Effect of rhythmic auditory stimulation on controlling stepping cadence of individuals with mental retardation and cerebral palsy

Abstract

One of the purposes of Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation (RAS) is to improve the control of dysfunctional movement patterns. This study aimed to extend the line of research by focussing on secondary students with mental retardation and cerebral palsy. According to the study’s assumption, cadence can be controlled through a stable and low signal cadence to the benefit of endurance during an aerobic exercise on a stair stepper. Two conditions (Do your best and RAS) were applied in a Latin square design. Results show that in the RAS condition, as compared to the Do your best condition, students significantly decreased their cadence, increased their training duration, kept their heart rate between the bounds suggested for aerobic exercise and decreased their intra-individual standard deviations in both cadence and heart rate per minute. The researchers suggest that a variable signal cadence could have an even greater effect on exercise duration.

Full text

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
1
ISSN 0827 3383
International Journal
of
Special Education
VOLUME 27 2012 NUMBER 3
 A Field-Based Deaf Education Teacher Training Model: Does it make a Difference?
 A Vocabulary-Added Reading Intervention for English Learners At-Risk of Reading
Difficulties
 Candidates of Written Language Disabilities among Undergraduate Students at the
University of Jordan as Perceived by Students and their Teachers
 Curriculum policies for students with special needs in Australia
 Design of a Generic Questionnaire for Reflective Evaluation of a Virtual Reality-Based
Intervention Using Virtual Dolphins for Children with Autism
 Dolphin Encounter for Special Children (DESC) Program: Effectiveness of Dolphin-
Assisted Therapy for Children with Autism
 Effect of Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation on Controlling Stepping Cadence of Individuals
with Mental Retardation and Cerebral Palsy
 Effects of a Teacher Training Programme on Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder
 Exploring Computer and Storybook Interventions for Children with High Functioning
Autism
 General Education Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of Including Students with
Disabilities in Their Classrooms
 Impact of Gudied Notes on Achievement in K-12 and Special Education Students
 Needs of Parents Caring for Chidlren with Physical Disabilites: A Case Study in Jordan
 Supporting Adults with Austism Specturm Disorders: Lessons from Six Decades of
International Research
 Supporting Social Competence among Secondary Studetns in Hong Kong: Teachers’
Beliefs about School-Wide Interventions
 The Attitude of Barbadian and Trinidadian Teachers to Integration
 The Effect Inclusive Education Practice During Preschool Has on the Peer Relations and
Social Skills of 5-6 Year Olds with Typical Development
 The Effect of Visual-Spatial Stimulation on Emergent Readers at Risk for Specific
Learning Disability in Reading
 The Effects of a Family Support Program Including Respite Care on Parenting Stress and
Family Quality of Life Perceived by Primary Caregivers fo Chidlren with Disabilites in
Korea
 The Impact of a Child with Autism on the Bruneian Family System
 Tourette Syndrome: School-Based Interventions for Tics and Associated Conditions

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
2
EFFECT OF RHYTHMIC AUDITORY STIMULATION ON CONTROLLING STEPPING
CADENCE OF INDIVIDUALS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION AND CEREBRAL PALSY
Panagiotis Varsamis
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Konstantinos Staikopoulos
Lefkothea Kartasidou
University of Macedonia
One of the purposes of Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation (RAS) is to improve the control
of dysfunctional movement patterns. This study aimed to extend the line of research by
focussing on secondary students with mental retardation and cerebral palsy.
According to the study’s assumption, cadence can be controlled through a stable and
low signal cadence to the benefit of endurance during an aerobic exercise on a stair
stepper. Two conditions (Do your best and RAS) were applied in a Latin square
design. Results show that in the RAS condition, as compared to the Do your best
condition, students significantly decreased their cadence, increased their training
duration, kept their heart rate between the bounds suggested for aerobic exercise and
decreased their intra-individual standard deviations in both cadence and heart rate
per minute. The researchers suggest that a variable signal cadence could have an even
greater effect on exercise duration.
