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The Effect of Violent and Nonviolent Video Games on Heart Rate Variability, Sleep, and Emotions in Adolescents With Different Violent Gaming Habits
Abstract
Objective:
To study cardiac, sleep-related, and emotional reactions to playing violent (VG) versus nonviolent video games (NVG) in adolescents with different gaming habits.
Methods:
Thirty boys (aged 13-16 years, standard deviation = 0.9), half of them low-exposed (≤1 h/d) and half high-exposed (≥3 h/d) to violent games, played a VG/NVG for 2 hours during two different evenings in their homes. Heart rate (HR) and HR variability were registered from before start until next morning. A questionnaire about emotional reactions was administered after gaming sessions and a sleep diary on the following mornings.
Results:
During sleep, there were significant interaction effects between group and gaming condition for HR (means [standard errors] for low-exposed: NVG 63.8 [2.2] and VG 67.7 [2.4]; for high-exposed: NVG 65.5 [1.9] and VG 62.7 [1.9]; F(1,28) = 9.22, p = .005). There was also a significant interaction for sleep quality (low-exposed: NVG 4.3 [0.2] and VG 3.7 [0.3]); high-exposed: NVG 4.4 [0.2] and VG 4.4 [0.2]; F(1,28) = 3.51, p = .036, one sided), and sadness after playing (low-exposed: NVG 1.0 [0.0] and VG 1.4 [0.2]; high-exposed: NVG 1.2 [0.1] and VG 1.1 [0.1]; (F(1,27) = 6.29, p = .009, one sided).
Conclusions:
Different combinations of the extent of (low versus high) previous VG and experimental exposure to a VG or an NVG are associated with different reaction patterns-physiologically, emotionally, and sleep related. Desensitizing effects or selection bias stand out as possible explanations.
... Most studies were conducted with youth 12 years old or older (n = 8, 66%). While half of the studies had an almost even split between sexes, four included only females (Doyle et al., 2015;Fortier et al., 2011;Leonard et al., 2018;Ranzenhofer et al., 2016;Sigrist et al., 2023), two included only males (Ivarsson et al., 2013;Myrtek et al., 1996), and one did not report sex (Wingler et al., 2021). The ethnicity of participants varied, with five studies including mostly Black or Hispanic youth (Doyle et al., 2015;Kim et al., 2023;Leonard et al., 2018;Murray et al., 2022;Ranzenhofer et al., 2016), one including mostly White youth (Thomassin et al., 2023), and the other half not reporting on ethnicity. ...
... The designs of the included studies are summarized in Table S2. Five studies monitored children's and youth's physiology during specific events in daily life, including watching television (Myrtek et al., 1996), playing video games (Ivarsson et al., 2013), sleeping (Sigrist et al., 2023), and undergoing a medical procedure (Fortier et al., 2011;Wingler et al., 2021). In these studies, emotion reports, including emotionality, anxiety, and emotion dysregulation, were made before and/or after the events. ...
... In our review, four studies described omitting HR values outside these parameters but varied on the cut-off points they applied. Ivarsson et al. (2013) excluded HR values >240 bpm in 13-to 16-year-old boys. Menghini et al. (2023) omitted values outside of 43-104 bpm in 16-to 19-year-old adolescents. ...
Recent advancements in methodologies such as ecological momentary assessment (EMA) and ambulatory physiology devices have enhanced our ability to measure emotions experienced in daily life. Despite the feasibility of EMA for assessing children's and youth's emotional self-reports, the feasibility of combining it with physiological measurements in a real-life context has yet to be established. Our scoping review evaluates the feasibility and usability of implementing emotional and physiological EMA in children and youth. Due to the complexities of physiological EMA data, this review also synthesized existing methodological and statistical practices of existing studies. Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we searched and screened PsycINFO, PubMed, and Web of Science electronic databases for studies that assessed children's and youth's subjective emotions and cardiac or electrodermal physiological responses outside the laboratory. Our initial search resulted in 4174 studies, 13 of which were included in our review. Findings showed significant variability in the feasibility of physiological EMA, with physiology device wear-time averaging 58.77% of study periods and data loss due to quality issues ranging from 0.2% to 77% across signals. Compliance for emotional EMA was approximately 60% of study periods when combined with physiological EMA. The review points to a lack of standardized procedures in physiological EMA and suggests a need for guidelines in designing, processing, and analyzing such data collected in real-life contexts. We offer recommendations to enhance participant engagement and develop standard practices for employing physiological EMA with children and youth for emotion, developmental, and psychophysiology researchers.
... interesting to learn from these studies that watching TV has produced little-to-no effects on sleep, despite sleep hygiene recommendations. Indeed, Weaver and colleagues [29] noted that 30 % of their sample fell asleep watching TV in the hour before bed. These small effects persist despite the advancement of streaming services and strategies employed by media companies to keep their consumers engaged [33,34]. ...
... As mentioned above, early experimental studies tested pre-sleep technology use prior to the individual's usual bedtime [14,29,31]. Some studies then began allowing participants to use technology not just before bedtime, 'but for as long as they want' [57,58]. ...
... For example, overall, the data to date show that TV watching is one of the least harmful technological activities. There is a near-zero weighted correlation between TV watching and 'sleep' [97]; there is evidence that people fall asleep in the hour before bed when watching TV [29]; and that whilst 'cliffhangers' induce a physiological response, they nevertheless result in quicker sleep latencies [33]. These examples contradict the decades of messaging from classical stimulus control instructions to only use the bedroom for sleep and sex [118]. ...
The link between technology and sleep is more complex than originally thought. In this updated theoretical review, we propose a new model informed by the growing body of evidence in the area over the past 10 years. The main theoretical change is the addition of bi-directional links between the use of technology and sleep problems. We begin by reviewing the evidence to date for the originally proposed mechanisms of bright light, arousal, nighttime sleep disruptions, and sleep displacement. Then, in support of the new direction of effect (sleep problems preceding technology use), we propose two new mechanisms: technology before sleep might be used as a time filler and/or as an emotional regulation strategy to facilitate the sleep-onset process. Finally, we present potential moderators of the association between technology and sleep, in recognition of protective and vulnerability factors that may mitigate or exacerbate the effects of technology on sleep and vice versa. The goal of this theoretical review is to update the field, guide future public health messages, and to prompt new research into how much technology and sleep affect each other, for whom it may be problematic, and which mechanisms may explain their association.
... In the first study [34], after exposure to a violent VG, participants reported higher activity in the very low frequency band of HR variability, but no effects on sleep (assessed through sleep diaries). In the second study [35], comparing high-exposed with low-exposed gamers (i.e., with the habit of playing 1 h or less daily), the authors found that the "violent condition" increased HR during sleep only for the low-exposed participants. Finally, through a questionnaire study, Altintas and colleagues [36] found that only the "intensity" of VG playing (a measure of addictive and compulsive VG use), and not the duration of VG sessions, correlated with higher scores on the Sleep Latency and Sleep Disturbances subscales of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index [37] and was a more salient predictor of overall poor sleep quality. ...
... In this study, building on previous research [35,36,40], we focus on the habitual level of exposure to VGs as a possible modulating factor in the relationship of VG playing with sleep quality; chronotype; daytime sleepiness; and levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. Specifically, we administered, to a wide sample of Italian adults, an online survey including questions on VG playing habits as well as a set of standardized questionnaires on sleep, chronotype, sleepiness, depression, anxiety, and stress. ...
... Specifically, we administered, to a wide sample of Italian adults, an online survey including questions on VG playing habits as well as a set of standardized questionnaires on sleep, chronotype, sleepiness, depression, anxiety, and stress. In line with previous studies [35,40], we divided the sample according to the participants' habitual level of exposure to VGs and compared psychological measures between the groups [35,40]. However, while those studies used a binary classification (high vs. low habitual gaming), we sought to better depict people's VG habits by using three groups: habitual expert gamers (playing 7 or more hours/week), nonhabitual gamers (i.e., individuals who regularly play VGs but not more than 7 h/week), non-gamers (i.e., individuals who virtually never play VGs). ...
Research on the effects of videogames (VGs) on health has produced mixed results. Here, we assess the relationships of VG playing with sleep; chronotype; sleepiness; and levels of depression, anxiety, and stress; and how they are modulated by the level of exposure to VGs. Four hundred-and two adult participants (age = 26.2 ± 7.84; 227 F) completed an online survey including questions on VG use and a set of standardized questionnaires. The sample was divided into three groups: habitual gamers (HGs, 42.2%), nonhabitual gamers (NHGs, 36.5%), and non-gamers (NGs, 21.3%). No between-group differences emerged in sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Scale) or Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index measures except the sleep disturbances subscore, which was higher in NHGs. HGs showed delayed bed- and risetimes and higher eveningness (reduced Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire). HGs and NHGs showed higher depression subscores (Depression Anxiety Stress Scale) but remained in the subclinical range. Moreover, hours/week of VG playing predicted delayed sleep timing, lower daytime dysfunction, and lower sleepiness. Our data suggest that VG playing does not necessarily compromise sleep quality and may even benefit daytime functioning, underlining the need to reconsider the relationships between VG use and health by taking into account possible modulating factors such as habitual VG exposure.
