundwater recharge are discussed as an illustration of a cautious approach. In addition, a summary is provided of the methodology used in developing the World Health Organization's Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality to illustrate how numerical guideline values are generated for contaminants that may be applicable to groundwater recharge.
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