Rhythm is the most prominent component of music linked with individual’s motor behavior, indicating
the responsiveness of the sensorimotor system to auditory stimuli (e.g., Styns, van Noorden, Moelants, &
Leman, 2007; Thaut, Kenyon, Schauer, & McIntosh, 1999). Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation is described
as a …technique using the physiological effects of auditory rhythm on the motor system to improve the
control of movement… (Thaut, 2005, 139, as cited in Kwak, 2007, p. 199). More specifically, rhythmic
auditory cues synchronize motor responses into stable time relationships… via fast-acting physiological
entrainment mechanisms, while rhythm serves as an anticipatory and continuous time reference on
which movements are mapped within a stable temporal template (Thaut, Leins, Rice, Argstatter, Kenyon,
McIntosh, Bolay, & Fetter, 2007, p. 455). The present study focused on the function of musical rhythm
as a parameter of motor control. The aim was to determine the effect of Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation
(RAS) on cadence of individuals with Mental Retardation and Cerebral Palsy working out on a stair
stepper in order to increase workout duration. Physical exercise of this kind presupposes the choice and
supervision of the appropriate cadence.
Individuals with cerebral palsy and mental retardation are prone to have difficulty with rhythmic
perception and rhythmic performance of movement (e.g., Grant & LeCroy, 1986; Kwak, 2007). More
specifically, physical ability, cognitive function, social support and other individual characteristics may
affect these individuals’ response to rhythmic auditory stimuli (Kwak, 2007; McRorie & Cooper, 2004).
Concerning cognitive function, the difficulty in maintaining rhythmic pattern may be attributed to a
restriction of brain functions related to the perception and reproduction of a rhythmic pattern (Del Olmo
& Cudeiro, 2005, p. 31), while good mental ability is related to an efficient central nervous system
(McRorie & Cooper, 2004, p. 524). It is proposed, however, that individuals with cerebral palsy and
mental retardation can respond to RAS through adapted forms of instruction and practice (Kwak, 2007,
211).
So far RAS has rarely been applied in cases of individuals with cerebral palsy and mental retardation,
especially concerning walking. Kwak (2007) found that by setting the signal cadence at 5% to 15%
above the initial performance of individuals with cerebral palsy, stride length, gait velocity, and gait
symmetry increased. However, the real cadence during exercising remained relatively stable. Research
by Thaut, Hurt, Dragon, and McIntosh (1998) on individuals with cerebral palsy indicated an increase in
velocity, cadence, stride length, gait, symmetry as well as an improvement of kinematic components of
walking, such as increase in range of, motion for, knee and hip. In a similar target group, individuals with

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
3
traumatic brain injury (Hurt, Rice, McIntosh, & Thaut, 1998) increased through RAS their signal
cadence by 5% and managed to improve their gait velocity, step cadence and stride length.
The domain in which RAS has been most extensively applied to is the rehabilitation of the walking
ability in patients who develop neurological disorders at a relatively advanced age. For instance, in the
case of stroke patients, a number of positive effects were observed, such as an improvement in alternate
movement of lower limbs, symmetrical bilaterally coordinated gait, an increase in cadence, stride length,
velocity and endurance in therapy, in kinematic aspects of the legs, hands and body mass center (Ford,
Wagenaar, & Newell, 2007; Jeong & Kim, 2007; Prassas, Thaut, McIntosh, & Rice, 1997; Thaut, et al.,
2007; Thaut, McIntosh, & Rice, 1997). Similar results were recorded with individuals suffering from
Parkinson’s disease. In this case the following positive effects were observed: an increase in stride
length, gait velocity, cadence, as well as a reduction of suspension time and gait variability (Hausdorff,
Lowenthal, Herman, Gruendlinger, Peretz, & Giladi, 2007; Howe, Lövgreen, Cody, Ashton, & Oldham,
2003; McIntosh, Brown, Rice, & Thaut, 1997; Rochester, Hetherington, Jones, Nieuwboer, Willems,
Kwakkel, & Wegen, 2005; Suteerawattananon, Morris, Etnyre, Jankovic, & Protas, 2004).