... Additionally, the sex differences in the effects of screen time on sleep may be attributable to the higher levels of exposure to the violent content through media devices in boys than in girls [84]. As physiological arousal due to the violent content of the media could interfere sleep [85], the timing of sleep among boys may subsequently be more affected [38,85]. Moreover, in accordance with previous findings [37], the current study showed that the association between depressive symptoms and chronotype was stronger among boys than in girls. ...
... Additionally, the sex differences in the effects of screen time on sleep may be attributable to the higher levels of exposure to the violent content through media devices in boys than in girls [84]. As physiological arousal due to the violent content of the media could interfere sleep [85], the timing of sleep among boys may subsequently be more affected [38,85]. Moreover, in accordance with previous findings [37], the current study showed that the association between depressive symptoms and chronotype was stronger among boys than in girls. ...
Late chronotype during adolescence is a critical risk factor for poor physical and mental health among adolescents. While social loneliness is confirmed to negatively influence sleep behaviors, the long-term effect of social loneliness on chronotype remains unknown. This study aims to investigate whether social loneliness trajectories from middle childhood to adolescence are associated with chronotype in late adolescence and examine the potential sex differences in these associations. Data were obtained from 2398 adolescents who participated in the Child and Adolescent Behaviors in Long-Term Evolution project. Chronotype was calculated as the midpoint of sleep on free days adjusted for sleep debt. Group-based trajectory modeling and multiple linear regression were employed to establish social loneliness trajectories and determine their associations with chronotype. Social loneliness trajectories were significantly associated with chronotype and varied by sex. Specifically, boys following a high-decreasing trajectory had earlier chronotype during late adolescence than did those following a low-decreasing trajectory (B = − 0.07; p < 0.05). By contrast, girls following a low-to-moderate-increasing trajectory exhibited later chronotype than did those following a low-stable trajectory (B = 0.07; p < 0.01). Social loneliness trajectories, especially those displaying significant fluctuations over time, are critical indicators influencing chronotype among adolescents. Furthermore, these trajectories and their associations with chronotype display sex differences. These findings highlight the need for early interventions for psychological factors such as social loneliness to ensure that the late chronotype can be prevented. In addition, sex variations must be considered.
... Video games, however, are not necessarily always maladaptive, as simply playing video games for extended periods does not inherently lead to the development of problematic gaming (Király et al., 2017). Specifically, video game content (with violent content being more problematic, e.g., Ivarsson et al., 2013) influences the impact of video games on the development of problematic gaming patterns. ...
... However, very few children viewed violent content at this age, with most programs aimed at an early childhood audience being more educational or prosocial in nature. Research on adolescents suggests that playing violent video games might be a risk factor for the development of pathological gaming (Ivarsson et al., 2013). Thus, we encourage future researchers to study violent media content and how it might be related to the development of pathological media symptoms beginning with younger children and following their trajectory. ...
... In der wissenschaftlichen Literatur existieren Belege über mögliche negative Auswirkungen des Videospielens auf das Verhalten, die Emotionen sowie die psychische und physische Gesundheit [22,23]. Physiologische Reaktionen wie die elektrodermale Aktivität [3], Blutdruck [2], Herzrate [14] und Herzratenvariabilität [13] können durch (gewaltbasierte) Videospiele beeinflusst werden. All diese Aspekte sind eng mit der Qualität und Quantität des Schlafs verbunden. ...
... Dass die Aktivität während der Nutzung eines elektronischen Mediums eine entscheidende Rolle spielt, konnten Studien bereits zeigen. Vergleicht man das Videospielen mit dem Schauen eines Films vor dem Zubettgehen, so konnte gezeigt werden, dass Videospielen zu einer höheren Aktivität des Sympathikus und somit zu einer Hemmung des Schlafs führt [13,14]. Wie in diesen Studien demonstriert, kann eine gesteigerte Sympathikusaktivität beispielsweise über die Herzfrequenz (HF), Herzratenvariabilität (HRV) oder durch Messung des Schlafhormons Melatonin oder des Stresshormons Cortisol bestimmt werden. ...
Background
Playing video games before going to bed may have an impact on the quality and quantity of sleep.Objectives
The determination of factors that are influenced by playing video games and how these factors can be made measurable.Methods
Recent studies were analyzed and discussed to conduct an overview and create recommendations for practice.ResultsEspecially in children and adolescents, playing video games before going to bed leads to an increased sleep onset latency and an overall increase in fatigue. Decisive factors are the screen brightness (exposure of blue light) and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system caused by playing video games. Action video games in particular can lead to a greater activation than calmer video games or watching a movie.Conclusion
In summary, video gaming can have a negative impact on the sleep of video gamers. Prolonged sleep onset latency and reduced deep sleep phases can occur because of video gaming in the evening. Especially sympathicotonia appears to play a more dominant role than blue light exposure. Children, adolescents, and professional video game players are potential risk groups and thus need to be educated about responsible video game behavior. Various parameters can be used to quantify sympathetic nerve activity. In particular, heart rate variability is a feasible parameter.
... While using social media apps, adolescents may experience increased alertness toward social rewards from messages, likes, and comments, and toward social pressures to respond quickly to incoming notifications, making it difficult to fall asleep (Scott & Woods, 2018). Similarly, game apps may cause arousal due to increased alertness, which is often essential in the gaming context, causing more difficulties in falling asleep (Ivarsson et al., 2013;Weaver et al., 2010;Wolfe et al., 2014). In contrast, lean-back apps, such as video player apps tend to offer relaxation, entertainment, and replenishment, thereby facilitating a smoother transition to sleep (McNally & Harrington, 2017). ...
The smartphone occupies a substantial part of adolescents’ daily life, from the moment they wake up to, for some, well beyond their bedtime. The current study compared the impact of adolescents’ daytime, pre-bedtime, and post-bedtime smartphone use on their sleep quality. In addition, it explored the differential effects of lean-back and lean-forward smartphone apps. We collected data from 155 adolescents across 21 days using smartphone tracking (745,706 app activities) in combination with experience sampling (1,950 sleep quality assessments). We found no significant effects of daytime and pre-bedtime smartphone use on sleep quality, but a negative association of post-bedtime smartphone use with sleep quality (β = −.09). The association between smartphone use and sleep quality varied across app categories: Time spent on lean-forward apps around bedtime, such as social media apps right before (β = −.08) and game apps after bedtime (β = −.23), was associated with lower sleep quality. The use of lean-back apps (i.e., video players) was not associated with sleep quality, neither before nor after bedtime.
... Although some reports have claimed that video gaming may be linked to enhanced cognitive functions [3], it was confirmed that video gaming is associated with several negative consequences, including exposure to graphic violence, and poor health [4,5]. These negative impacts are highly correlated with unrestricted gaming, which could lead to gaming addiction or gaming disorder (GD) for vulnerable individuals [6][7][8]. ...
Background
Video gaming is a popular leisure activity among adolescents. Those who play excessively are in danger of educational and social drawbacks and may become addicted to video gaming. Several published studies determined the prevalence of GD among children in specific Saudi regions. However, the current study assessed the national prevalence of video gaming disorder (GD) and its risk factors among school students in Saudi Arabia.
Methods
A school-based survey was conducted among adolescents in all regions of Saudi Arabia during the academic year 2021–2022. A multistage stratified cluster sampling technique was used to select the school students. An Arabic-validated version of the 9-item dichotomous (yes/no) GD Scale based on the DSM-5 criteria was used to determine GD prevalence among the students. The score ranged from zero to nine (0–9). Participants who scored five or more were deemed as having GD. Students who scored less than five were classified as normal gamers (score 0–1) or risky gamers (score 2–4).
Results
We recruited 5332 school students. Their mean age was 15.5 ± 1.7 years, and almost half of them were males (50.7%). According to the GD score, the prevalence of normal gamers was 39.08% ( N = 1714), risky gamers 40.47% ( N = 1775), and those with GD was, 20.45% ( N = 897). Logistic regression was performed to determine the association between video gaming disorder and all the gathered variables, which include age, educational grade, sex, types of video gaming, and categories of video games played. The results showed that nationality, age, educational grade, sex, using only mobile devices to play, and playing puzzle and sports games were not associated with video gaming disorder. On the other hand, it was revealed that using tablets, game consoles, PCs; having multiple devices; and playing online, fighting, car racing, war, and adventure games were significantly linked to GD.
Conclusion
The prevalence of GD was 20.45% among Saudi school students who play video games. Utilizing more than one type of gaming device and playing games in the fighting, war, and multiplayer categories via an online connection were significantly linked to having GD. To limit video gaming addiction, we encourage screening, diagnosing, and treating disordered video gamers early. In addition, governmental authorities and video game companies should discuss and revise numerous policy measures to minimize the accessibility of video games, limit the harms and risks related to them, and assist video gamers in becoming effective members of society.