In the majority of the studies mentioned above, RAS was used with a signal cadence consistently higher
than the cadence recorded in the initial evaluation of individuals. This indicates the general intention of
researchers to maximize all variables. Only in some cases was the influence of RAS examined with a
signal cadence lower than the initial one (Baker, Rochester, & Nieuwboer, 2007; Del Olmo & Cudeiro,
2005; Howe et al., 2003; Thaut, Miltner, Lange, Hurt, & Hoemberg, 1999; Willems, Nieuwboer,
Chavret, Desloovere, Dom, Rochester, Jones, Kwakkel, & van Wegen, 2006). In the latter studies, the
potential of RAS was tested to effectively control cadence to the benefit of other gait parameters such as
stride length.
The present study constituted an attempt to extend the line of research studying the effects of low signal
cadence RAS on populations of individuals with congenital disabilities, such as mental retardation and
cerebral palsy (Kwak, 2007, p. 200). The aim was to control, that is, to reduce cadence on a stair stepper
to the benefit of endurance during an aerobic exercise. This should keep pulse within the range
appropriate for aerobic exercise (between 50% and 70% of Maximum Heart Rate) for as long as possible
(e.g., Hand, Phillips, Dudgeon, Lyerly, Durstine, & Burgess, 2008) and thus should extend the duration
of the exercise. We chose to study individuals with mental retardation and cerebral palsy, because these
are two of the most frequent disabilities (e.g., Rapp & Torres, 2000) that coexist in the same special
education schools in Greece and follow the same educational program, particularly at the secondary
education level (Pedagogical Institute, 2004).
Method
Participants
The research sample consists of 18 secondary education students, 11 male and 7 female, aged 14-24
years (M = 18.28, S.D. = 3.86). Nine of the students have moderate mental retardation and the other nine
have mild mental retardation. Four of the participants also have cerebral palsy in the form of mild spastic
tetraplegia (see table 1). The selection of the sample was made after securing the essential permission
and voluntary participation, while all students could participate, without restriction, to different forms of
aerobic exercise following the medical advice of a cardiologist. Furthermore, the ability to understand
simple directions and respond to rhythmic auditory stimuli was assessed through an individual task. Each
student had to walk at signal cadences of 45 and 60 per minute for at least 15 seconds. The evaluation
key was dichotomous (can do it - cannot do it).
According to the criteria mentioned above, 18 out of the 38 students of a Special Vocational Education
and Training Secondary School in Thessaloniki (North Greece) were selected and voluntarily
participated in the proposed research. In other words a purposive sampling method was used (Patton,
1990).
Testing Procedure and Conditions
The research was conducted in May and June 2008 and during this time no other form of aerobic
exercise took place. During the first week the research variables were initially evaluated. The data served
as starting point for the goal setting in two research conditions (see table 2). The physical education
teacher specified his goals before the beginning of these two conditions. Subsequently, student
performance on the two experimental conditions was examined during the third and sixth week using a
Latin square design, allowing a two-week interval to avoid the transfer from one condition to another.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
4
Students took turns participating in each of these conditions in groups of three to four. From the two
meetings that took place in a week the best performance was recorded, that is the exercise that lasted the
longest (duration in minutes). Students were told to step keeping their hands on the handle and to
exercise on the stepper as long as possible. Stopping the exercise was up to the student and no student
reached his/her maximum heart rate.
Do your best condition: the physical education teacher was asked to improve his students’ performances
using the methods he was familiar with. He used strategies of goal setting and self-efficacy. He thus
prompted his students to step more slowly, verbalized positive outcome expectations and agreed with
them on performance goals, expressed in minutes of exercising. These goals were based on the first
measure and were visualized by means of shaded bars representing time. The goals were one or two
minutes more than the initial performance. Intended increase rate is estimated on average at 32.98%
(S.D. = 10.39%).