... Recently, researchers have found that the LF/HF ratio (which reflects the sympathetic nervous system activity, Shaffer & Ginsberg, 2017) was increased during gaming compared to resting, suggesting increased sympathetic tone during gaming (Yeo et al., 2018). More importantly, sympathetic activation tends to last for a relatively long periods of time, even during sleep (Ivarsson et al., 2013) and rest (Krarup et al., 2022). This lack of variability could indicate cardiovascular stress, which could disrupt circadian rhythms and be detrimental to cardiovascular health. ...
Studies have shown that playing violent video games is negatively related to the occurrence of prosocial behavior, but the underlying physiological mechanism remains unclear. In the present study, we examined the mediating role of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reduction in the relations between violent video game experiences and prosocial behavior among 155 Chinese undergraduate students (59.35% male, Mage = 18.62 years). Violent video game experiences (i.e., comprehensive evaluation of the violence, bloodiness, and individual duration of playing) and prosocial behavior (i.e., willingness to help and helping time) were both measured by self-report. Physiological data (i.e., electrocardiography) were collected across three laboratory stages: baseline, task, and recovery. RSA reduction was calculated through these physiological data. Results indicated that: (1) violent video game experiences were negatively associated with prosocial behavior and RSA reduction; (2) RSA reduction mediated the relations between violent video game experiences and prosocial behavior. This finding suggested that RSA reduction might be an important physiological mechanism explaining the negative relations between violent video game experiences and prosocial behavior. This study will deepen people’s understanding of the influence of violent video games and provide a richer literature on the physiological mechanisms in the field.
... 5,6 Ivarsson et al. showed significant differences in pulse, post-play emotional responses, and sleep quality in adolescents who habitually played games with more violent elements compared with those who played less violent games. 7 In particular, first-person shooter (FPS) and third-person shooter (TPS) games contain much violent contents. 8,9 Furthermore, in recent years, the number of users of social games played via the internet has increased and excessive in-game spending has become a problem. ...
Aim
Internet gaming disorder (IGD) is receiving increasing attention. In particular, violent gameplay or in‐game spending affects the psychiatric conditions and economic difficulties of patients. We conducted regression analysis and path analysis to investigate the associations between a comprehensive list of factors in patients with IGD, including the degree of internet or gaming dependence, developmental problems, family background, severity of depression, sleeping habits, in‐game spending, and first‐person shooter (FPS) and third‐person shooter (TPS) game playing.
Methods
The participants were 47 Japanese individuals (39 males and 8 females) aged ≤20 years diagnosed with IGD with complete data from the internet addiction test, autism spectrum quotient, Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. All participants were asked whether their parents have divorce history, whether they have siblings, whether they play FPS or TPS games, and whether they engage in in‐game spending. Firstly, we compared these factors between males and females; secondly, we conducted regression analysis and path analysis in male patients.
Results
As for simple comparison between sex, female patients showed greater severity of IGD and depressive score. In regression analysis of male patients, significant associations were found between FPS or TPS game playing and in‐game spending. We also created path diagrams.
Conclusion
The results of the comprehensive analyses suggest the possibility that bidirectional synergistic effects could be achieved by gradually reducing both violent game playing and in‐game spending. The concept of internet dependence has a wide range of meanings, and for each subtype, it is important to consider the background that led to the dependence to make individualized environmental adjustments and provide psychotherapy.
... Previous literature has shown that high exposure to noise and violent games can increase sympathetic activity and thus result in an elevation in heart rate (Sim, et al., 2015;Veljovic et al., 2019;Ivarsson et al., 2013). Similar observations have been found in the condition 1. Results from condition 1 showed a significant increase in mean heart rate in both the E-rated and M-rated mobile video games because both games require some level of physical demand. ...
Several studies have established the association between video games with changes in heart rate, and visual and mental fatigue. Understanding the potential relationship between these factors is vital for grasping the impacts of game content on cognitive and physiological functions. This research aims to explore the effect of E-rated (everyone) and M-rated (mature) game-playing sequences on heart rate, and visual and mental fatigue among university students. The objectives include a comparison of the mean heart rate, critical fusion, and flicker frequency before and after playing of both
types of games.
Thirty participants (22.6±1.0 years) were randomly selected and split into two groups (N1=16, N2=14), one playing the E-rated game followed by the M-rated game, and the other vice versa. Measurements of heart rate, fusion frequency, and flicker frequency were recorded before and after gaming sessions. Participants were played under controlled conditions (Illumination: 200 lux, Sound level: 62.5dB,
Temperature: 27°C). The results demonstrated a significant (p<0.05) effect of gaming sequences on heart rate, critical flicker, and fusion frequencies. Further, playing M-rated games can significantly influence heart rate and critical
flicker fusion frequency (CFFF) over E-rated games. E-rated and M-rated video games affect CFFF and heart rate, with gameplay order influencing the extent
of these effects. This highlights the importance of considering game content and sequence when studying their impacts on physiology and cognition.
Practical Implications: These findings indicate that game developers, educators, and healthcare providers must consider the physiological and cognitive effects of various game ratings and sequences. For example, alternating between E-rated and M-rated games during sessions might help manage and reduce adverse impacts on heart rate and visual fatigue. Additionally, understanding these effects can aid in
creating guidelines for healthier gaming practices and designing games that enhance cognitive and physiological well-being. The order in which games are played varies the impact they have on individuals, emphasizing the need for a significant understanding of gaming experiences.
... In young overweight individuals, excessive screen time increases sedentary behaviour and the consumption of unhealthy foods and sugary drinks (Smith et al., 2021). Additionally, playing videogames may affect sleep and heartrate variability (Ivarsson et al., 2013), especially in the case of e-games players, due to long playing hours. This also goes hand in hand with greater consumption of stimulants, such as caffeine, and doping substances, such as dextroamphetamine (Holden et al., 2018). ...
The aim of the present work was to analyse empirical evidence regarding physiological effects, performance and health in relation to video game and electronic sports players. A narrative review of existing scientific literature was performed on the state of the issue regarding to factors associated with physiology, performance and health in the context of video games and electronic sports. Principal findings indicated elevated levels of five hormones, high systolic blood pressure and increased heart rate. In the case of exergaming, favourable outcomes emerged for some ergogenic aids, brain activation, cognitive, sensorimotor and corticospinal performance, strength, balance, cardiovascular capacity, and social and psychological wellbeing. However, eSports can cause eye fatigue, myofascial syndrome, tendinosis, musculoskeletal pain/syndromes, consumption of unhealthy food, sugary drinks, stimulants and doping substances, sleep disturbance and heart rate variation. Causes, symptoms, characteristics and relationships underlying Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and addiction to video games and electronic sports were also determined. In conclusion, the positive health impact of engaging in electronic sports and video games is noted, however, measures must target electronic sports players in order to avoid the negative effects of excessive video game use.
... Additionally, research findings indicate that video games, particularly those of a violent nature, are associated with increased heart rate, slightly delayed sleep onset, and decreased rapid eye movement during sleep [63]. Consistent with our findings, sleep-related issues persist even in instances of non-violent media use [64]. These diverse findings highlight the complexity of the relationship between screen content and its influence on sleep outcomes. ...
Nocturnal smartphone use emits blue light, which can adversely affect sleep, leading to a variety of negative effects, particularly in children. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the effect of acute (AC) (one night) and repeated (RC) (five nights) nocturnal smartphone exposure on sleep, cortisol, and next-day performance in Tunisian children. Thirteen participants (seven girls and six boys, age 9 ± 0.6, height 1.32 ± 0.06, weight 34.47 ± 4.41) attended six experimental nights. The experiment started with a baseline night (BL) with no smartphone exposure, followed by repeated sessions of nocturnal smartphone exposure lasting 90 minutes (08:00 pm–09:30 pm). Actigraphy; salivary cortisol; the Stroop test (selective attention); choice reaction time (CRT); N-back (working memory); counter-movement jump (CMJ), composed of flight time (time spent in the CMJ flight phase) and jump height; and a 30 m sprint were assessed the morning after each condition. Both AC and RC shortened total sleep time (TST) (p < 0.01), with a greater decrease with RC (−46.7 min, ∆% = −9.46) than AC (−28.8 min, ∆% = −5.8) compared to BL. AC and RC significantly increased waking after sleep onset (3.5 min, ∆% = 15.05, to 9.9 min, ∆% = 43.11%) and number of errors made on the Stroop test (1.8 error, ∆% = 74.23, to 3.07 error, ∆% = 97.56%). Children made 0.15 and 0.8 more errors (∆% = 6.2 to 57.61%) and spent 46.9 s and 71.6 s more time on CRT tasks (∆% = 7.22 to 11.11%) with AC and RC, respectively, compared to BL. The high-interference index of the Stroop task, CMJ performance, and 30 m sprint speed were only altered (p < 0.01) following RC (0.36, Δ% = 41.52%; −34 s, Δ% = −9.29%, for flight time and −1.23 m, −8.72%, for jump height; 0.49 s, Δ% = 6.48, respectively) when compared to BL. In conclusion, one- or five-night exposure to smartphones disturbed the children’s sleep quality and their performance, with more pronounced effects following RC.