RAS condition: the physical education teacher decided on a signal cadence for every student, taking into
account the individual initial means on steps per minute and on heart rate. The goal was to have students
exercise as long as possible within the pulse range of aerobic exercising. In this way, a goal of a step
cadence average of 44.44 (S.D. = 10.83) per minute was set, which means a signal cadence lower than
the average initial performance by 78.67% (S.D. = 13.33). The signal cadence of each student was stable
throughout the exercise. The instruction given to the students was to step at the rhythm they listen to. If
the teacher noticed deviations from the personal goal after the first minute of the exercise, he accentuated
the rhythm by clapping at the signal of the electric metronome.
Apparatus
Metronome: The electronic metronome used was Weird Metronome (2004) installed in a portable P/C
(Acer Aspire 3630). The sound chosen was Low Conga. The rhythmic auditory stimuli were transmitted
to the students through wired headphones (PHILIPS SBC HL140). The precision of the electric
metronome was checked against a conventional metronome and no deviation was observed.
Stepper: An OEMMEBI ProFitness device was used featuring a heart rate and a step count indicator. It
also featured a manually adjustable resistance knob set at the easiest level for all students and in all
conditions. The physical education teacher checked the step count indicator’s precision for a minute;
with a pace of 60 steps a minute and the readings were found to be accurate. The heart rate indicator of
the stepper was checked by means of a POLAR FS1 heart rate monitor belt and no systematic deviations
were recorded.
Variables
Apart from an estimation of Maximum Heart Rate (Max HR = 220-age), for every student the
researchers estimated the heart rate threshold (50-70% of MaxHR) for aerobic exercise. At the end of
every minute of exercise, step count and heart rate were recorded. Of these data duration in minutes and
total step count were calculated. Dividing the latter by the former yields the average step cadence for
every student in steps per minute. In the same way average heart rate per minute was calculated. The last
two variables are particularly useful because exercise duration varied among students and among
conditions. On the measures recorded for every minute of exercise the researcher’s calculated within-
person, within-session variability both for the steps as well as for the heart rates, as a form of intra-
individual standard deviation (IISD, e.g., Nesselroade & Salthause, 2004).
Statistical Analysis
A statistical analysis for the normality of distribution of data using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
indicated that the data for the majority of variables do not follow normal distribution. We thus resorted to
the Wilcoxon non-parametric test on all variables in order to evaluate the differences between the two
conditions in the same sample of students.
Results Table 1. Frequencies for disability, intelligence and sex

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
5
Table 1 presents the number of students on the basis of selected individual characteristics. Chi-square
tests run did not yield a significantly unequal distribution of the characteristics disability, gender and
mental retardation in the sample.
The average lowest bound for aerobic exercise was for the sample 100.86 (S.D. = 1.93) and the highest
141.21 (S.D. = 2.70) heartbeats per minute.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of dependent variables and Wilcoxon tests for N=18
IISD = Intra Individual Standard Deviation
Table 2 shows the students’ performances on the initial measure and on both conditions. According to
the Wilcoxon test, the students were able to exercise significantly longer in the RAS rather than the Do
your best condition. The total step count was greater in the RAS condition but the difference from the Do
your best condition was not considered statistically significant. Furthermore, students produced a
significantly lower step cadence and a lower intra-individual standard deviation of step cadence in the
RAS condition as compared to the Do your best condition. It must be noted that in the RAS condition,
the average deviation of steps from the personal target of students ranged from -5.9 to 7.4 steps. In
absolute values, the average standard deviation was 2.69 (S.D. = 2.65) steps per minute, which
corresponds to a 6.6% margin of error. These results were reflected in the heart rate: statistically
significant decreases were observed in the average heart rate per minute as well as the intra-individual
standard deviation of heart rate.