... Using electronic devices before bedtime may reduce melatonin secretion, disrupt circadian rhythm, and reduce sleepiness due to blue light exposure [27]. In addition, those activities (especially video games) are mentally arousal, making it hard for the students to transition into sleep, which may increase sleep latency and hence sleep disturbances [28]. Over half of the students frequently/ always "Going to bed later than intended", which is a strong indicator of bedtime procrastination. ...
Purpose
Healthy sleep is essential for individuals’ physiological and psychological health. Health science students experience a high prevalence of sleep disturbances which may be due to maladaptive behaviors. This study aimed to examine the associations of sleep behaviors including sleep hygiene and bedtime procrastination with the associations of sleep disturbances (e.g., poor sleep quality, insomnia, and short sleep).
Methods
This cross-sectional study included health science students from a medical university in Shanghai, China. Sleep disturbances included poor sleep quality, insomnia, and short sleep. They were measured by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), and one question “How many hours of sleep did you usually get during the past week?”, respectively. Sleep behaviors included sleep hygiene and bedtime procrastination measured by the Sleep Hygiene Index (SHI) and Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS), respectively. Logistic regression was performed while controlling for potential confounders.
Results
A total of 464 health science students participated. Poorer overall sleep hygiene and more bedtime procrastination were independently associated with higher odds of poor sleep quality (OR=1.065, 95% CI 1.028–1.103; OR=1.040, 95% CI 1.006–1.075, respectively) and insomnia (OR=1.059, 95% CI 1.018–1.101; OR=1.093, 95% CI 1.049–1.139, respectively). More bedtime procrastination was associated with higher odds of short sleep (OR=1.148, 95% CI 1.093–1.206). Commonly reported specific sleep behaviors, such as “Going to bed later than intended”, “Doing other things than sleep at bedtime”, and “Easily stopping what I am doing at bedtime”, were also related to higher odds of sleep disturbances.
Conclusions
Sleep hygiene and bedtime procrastination were strong predictors of sleep disturbances. Tailored interventions targeting specific sleep behaviors are warranted to clarify their effect on sleep disturbances.
... Os resultados dos estudos nesta área apontam maioritariamente (cf. Ivarsson et al., 2013;Miskoff et al., 2019) para que os VE, jogados antes de dormir possam atrasar a hora de deitar (Exelmans & Van Den Bulck, 2015;Harbard et al., 2016;Van Den Bulck, 2004), reduzindo assim o tempo de sono (King et al., 2013;Wolfe et al., 2014), nas noites que antecedem os dias de aulas (Harbard et al., 2016;Van Den Bulck, 2004), podendo ainda dificultar o início do sono, por causarem uma maior ativação do sistema nervoso (Dworak et al., 2007;Higuchi et al., 2005;Weaver et al., 2010). ...
Os videojogos de entretenimento (VE) constituem artefactos de média digital visual., tipicamente com um carácter estético, concebidos para entretenimento e que integram regras e objetivos de jogo e/ou ficção interativa (e.g., Tavinor, 2009). Tendo vindo a conquistar cada vez mais adeptos em todo o mundo, os VE levantam apreensão sobre os possíveis efeitos da sua utilização na vida dos adolescentes, sobretudo na atividade escolar, central no seu quotidiano. Esta revisão de literatura analisa várias teorias e estudos empíricos, da área da Psicologia, focados na relação entre a atividade de jogar VE e a aprendizagem escolar ou os comportamentos, cognições e afetos envolvidos nessa aprendizagem. Tendo sido identificadas relações quer negativas, neutras ou positivas entre a atividade de jogar VE e a aprendizagem escolar, a investigação não fornece ainda uma imagem inequívoca sobre a relação em causa, sendo necessários mais estudos sobre ela.
Video games (VG) are artifacts of visual digital media, typically with an aesthetic character, designed for entertainment and that integrate rules and objectives of game and/or interactive fiction (e.g., Tavinor, 2009). Having gained more and more fans around the worl lives, especially on school activities, which are central to their quotidian. This literature review analyzes several theories and empirical studies, in the field of Psychology, focused on the relation between the activity of playing VG and school learning or the behaviors, cognitions and affects involved in that learning. Having identified negative, neutral or positive relationships between the activity of playing VG and school learning, research does not yet provide an unambiguous picture about the relationship in question, and further studies on it are needed.
... It is worth noting that these values were observed during a game session of short duration and in a student population of e-gamers; it must be considered that PEGs in a competition usually play continuously for up to 6 h at high intensities [42]. Other studies have shown an increase in the activity of the nervous sympathetic system (increase in the low frequency/high frequency ratio of HRV) during heavy gaming [10,44]. During gaming in professional players, a new instrument for the detection of EEG, HR, and HR variability has been used to measure cardiac function; the instrument was based on light photodetectors that were minimally invasive in vivo [10]. ...
The aim of this review is to examine the links among the different factors that determine harmful or even deadly events in professional and semiprofessional intensive Esports players. Cases of serious injuries or even death in young (<35 years old) male professional Esports players are reported every year. Fatalities and injuries in professional Esports players (PEGS) have only affected male players, and these events have mostly been concentrated in Asia. Studies in the literature have reported several causes and mechanisms of injuries. Links between injuries and previous comorbidities have emerged from the extant literature; obesity and/or metabolic disorders, seizures (associated with overstimulation of the eyes), heart malfunctions, high basal and abrupt increases in systolic blood pressure (SBP), prolonged stress, and poor posture have been associated with injuries. Several clinical signs have been identified and the question emerges whether or not self-regulation by Esports associations or public health authorities is necessary.
... The phenomenon can be accounted for by past research. Achab et al. (2011) reported high MMORPG addiction rates that linked to sleep deprivation with adult gamers who were mainly young adult university graduates whereas Ivarsson et al. (2013) found boys aged 13-16 years who played violent video games no more than an hour daily had lower sleep quality when compared to those who played non-violent video games. ...
Research on players’ reasons for video gaming, their video game preferences, and the behavioural effects of video gaming on the players tends to study those issues separately. This study attempts to explore all those issues collectively with the aim of facilitating game designers to develop appealing educational games for university students without inflicting negative behavioural impacts on the students. Relevant data from 100 undergraduates were collected from an online survey. Cluster analysis of the eight major reasons for playing video games resulted in grouping the respondents into five clusters. The cluster that rated peer effect as the major reason for playing is male-dominated whereas the cluster that rated family influence as the major reason is female-dominated. A similar analysis of the respondents’ video game genre preferences reveals that the cluster favouring fighting and battle games is male-dominated, whereas the cluster favouring family entertainment games is female-dominated. Both genders enjoy playing challenging adventure-strategy games. Most respondents perceived that their cognitive functioning had improved through video gaming, but no conclusion can be drawn as to whether video gaming can improve their social and psychological functioning. Except for poor sleeping habits, most respondents had not experienced any significant negative effects from playing video games. No statistical evidence supports that playing violent video games would induce aggressive behaviours. As games that involve a high demand for players’ motor skills may not be a good choice for educational games and violent games may induce poor sleep quality, it is concluded that challenging adventure games and strategy games are suitable educational game genres for undergraduate students.
... Studies of video games have predominantly used blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), and HRV as markers of physical activity and the impact of gaming on the heart and as surrogate markers of the emotional impact of gaming [2,13,17,18]. In addition, HRV has been used as a marker of physiological nervous system stress in the gaming literature [2,5,19] and is also used as a predictor of various cardiovascular and psychiatric diseases [20]. ...
The effect of long gaming sessions on energy intake, caffeine intake, blood pressure, heart rate, heart rate variability, and biochemical cardiac injury markers is unknown. The objective of this exploratory study was to investigate the changes in healthy male adults during two consecutive 18-hour sedentary video gaming sessions. Nine participants were enrolled in the study. Energy intake was noted in food diaries. Heart rate variability was monitored continuously; blood pressure and cardiac injury markers were measured every three to six hours. During the 42-hour study, the participants had an energy and caffeine intake of 8004.9 kcal and 1354.4 mg, respectively. The participants had a significant decrease in energy intake in the second session (p=0.01). A strong, negative correlation was found between body mass index and total energy intake (R=–0.84, p=0.005) and waist circumference and total energy intake (R=–0.70, p=0.036) in the first session. No nightly dip in blood pressure or heart rate was observed. Based on this study, long-term adverse effects of gaming cannot be ruled out. The non-dip of HR and BP suggests that long gaming sessions could be detrimental to cardiovascular health long term.
... Despite being correlated with age, executive function, social adaptive skills, prosocial behavior, and social behavior problems, no association was found between VGPF and specific social cognitive skills including empathy, affect recognition, ToM, and moral reasoning. Although it is difficult to speculate on the basis of null results, it is possible that the video game playing habits documented here and the relatively low consumption overall of games that involve emotional or violent content known to induce physiological stress in adults, for example (Hasan et al., 2013;Ivarsson et al., 2013), were not salient enough to be associated with the hard-wired, brain-based, cognitive skills that underlie social competence. ...
... Tests of the arousal mechanism usually compare conditions in which adolescents participate in highly interactive technology use before bed (for example, playing a violent videogame) versus engage with less interactive technology (for example, watching TV) or they compare small (50 minutes) versus moderate (150 minutes) periods of violent videogames before sleep. Differences in the time taken to fall asleep between conditions in these experiments have been minimal (mean differences <5 minutes) [180][181][182][183] . Owing to a lack of support for the arousal mechanism, researchers turned towards testing the influence of blue light from LED screens. ...
Two adolescent mental health fields — sleep and depression — have advanced largely in parallel until about four years ago. Although sleep problems have been thought to be a symptom of adolescent depression, emerging evidence suggests that sleep difficulties arise before depression does. In this Review, we describe how the combination of adolescent sleep biology and psychology uniquely predispose adolescents to develop depression. We describe multiple pathways and contributors, including a delayed circadian rhythm, restricted sleep duration and greater opportunity for repetitive negative thinking while waiting for sleep. We match each contributor with evidence-based sleep interventions, including bright light therapy, exogenous melatonin and cognitive-behaviour therapy techniques. Such treatments improve sleep and alleviate depression symptoms, highlighting the utility of sleep treatment for comorbid disorders experienced by adolescents. Sleep problems are both a symptom and precursor of adolescent depression. In this Review, Gradisar et al. describe how the combination of adolescent sleep biology and psychology predisposes adolescents to develop depression, and describe interventions that improve sleep and depression symptoms in this population.
... One intervention study also reported that exposure to violent video games before bed reduced overall sleep quality for those with low exposure to games in daily life (≤1 hour/day), but not for those with high exposure (≥3 hours/day) 56 . ...
Background
The purpose of this study was to systematically review the relationship between the timing of sedentary behaviours and access to sedentary activities in the bedroom with sleep duration and quality in children and youth. A secondary purpose was to examine whether these relationships differ when comparing screen-based and non-screen-based sedentary activities.
Methods
We searched four databases for peer-reviewed studies published between 1 January 2010 and 19 January 2021. Risk of bias assessment for each study and certainty of evidence were assessed using the GRADE framework.
Results
We identified 44 eligible papers reporting data from 42 separate datasets and including 239 267 participants. Evening participation in screen-based sedentary behaviours and access to screen-based devices in the bedroom were associated with reduced sleep duration and quality. Daytime screen use was also associated with reduced sleep duration, although this was examined in relatively few studies. Whether performed during the day or night, non-screen-based sedentary behaviours were not consistently associated with sleep duration or quality. The quality of evidence was rated as low to very low for all outcomes.
Conclusion
In order to maximize sleep duration and quality, children and youth should be encouraged to minimize screen time in the evening and remove screens from bedrooms. (PROSPERO registration no.: CRD42020189082)
... Deux études transversales ont analysé la relation entre l'utilisation des écrans le soir au lit et la durée du sommeil 30,41 . L'une mentionnait que les adolescents qui affirmaient dormir le moins étaient plus susceptibles de déclarer qu'ils utilisaient des écrans au lit 30 Une étude d'intervention a aussi indiqué que l'exposition à des jeux vidéo violents avant d'aller au lit réduisait la qualité globale du sommeil chez les sujets peu exposés aux jeux dans leur vie quotidienne (une heure par jour ou moins), mais pas chez ceux y étant très exposés (trois heures par jour ou plus) 56 . ...
Introduction
L’objectif de cette étude était d’effectuer une revue systématique des relations entre, d’une part, l’horaire des comportements sédentaires et l’accès à des activités sédentaires dans la chambre et, d’autre part, la durée et la qualité du sommeil chez les enfants et les adolescents. Un objectif secondaire consistait à vérifier si ces relations étaient différentes selon le type d’activité sédentaire, c’est-à-dire selon si l’activité était liée à l’utilisation des écrans ou non.
Méthodologie
Nous avons cherché dans quatre bases de données les études ayant fait l’objet d’une évaluation par les pairs publiées entre le 1er janvier 2010 et le 19 janvier 2021. Le risque de biais pour chaque étude et le degré de certitude des données probantes ont été évalués en recourant à l’approche GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation).
Résultats
Nous avons trouvé 44 articles correspondant à nos critères de recherche, qui portaient sur des données issues de 42 bases de données et 239 267 participants. L’adoption de comportements sédentaires liés à l’utilisation des écrans le soir et l’accès à des écrans dans la chambre ont été associés à une baisse de la durée et de la qualité du sommeil. L’utilisation des écrans pendant la journée a aussi été associée à une baisse de la durée du sommeil, ce paramètre n’ayant cependant été pris en compte que dans relativement peu d’études. Qu’ils soient diurnes ou nocturnes, les comportements sédentaires non liés à l’utilisation des écrans n’ont pas été associables systématiquement à la durée ou à la qualité du sommeil. La qualité des données probantes a été évaluée comme étant faible à très faible pour tous les résultats.
Conclusion
Pour que la durée et la qualité du sommeil soient optimales, il faudrait nciter les enfants et les adolescents à réduire au minimum le temps passé devant les écrans le soir et bannir les écrans de leur chambre. (no d'enregistrement dans PROSPERO : CRD42020189082)
... Many experimental studies have shown that pre-bedtime video game playing and communication via mobile phone increase emotional and/or cognitive arousal. 20,54,55 Furthermore, the light emitted from electronic screen media devices might influence sleep quality through dysregulation of the endogenous circadian melatonin phase. [56][57][58] An experimental study showed that, compared to reading a printed book, reading an eBook before bedtime decreased objective sleep quality and delayed their endogenous circadian melatonin phase by 1.5 hours. ...
Objective
We aimed to examine the effects of sleep quality on the association between pre-bedtime electronic screen media use for entertainment and academic performance among college students. We hypothesized that sleep quality mediates the association between pre-bedtime electronic screen media entertainment use and academic performance among college students.
Methods
This was a cross-sectional survey with 1385 participants (age 19.99 ± 1.4 years [range, 17–24 years] and 36.82% males) conducted at Shantou University. The levels of academic performance were based on self-reported academic class ranking from average grades of their last final major examinations. Poor sleep quality was defined as a total score of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index >7. The pre-bedtime prolonged electronic screen media use for entertainment (PESM-E) was defined as the use of electronic screen media for entertainment longer than 60 minutes/night after 10:00 p.m. during the past 6 months.
Results
College students with pre-bedtime PESM-E were 1.28-fold more likely to have a poor academic performance than those who used electronic screen media less than 60 minutes (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.04–1.57, P=0.020). Furthermore, pre-bedtime PESM-E was significantly associated with poor sleep quality (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.87, 95% CI: 1.27–2.74, P=0.001) after controlling for confounders. Mediation model showed that poor sleep quality accounted for 53.08% of the effect of pre-bedtime PESM-E on lower levels of academic performance (Sobel Z=2.04, P=0.041).
Conclusion
Pre-bedtime PESM-E is associated with poor academic performance in college students, and this association is mediated by poor sleep quality. Our findings highlight the importance of limiting the use of electronic screen media before bedtime in college students.
... Electronic devices alter bedtime behaviors as users seek more extended screen entertainment, postponing bedtime [38,39]. Furthermore, psychological stimulation from both violent and nonviolent video games increases arousal [40]. Another likely mechanism of negative impact on sleep from electronic device is exposure to the light emitted by screens at bedtime. ...
BACKGROUND
Sleep quality ensures better physical and psychological well-being. It is regulated through endogenous hemostatic, neurogenic, and circadian processes. Nonetheless, environmental and behavioral factors also play a role in sleep hygiene. Electronic device use is increasing rapidly and has been linked to many adverse effects, raising public health concerns.
OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to investigate the impact of electronic device addiction on sleep quality and academic performance among health care students in Saudi Arabia.
METHODS
A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted from June to December 2019 at 3 universities in Jeddah. Of the 1000 students contacted, 608 students from 5 health sciences disciplines completed the questionnaires. The following outcome measures were used: Smartphone Addiction Scale for Adolescents–short version (SAS-SV), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and grade point average (GPA).
RESULTS
The median age of participants was 21 years, with 71.9% (437/608) being female. Almost all of the cohort used smartphones, and 75.0% (456/608) of them always use them at bedtime. Half of the students (53%) have poor sleep quality, while 32% are addicted to smartphone use. Using multivariable logistic regression, addiction to smartphones (SAS-SV score >31 males and >33 females) was significantly associated with poor sleep quality (PSQI >5) with an odds ratio of 1.8 (1.2-2.7). In addition, male gender and older students (age ≥21 years) were significantly associated with lower GPA (<4.5), with an odds ratio of 1.6 (1.1-2.3) and 2.3 (1.5-3.6), respectively; however, addiction to smartphones and poor sleep quality were not significantly associated with a lower GPA.