A more in-depth analysis of the data can be obtained through the examination of every minute of
exercise. Such analyses were made for the first six minutes of exercise, because from the seventh minute
onwards the sample of observation pairs was so small (Ν ≤ 5) that not all categories of participants were
represented.
As can be seen in table 4 the impact of the RAS condition lies in the significant decrease of heart rate in
the first five minutes of exercise, while in the sixth minute the impact is not statistically significant.
Observing the values of heart rates under the Do your best condition, it becomes evident that from as
early as the third minute students exceed the 70% thresholds of maximum heart rate (≈141 heartbeats per
minute). In the RAS condition, and in all minutes of the exercise, the average heart rate lies within the
desirable limits for aerobic training.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of steps in each minute and Wilcoxon tests

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
6
Additional information about sample characteristics for N < 18
Regarding steps (see table 3), we observed a significantly decreased step count in the RAS condition as
opposed to the Do your best one in the first three minutes as well as the fifth.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of Heart Rate in each minute and Wilcoxon tests
Discussion
In the present research the point of reducing step cadence through Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation (RAS)
was to increase the duration of the exercise on the stepper within the proposed limits for aerobic training.
This pilot study testing students from a Special Vocational Education and Training Secondary School
with mental retardation and cerebral palsy that was not free of limitations. The sample was relatively
small and non-homogeneous as to the disability involved. In addition, given the chosen research plan,
one cannot detect all aspects of long-term exercising to RAS.
What we did find was that RAS helped young students with mental retardation and cerebral palsy to
reduce their stepping cadence, that is, to gain control over their exercise tempo. Of course, the margin of
error for the reproduction of the rhythmic pattern was greater than those of other studies (Thaut
McIntosh, Rice, Miller, Rathbun, & Brault, 1996) and this was probably due to the cognitive and

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
7
psychomotor disorders of the students in our sample. While acknowledging these limitations, one cannot
question the potential of RAS to quickly affect the periodicity of motor patterns (Thaut, Kenyon, Hurt,
McIntosh, & Hoemberg, 2002). To this conclusion also points the fact that the students of the sample
decreased step variability within the RAS condition and worked out at a relatively more stable cadence.
In RAS the total step count did not increase significantly but the overall step count was distributed along
more minutes of exercise.
The dominant result was the decrease of step frequency per minute, which led to the increase of overall
exercise duration and the decrease of heart rate per minute. Apart from RAS, this can be attributed to two
more reasons. First, because the low intra-individual variability was considered a component of
psychomotor maturity (cf. Hausdorff, Zemany, Peng, & Goldberger, 1999) and second, maintaining a
relatively stable rhythm was a significant endurance factor (cf. Tenenbaum, Lidor, Lavyan, Morrow,
Tonnel, Gershgoren, Meis, & Johnson, 2004). The results produced by the RAS condition are
particularly significant because heart rate was maintained within desirable limits for enhancing aerobic
capacity.
The difference between RAS condition and Do your best condition was not statistically significant in the
last minute of the exercise as far as heart rate was concerned. This happened, because in both conditions
heart rate tended to rise as students reached the limits of their aerobic endurance. The same effect
occurred in the step frequency per minute. Concretely, students tended to reduce their step frequency in
the Do your best condition, as they became tired. Both of these phenomena stemmed from a cause
irrelevant to RAS and have no bearing on its established effectiveness.
Conclusion
In the present study, RAS was used to control (i.e., to decelerate) the stepping cadence of the students
with mild mental retardation and of the students with cerebral palsy, aiming at the increase of the
exercise duration. Furthermore, the signal cadence used was constant for all minutes of the exercise. We
believe that a variable signal cadence based on the actual heart rate can be even more effective, as long
as students with congenital disabilities have been trained in the reproduction and change of rhythms.