CONCLUSIONS
Electronic device addiction is associated with increased risk for poor sleep quality; however, electronic device addiction and poor sleep quality are not associated with increased risk for a lower GPA.
... Electronic devices alter bedtime behaviors as users seek more extended screen entertainment, postponing bedtime [38,39]. Furthermore, psychological stimulation from both violent and nonviolent video games increases arousal [40]. Another likely mechanism of negative impact on sleep from electronic device is exposure to the light emitted by screens at bedtime. ...
Background:
Sleep quality ensures better physical and psychological well-being. It is regulated through endogenous hemostatic, neurogenic, and circadian processes. Nonetheless, environmental and behavioral factors also play a role in sleep hygiene. Electronic device use is increasing rapidly and has been linked to many adverse effects, raising public health concerns.
Objective:
This study aimed to investigate the impact of electronic device addiction on sleep quality and academic performance among health care students in Saudi Arabia.
Methods:
A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted from June to December 2019 at 3 universities in Jeddah. Of the 1000 students contacted, 608 students from 5 health sciences disciplines completed the questionnaires. The following outcome measures were used: Smartphone Addiction Scale for Adolescents-short version (SAS-SV), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and grade point average (GPA).
Results:
The median age of participants was 21 years, with 71.9% (437/608) being female. Almost all of the cohort used smartphones, and 75.0% (456/608) of them always use them at bedtime. Half of the students (53%) have poor sleep quality, while 32% are addicted to smartphone use. Using multivariable logistic regression, addiction to smartphones (SAS-SV score >31 males and >33 females) was significantly associated with poor sleep quality (PSQI >5) with an odds ratio of 1.8 (1.2-2.7). In addition, male gender and older students (age ≥21 years) were significantly associated with lower GPA (<4.5), with an odds ratio of 1.6 (1.1-2.3) and 2.3 (1.5-3.6), respectively; however, addiction to smartphones and poor sleep quality were not significantly associated with a lower GPA.
Conclusions:
Electronic device addiction is associated with increased risk for poor sleep quality; however, electronic device addiction and poor sleep quality are not associated with increased risk for a lower GPA.
... O desenvolvimento das novas tecnologias ocasionou diversas mudanças na sociedade, e, sobretudo, na geração de crianças e adolescentes nascidos em meio a essa nova realidade, que, inclusive, receberam definições sociológicas e publicitárias como "Nativos Digitais" e "Geração Z", em razão de sua familiaridade com as tecnologias digitais (Kämpf, 2011). Tal geração é caracterizada por ter grande acesso às tecnologias, tendo sido exposta e estimulada desde a idade precoce ao uso de equipamentos tecnológicos (Spizzirri, Wagner, Mosmann, & Armani, 2012 (Ivarsson, Anderson, Akerstedt, & Lindblad, 2013). ...
A exposição às redes sociais e a internet tem crescido de forma significativa, sendo cada vez mais frequente em crianças e adolescentes para diversas finalidades, representando um desafio para a parentalidade. As estratégias que os pais utilizam para lidar com esse comportamento podem se constituir em fatores de risco ou de proteção. Considerando os desafios comumente enfrentados pelos pais a fim de monitorar os filhos e protegê-los de determinados riscos relacionados à exposição às novas tecnologias, este artigo teórico objetivou descrever e discutir o uso das redes sociais e da internet na infância e na adolescência, assim como o impacto deste na parentalidade. A partir da revisão realizada, observou-se que os estudos sobre o tema indicam a importância da mediação e do monitoramento parental sobre a exposição de crianças e adolescentes às redes sociais e internet, resultando em um fator de proteção ao desenvolvimento. Além disso, observou-se que pais e filhos podem divergir com relação à percepção do controle parental exercido.
... These larger effects may be due to a greater sensitivity of younger children to screen light [22,27]. They may also be due to younger children's lower experience with screens, and thus a lack of habituation (as observed in some adolescents) [28]. ...
Study Objectives
Evidence for the association between screen time and insufficient sleep is bourgeoning, and recent findings suggest that these associations may be more pronounced in younger compared to older children, and for portable compared to non-portable devices. However, these effects have yet to be investigated within the beginning of life. Importantly, there are no data for the relationship between screen exposure and objectively measured infant sleep. This study examined the moderating role of age for both touchscreens’ and television’s relationship with sleep, using auto-videosomnography within a big-data sample of infants.
Methods
The sleep of 1,074 infants (46% girls) aged 0-18 months was objectively assessed using computer-vision technology in this cross-sectional study. Sleep was additionally reported by parents in an online survey, as was infant’s exposure to screens.
Results
Age significantly moderated the relationship between daytime touchscreen exposure and sleep with a distinct pattern for younger infants, in which screen exposure was associated with decreased daytime sleep, but with a proposed compensatory increase in nighttime sleep consolidation. Compared to touchscreens, television exposure was less likely to be associated with sleep metrics, and age moderated this relationship only for daytime and 24-h sleep duration.
Conclusions
In young infants, a daytime-nighttime sleep ‘trade-off’ emerged, suggesting that the displacement of daytime sleep by screens may lead to greater accumulation of sleep homeostatic pressure, which in turn facilitates more consolidated nighttime sleep.
... Furthermore, objective measures such as biological indicators have rarely been considered in relation to gaming reasons. Although autonomic functions have been found to be associated with internet gaming behaviors [31][32][33][34][35][36][37] few studies have examined their associations with gaming reasons. ...
Background:
There are no standard diagnostic criteria or interventions for internet gaming addiction (IGA) even though IGA is one of the most pervasive public health issues among youth worldwide. Internet gaming reasons or motivations have been studied as a potential predictor of IGA, but the results have been inconsistent and biological indicators of gaming reasons have rarely been studied. We sought to (1) identify categories of internet gaming reasons, (2) examine the relationship of gaming reasons to risk of IGA, and (3) describe biological indicators associated with reasons for gaming.
Methods:
We used a multi-phase cross-sectional design including individual interviews; focus group discussion; and descriptive, comparative analysis. Fifteen Korean adolescent male internet gamers participated in individual interviews and eight participated in a focus group aimed at identifying reasons for internet gaming. Using the identified gaming reasons from these sources we surveyed 225 adolescent game users using a self-report questionnaire. Participants provided blood samples for assessment of norepinephrine (NE) and serum cortisol.
Results:
We identified four major categories of internet gaming reasons: entertainment, getting along with friends, stress relief, and habitual gaming. The habitual group showed significantly greater risk of IGA than the other groups (p < .001) and the lowest plasma NE levels (p = .035), possibly indicating an alteration in autonomic function.
Conclusion:
Health care providers are encouraged to screen adolescents for excessive internet gaming and to intervene with those who report habitual gaming behaviors. When feasible, assessment of biological indicators, such as plasma NE, may help to identify youth at greatest risk of IGA.
... Violent media use before bed increases state arousal compared to nonviolent use, and state arousal appears to be a significant mechanistic pathway of media use-induced sleep problems even with nonviolent media use. Vigilance during the use of violent video games before bedtime has been associated with increased state arousal and heart rate variability compared to nonviolent games (Ivarsson, Anderson, Akerstedt, & Lindblad, 2013). In another controlled experiment, playing an "exciting" video game was associated with increased heart rate, delayed sleep onset, and decreased REM sleep, further suggesting possible mediation via state arousal (Higuchi, Motohashi, Liu, & Maeda, 2005). ...
... In Europe and Asia, problematic gamers also tend to develop somatic and musculoskeletal diseases, due to their poor physical activity and their progressive addiction 7,67,69 . The prevalence is similar for adolescents and students, males and females 9,68,70 . Despite the increase of studies on gaming disorders and technology-related disorders around the world, this topic remains understudied in low-income countries and particularly in Africa. ...
Gaming has increasingly become a part of life in Africa. Currently, no data on gaming disorders or their association with mental disorders exist for African countries. This study for the first time investigated (1) the prevalence of insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness, anxiety and depression among African gamers, (2) the association between these conditions and gamer types (i.e., non-problematic, engaged, problematic and addicted) and (3) the predictive power of socioeconomic markers (education, age, income, marital status, employment status) on these conditions. 10,566 people from 2 low- (Rwanda, Gabon), 6 lower-middle (Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal, Ivory Coast) and 1 upper-middle income countries (South Africa) completed online questionnaires containing validated measures on insomnia, sleepiness, anxiety, depression and gaming addiction. Results showed our sample of gamers (24 ± 2.8 yrs; 88.64% Male), 30% were addicted, 30% were problematic, 8% were engaged and 32% were non-problematic. Gaming significantly contributed to 86.9% of the variance in insomnia, 82.7% of the variance in daytime sleepiness and 82.3% of the variance in anxiety [p < 0.001]. This study establishes the prevalence of gaming, mood and sleep disorders, in a large African sample. Our results corroborate previous studies, reporting problematic and addicted gamers show poorer health outcomes compared with non-problematic gamers.
... In line with these sleep results Melatonin values after gaming and before bedtime were lower in the videogame condition. Ivarsson et al. did not find increased arousals after violent videogames compared to non-violent games, but they described more awakenings in frequently videogaming adolescents compared to adolescents who scarcely used videogames [34,35]. Higuchi et al. found lowered REM sleep after videogaming [13]. ...
Use of electronic media is widespread among adolescents. Many male adolescents spend a major part of their evenings playing video games. The increased exposure to artificial light as well as the exciting nature of this pastime is under suspicion to impair sleep. Sleep is considered to be important for memory consolidation, so there is also a potential risk for memory impairment due to video gaming. As learning and gaining knowledge is a very important part of adolescence, we decided to study the effects of prolonged video gaming on sleep and memory. The study was structured in a repeated measures design. Eighteen male participants played either the violent video game “Counter Strike: Global Offensive” or the board game “Monopoly” for five hours each on two Saturday nights. The game evenings were followed by sleep studies. Memory testing and vigilance evaluation was performed the next morning. During the course of the study, saliva samples were taken to determine melatonin and cortisol levels. The results of this crossover study showed slightly reduced sleep efficiency after “Counter Strike: Global Offensive” (-3.5%, p = .017) and impaired declarative memory recall (p = .005) compared to “Monopoly”. Melatonin levels at bedtime were lower after “Counter Strike: Global Offensive” (p = .005), cortisol levels were elevated while playing the video game (p = .031). Negative effects on sleep were not strong but consistent with more wake after sleep onset (+12 min) and a higher arousal index after “Counter Strike: Global Offensive”. We conclude that excessive video gaming in the evening can contribute to worsened sleep and impaired memory in male adolescents.
... The development of technology in games has been explored by many researchers in order to understand their advantages or disadvantages, especially for children and adolescents. Past research has shown that violent video games can influence children physiologically and emotionally (Ivarsson et al., 2013). ...
Video games are an interesting example of technologies/media able to generate complex emotions. Indeed, part of the emotions commonly arising in the experience of video gamers are quite negative. On the one hand, video gamers may feel frustration and anger due to the difficulty of the gameplay. On the other hand, they may experience sadness, anxiety and fear due to the immersion into emotionally rich narratives. Yet, video gamers seem to appreciate gaming technologies generating negative emotions, and the research on media frequently highlights a counterintuitive positive relation between negative affect and enjoinment/well-being outcomes. Starting from these premises, the present chapter is aimed to review the negative emotions typical of video games, in order to understand in what ways they can concur in generating an overall positive experience. Then, the chapter discusses implications for research on video games as positive technologies, namely technologies able to promote well-being in their users.
Zusammenfassung
Jugendliche und Kinder bis hin zu Säuglingen wachsen in einem medial geprägten Umfeld auf. Digitale Hardware (Smartphones, Computer, Tablets, Spielekonsolen und Fernseher) und deren Anwendungen (zum Spielen, zur sozialen Kommunikation, zur Wissensvermittlung) sind längst fester Bestandteil des Alltags von Kindern und Jugendlichen, sei es zu Hause, in der Schule bzw. dem Kindergarten oder in der Freizeit. Die COVID-19-Pandemie hat die Verwendung digitaler Medien weiter intensiviert. Das Kinder-(Schlaf)zimmer ist inzwischen ein Ort digitaler medialer Nutzung geworden, tagsüber, am Abend und in der Nacht. Die Nutzung digitaler Technologien wirkt sich negativ auf den Schlaf aus und führt zu einer verkürzten Gesamtschlafdauer, verminderter Schlafqualität, Schlafstörungen, einer verzögerten Einschlafzeit oder einem gestörten Schlafrhythmus bis hin zu einer Tag-Nacht-Umkehr. Als potenzielle Wirkmechanismen und Moderatoren in der Beziehung zwischen Mediennutzung und Schlaf wirken erstens die direkte Ersetzung des Schlafes durch die digitale Mediennutzung, zweitens ein erhöhtes Arousal, drittens eine Verzögerung des zirkadianen Rhythmus, ausgelöst durch die Lichtexposition bei Bildschirmtätigkeit, viertens eine (defizitäre) Selbstkontrolle und fünftens eine dysfunktionale Emotionsregulation.
Modern digital media significantly influence the living environment of children and adolescents, especially in leisure activities. In this review article the availability and the usage of media by children and adolescents in the evening before going to sleep were investigated and which effects on health are associated with this. The study situation is currently considered to be unclear and inhomogeneous and many studies show severe methodological deficits; however, excessive media usage in particular seems to have significant negative effects on mental health, cognitive capabilities during the day and also physical functions. In this context parental guidance is highly important. In future prospective studies with homogeneous age groups should be undertaken in order to identify potential correlations between media usage, sleep problems and health impairment. Currently, preventive aspects in the sense of a differentiated psychoeducation of parents, children and adolescents should be emphasized.
Playing video games is common among high school students. Teenagers' favourite games often contain violent content. Adolescents play violent video games (VVG) to arouse adrenaline, excitement, relieve boredom, escape from school or family problems, and as motivation to overcome the negative influences they experience. The subjects of this study were 63 teenagers who played VVG and 29 people who played non-VVG at a gaming centre in Makassar City. The results showed that sensation seeking influences playing VVG among adolescents with a value of r = 0.397 (p = 0.001). The results also showed that there was a significant difference (p=0.000) in average emotions (affecting balance, positive-negative emotions) before and after playing VVG, meaning that adolescents who played VVG were more likely to experience positive emotions after playing VVG. Other findings showed that there was a significant difference in the feelings of adolescents who played VVG and those who did not play VVG. The group that played VVG was more likely to experience positive emotions (positive-negative emotion balanced affect) than the group that played non-VVVG.
A growing body of research has focused on the physiological impact of media on older children and adolescents. Less research has been focused on the potential physiological impact of media on infants and younger children, especially media designed to be age appropriate and educational in content. In this study, we examined respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) in infants (N = 269, Mage = 17.13 months) while they co‐viewed an educational video clip that modeled emotion regulation and contrasted their physiological response to an unoccupied baseline and a frustration paradigm (arm‐restraint). Given parent reports showing the calming effect of educational media viewing in young children, we anticipated that a similar pattern of calming would be observed physiologically in infants. Results showed that relative to baseline, most infants demonstrated an increase in RSA while co‐viewing, suggesting greater parasympathetic (regulatory) activation consistent with behavioral calming. However, infants who demonstrated vagal withdrawal during co‐viewing (decrease in RSA) were more likely to have parents who used a tablet to help infants go to sleep at night. Vagal withdrawal was also associated with increased levels of negative affect observed during the co‐viewing task. Findings are discussed in relation to the contextual effect of co‐viewing age‐appropriate, educational media on children's physiological responses.
Past years have seen studies examining effects of digital media on attention problems and sleep in adolescents. The majority of these studies support that using digital media is related to attention problems and lower sleep quantity, and sleep quality in adolescents. The chapter overviews studies in the field, and avenues for future research. It is still unclear whether the link between digital media, attention, and sleep is causal. Recent media effects theories suggest these relationships are complex and dynamic. To answer questions on the effects of digital media use on attention and sleep, we need more research investigating the cause-and-effect nature of the relationship (e.g., longitudinal designs, intervention studies, field studies). Future studies should use more objective measures (i.e., tracking apps/wearables). Instead of focusing on the general effects of “social media” or “smartphones” we need a better understanding of which content within these media types are problematic for which individuals.
Several studies demonstrated that electronic media use (EMU) is negatively associated with sleep in adolescents. Most studies however are cross‐sectional, self‐ or parents reports, and not distinguishing between different EMU types. Therefore, this study aimed to examine associations between adolescent's EMU and sleep reported by adolescents and from their mothers' perspective in a dyadic ambulatory assessment design. One hundred and five mother–adolescent dyads reported for 14 consecutive days adolescent's EMU for different EMU types and sleep duration. Mothers reported less EMU in the evening and more sleep of their adolescents than adolescents themselves. Multilevel analyses revealed that at the between‐ and within‐person level, EMU in the evening was negatively associated with sleep. Different EMU types differed in effect sizes of associations with sleep. No effects were found for watching TV/DVD/video, whereas for gaming at the between‐ and within‐person level, negative associations with sleep duration were found. For PC/tablet and smartphone use in the evening significant between‐person association with sleep duration for adolescent's self‐reports and from mother's point of view was found. It is important to investigate adolescent's EMU on a daily basis, from a dyadic perspective, and for different EMU types separately.
Society is evolving rapidly, families from different socio-economic backgrounds also influence the learning of adolescence, to the extent that access to a proper education as well as access to better learning opportunities is another way of proving the socio-economic status (SES) of the family. Similarly, the spread of electronic information technology is something that every adolescence is exposed to, and the role that electronic technology plays in family learning has received more attention from society, with different family socio-economic status having a clear impact on the networks that adolescence use for learning. Another manifestation of the family life environment is the socio-economic situation of the family. It will depend on the material conditions of the family can reach a different manifestation and family-led activities available to parents to help support their adolescence. In other words, the socio-economic status of the family will affect the learning and academic performance of adolescents in different families. How families from diverse socio-economic status influence the internet used by adolescence for learning will be the topic of this study. The Internet does not necessarily reflect effective in helping adolescence to learn, but it can also distract them from their studies. Parents from different socioeconomic backgrounds, each with different levels of education, different educational habits, and different experience with emerging technologies, influence the impact of adolescents' use of the Internet for help. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the impact of families across all classes on young people's learning was, and still is in some regions, also critical to their academic success.