In conclusion, the use of RAS seemed to have a significant effect on the step frequency and on the heart
rate of the students with mild mental retardation and of the students with cerebral palsy. Thus, the
students can profit from RAS in an effort to enhance the efficiency of physical activity and exercise in
the context of Special Education. We suppose that a prolonged exercise program with RAS can have
positive long term effects on students’ rhythmic ability and aerobic capacity.
More research in Special Education is needed in order to explore the influence of RAS on more physical
activities that involve circular movements such as stepping, running and cycling. Moreover the
possibility should be considered of examining the influence of long-term exercise on RAS as well as the
possibility of complementing it with other techniques (e.g., goal setting). Specifically in educational
settings, it is important to study how RAS can best be implemented and also to determine its significant
impact on the motivation of students with disabilities.
References
Baker, Κ., Rochester, L., & Nieuwboer, A. (2007). The effect of cues on gait variability - Reducing the
attentional cost of walking in people with Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders, 14
(4), pp. 314-320.
Del Olmo, F. M., & Cudeiro, J. (2005). Temporal variability of gait in Parkinson disease: effects of a
rehabilitation programme based on rhythmic sound cues. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders, 11, pp.
25-33.
Grant, R. E., & LeCroy, S. (1986). Effects of sensory mode input on the performance of rhythmic
perception tasks by mentally retarded subjects. Journal of Music Therapy, 23 (1), pp. 2-9.
Ford, M., Wagenaar, R., & Newell, K. (2007). The effect of auditory rhythms and instruction on walking
patterns in individuals post stroke. Gait & Posture, 26, pp. 150-155.
Hand, G. A., Phillips, K. D., Dudgeon, W. D., Lyerly, G. W., Durstine, J. L., & Burgess, S. E. (2008).
Moderate intensity exercise training reverses functional aerobic impairment in HIV-infected individuals.
Aids Care, 20 (9), pp. 1066-1074.
Hausdorff, J. M., Lowenthal, J., Herman, T., Gruendlinger, L., Peretz, C., & Giladi, N. (2007). Rhythmic
auditory stimulation modulates gait variability in Parkinson’s disease. European Journal of
Neuroscience, 26, pp. 2369-2375.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
8
Hausdorff, J. M., Zemany, L., Peng, C., & Goldberger, A. L. (1999). Maturation of gait dynamics: stride-
to-stride variability and its temporal organization in children. Journal of Applied Physiology, 86, pp.
1040-1047.
Howe, T. E., Lövgreen, B., Cody, F. W. J., Ashton, V. J., & Oldham, J. A. (2003). Auditory cues can
modify the gait of persons with early-stage Parkinson's disease: A method for enhancing parkinsonian
walking performance? Clinical Rehabilitation, 17 (4), pp. 363-367.
Hurt, C. P., Rice, R. R., McIntosh, G. C., & Thaut, M. H. (1998). Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation in Gait
Training for Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Music Therapy, 35 (4), pp. 228-241.
Jeong, S., & Kim, M. (2007). Effect of a theory-driven music and movement program for stroke
survivors in a community setting. Applied Nursing Research, 20, pp. 125-131.
Kwak, E. (2007). Effect of rhythmic auditory stimulation on gait performance in children with spastic
cerebral palsy. Journal of Music Therapy Association, 44 (3), pp. 198-216.
McIntosh, G. C., Brown, S. H., Rice, R. R., & Thaut, M. H. (1997) Rhythmic auditory-motor facilitation
of gait patterns in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry,
62 (1), pp. 22-26.
McRorie, M., & Cooper, C. (2004). Psychomotor movement and IQ. Personality and Individual
Differences, 37, pp. 523–531.
Nesselroade. J. R., & Salthouse, T. A. (2004). Methodological and theoretical implications of
intraindividual variability in perceptual-motor performance. Journal of Gerontology: Phychological
Sciences, 59B (2), pp. 49-55.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications.
Pedagogical Institute (2004). Chartografisi – Analitika Programmata Eidikis Agogis. [Mapping and
Curricula of Special Education]. Retrieved from http://www.pi-
schools.gr/special_education/xartografisi/hartographisi-part2.pdf,
Prassas, S., Thaut, M., McIntosh, G., & Rice, R. (1997). Effect of auditory rhythmic cuing on gait
kinematic parameters of stroke patients. Gait & Posture, 6, pp. 218-223.
Rapp, C. D., & Torres, M. M. (2000). The Adult with Cerebral Palsy. Archives of Family Medicine, 9,
pp. 466-472.
Rochester, L., Hetherington, V., Jones, D., Nieuwboer, A., Willems, A., Kwakkel, G., & Wegen, E.
(2005). The effect of external rhythmic cues (auditory and visual) on walking during a functional task in
homes of people with Parkinson disease. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86, pp. 999-
1006.
Styns, F., van Noorden, L., Moelants, D., & Leman, M. (2007). Walking on music. Human Movement
Science, 26 (5), pp. 769-785.
Suteerawattananon, M., Morris, G. S., Etnyre, B. R., Jankovic, J., & Protas, E. J. (2004). Effects of visual
and auditory cues on gait in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Journal of the Neurological Sciences,
219 (1-2), pp. 63-69.
Tenenbaum, G., Lidor, R., Lavyan, N., Morrow, K., Tonnel, S., Gershgoren, A., Meis, J., & Johnson, M.
(2004). The effect of music type on running perseverance and coping with effort sensations. Psychology
of Sport and Exercise, 5 (2), pp. 89-109.
Thaut, M. H., Hurt, C., Dragon, D., & McIntosh, G. (1998). Rhythmic entrainment of gait patterns in
children with cerebral palsy [Abstract]. Developmental Medicine & Child, Neurology, 40 (78), p. 15.
Thaut, M. H., Leins, A. K., Rice, R. R., Argstatter, H., Kenyon, G. P., McIntosh, G. C., Bolay, H. V., &
Fetter, M. (2007). Rhythmic auditory stimulation improves gait more than NDT/Bobath training in near-
ambulatory patients early poststroke: A single-blind, randomized trial. Neurorehabilitation and Neural
Repair, 21 (5), pp. 455-459.
Thaut, M. H., Kenyon, G. P., Hurt, C. P., McIntosh, G. C., & Hoemberg, V. (2002). Kinematic
optimization of spatiotemporal patterns in paretic arm training with stroke patients. Neuropsychologia,
40 (7), pp. 1073-1081.
Thaut, M. H., Kenyon, G. P., Schauer, M. L., & McIntosh, G. C. (1999).The connection between
rhythmicity and brain function. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Μagazine, 18 (2), pp. 101-108.
Thaut, M. H., Miltner, R., Lange, H. W., Hurt, C. P., & Hoemberg, H. (1999). Velocity Modulation and
Rhythmic Synchronization of Gait in Huntington’s Disease. Movement Disorders, 14 (5), pp. 808-819.
Thaut, M. H., McIntosh, G. C., & Rice, R. R. (1997). Rhythmic facilitation of gait training in hemiparetic
stroke rehabilitation. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 151 (2), pp. 207-212.
Thaut, M. H., McIntosh, G. C., Rice, R. R., Miller, R. A., Rathbun, J., & Brault, J. M. (1996). Rhythmic
Auditory Stimulation in Gait Training for Parkinson’s Disease Patients. Movement Disorders, 11 (2), pp.
193-200.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 27, No: 3, 2012 pp 68-75
9
Weird Metronome (version 1.4) [Metronome Software] (2004). Retrieved from
http://www.weirdmetronome.com
Willems, A. M., Nieuwboer, A., Chavret, F., Desloovere. K., Dom. R., Rochester, L., Jones, D.,
Kwakkel, G., & van Wegen. E. (2006). The use of rhythmic auditory cues to influence gait in patients
with Parkinson’s disease, the differential effect for freezers and non-freezers, an explorative study.
Disability and Rehabilitation, 28 (11), pp. 721-728.