So far, several methods have been developed to treat attention deficit disorder symptoms or enhance attention performance and concentration. The most common method is medicinal therapy. Recently, new nonmedicinal therapeutic and rehabilitation techniques have been proposed. Some of these methods are used in clinics or are prescribed as home use. Some others are still being studied and researched despite their positive effects. In this chapter, some of the most famous clinical and nonclinical methods and their features are briefly introduced.
With high screen time and poor sleep commonly reported in adolescents, it is important to more fully understand how screen time impacts sleep. Despite similar overall screen times, male and female media preferences and usages differ, making it critical to determine if different domains of screen time differentially affect sleep quality. The present study examined whether differing amounts and domains of screen‐based media vary in impact on sleep quality of 16‐year‐old male and female adolescents over a 3‐month period. A total of 98 adolescents (mean [SD] age 16.27 [0.29] years; 51% female) completed two online surveys spaced 3 months apart and comprised of well‐validated self‐reported measures of sleep quality, media usage, and depressive symptoms. The various domains of media were categorised into screen‐based media with little‐to‐no peer‐to‐peer interaction involved (video‐only) and screen‐based media with interaction a predominant component to the usage (peer‐to‐peer interaction‐involved). Self‐reported sleep quality decreased across the 3‐month study period. Gender moderated the effect of interactive screen time on sleep quality 3 months later, with interactive screen time associated with better sleep quality in males, but remaining poorer in females. Screen time competes with sleep time and may do so differentially depending on the media domain. Compared to females, interactive components of screen time may lessen worsening sleep quality over time in males. Understanding the relationships among screen time, its content, age, and gender may inform guidelines for educators, parents, and adolescents to help improve sleep quality of adolescents.
The world of online gaming can have a strong emotional impact on children that parents often do not understand or even acknowledge. However, parental understanding can be vital for the emotional development of adolescents. However, conveying emotions can be challenging and thus can benefit from mediators which facilitate parent-child communication. In order to help raise parental awareness, we designed Motiis, a novel system that measures and tangibly visualizes children’s emotions experienced during gaming sessions. Haptic feedback allows users to ’feel’ the extent of the exhibited emotions. We assessed our system with 17 parent-child pairs through on-site evaluations. Results indicate a benefit of Motiis for raising emotional awareness among parents. The tangible and haptic aspects of the system help to engage with the data more consciously as the tangible visualization of the system requires active interaction with it. Motiis enabled parents to understand aspects of the emotional states of their children that are beyond the verbal communication skills of the children.
Background: There are no standard diagnostic criteria or interventions for internet gaming addiction (IGA) even though IGA is one of the most pervasive public health issues among youth worldwide. Internet gaming reasons or motivations have been studied as a potential predictor of IGA, but the results have been inconsistent and biological indicators of gaming reasons have rarely been studied. We sought to (1) identify categories of internet gaming reasons, (2) examine the relationship of gaming reasons to risk of IGA, and (3) describe biological indicators of gaming reasons. Methods: We used a multi-phase cross-sectional design including individual interviews; focus group discussion; and descriptive, comparative analysis. Fifteen Korean adolescent male internet gamers participated in individual interviews and eight participated in a focus group aimed at identifying reasons for internet gaming. Using the identified gaming reasons from these sources we surveyed 225 adolescent game users using a self-report questionnaire. Participants provided blood samples for assessment of norepinephrine (NE) and serum cortisol. Results: We identified four major categories of internet gaming reasons: entertainment, getting along with friends, stress relief, and habitual gaming. The habitual group showed significantly greater risk of IGA than the other groups (p
Background
Recreational, seated video gaming (gaming) has become a favorite pastime of children, adolescents and adults (gamers) in developed countries. Some engage in gaming behavior for more than 6 h daily, which can subsequently lead to less time spent being physically active. Gaming can potentially have a serious impact on the physiology and biochemistry of gamers and can influence both short-term and long-term health. The aim of this review was to provide an overview of what is known about how gaming affects physiological and biochemical parameters in the human body and how studies have previously been designed and to discuss how studies can be designed moving forward.
Methods
The literature search included material from three scientific databases (PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science) using a two-block search strategy. To be included in this review, studies had to investigate a biochemical or physiological aspect of sedentary, video game-related activities. Studies that investigated neurological, psychologic or musculoskeletal outcomes along with physiological or biochemical outcomes in gaming were eligible for inclusion. Studies regarding psychiatric conditions were excluded as this subject was outside the scope of this review. Additionally, non-English language articles were excluded.
Results
A total of 5417 articles were screened, 138 studies from the literature search and 4 studies from reference lists were selected for further evaluation. The studies were evaluated based on their abstracts or full texts, and 51 studies were eventually included in the review. Thirty-seven studies included physiological results, seven studies included biochemical results, and seven studies included both. Several outcomes such as heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, and cortisol levels, were the subjects of a large number of investigations.
Conclusion
This field is heterogenic and does not lend itself to firm conclusions. Tentatively, it seems reasonable to conclude that heart rate variability studies show that gaming increases activity in the sympathetic nervous system. More high-quality studies are required, and the lack of studies using uniform, standardized designs and realistic gaming sessions (i.e., longer than 30 min) limits our current knowledge.
Research conducted over several decades has shown that violent media increase aggression. It is now time to move beyond the question of whether violent media increase aggression to answer- ing the question why violent media increase aggression. The pres- ent research tested whether violent video games produce a hostile expectation bias—the tendency to expect others to react to poten- tial conflicts with aggression. Participants (N = 224) played either a violent or nonviolent video game. Next, they read ambig- uous story stems about potential interpersonal conflicts. They were asked what the main character will do, say, think, and feel as the story continues. People who played a violent video game described the main character as behaving more aggressively, thinking more aggressive thoughts, and feeling more angry than did people who played a nonviolent video game. These results are consistent with the General Aggression Model.
The study of individual differences in emotional responding can provide considerable insight into interpersonal dynamics and the etiology of psychopathology. Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis is emerging as an objective measure of regulated emotional responding (generating emotional responses of appropriate timing and magnitude). This review provides a theoretical and empirical rationale for the use of HRV as an index of individual differences in regulated emotional responding. Two major theoretical frameworks that articulate the role of HRV in emotional responding are presented, and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. The case is made that HRV is an accessible research tool that can increase the understanding of emotion in social and psychopathological processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter examines youth access to violent video games as well as the existing theory and literature on potential negative effects of violent video games. In addition the author presents a meta-analysis of the effects of video games on the domains of aggressive behavior, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, aggressive cognition, and prosocial behavior. The author concludes with lessons learned from the existing literature that should be taken into account in future studies. These lessons include the need for more attention to variability among violent video games when comparing effects of violent and nonviolent games, the need for larger sample sizes in order to reliably detect violent video game effects, the importance of nonviolent or control comparison conditions, the need for more comprehensive reporting of results so as to allow for the calculation of effect sizes, and measures used to quantify video game exposure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article proposes a theoretical explanation for the popularity of violent video games among adolescent male gamers. The author uses theories about media and emotion as well as theories about emotion as a process to develop a model for the unfolding of emotion in violent video games. It is argued that violent video games provide a gratifying context for the experience of emotions. The fact that gamers are largely in control of the game implies that they can voluntarily select the emotional situations they confront. This freedom is attractive for adolescents who are in the midst of constructing an identity. For them, the violent game is a safe, private laboratory where they can experience different emotions, including those that are controversial in ordinary life. Gamers may deliberately select emotions that sustain dominant masculine identity (e.g., anger), as well as emotions that are at odds with dominant masculinity (e.g., fear).
This paper reviews melatonin as an overlooked factor in the developmental etiology and maintenance of schizophrenia; the neuroimmune and oxidative pathophysiology of schizophrenia; specific symptoms in schizophrenia, including sleep disturbance; circadian rhythms; and side effects of antipsychotics, including tardive dyskinesia and metabolic syndrome. Electronic databases, i.e. PUBMED, Scopus and Google Scholar were used as sources for this review using keywords: schizophrenia, psychosis, tardive dyskinesia, antipsychotics, metabolic syndrome, drug side effects and melatonin. Articles were selected on the basis of relevance to the etiology, course and treatment of schizophrenia. Melatonin levels and melatonin circadian rhythm are significantly decreased in schizophrenic patients. The adjunctive use of melatonin in schizophrenia may augment the efficacy of antipsychotics through its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects. Further, melatonin would be expected to improve sleep disorders in schizophrenia and side effects of anti-psychotics, such as tardive dyskinesia, metaboilic syndrome and hypertension. It is proposed that melatonin also impacts on the tryptophan catabolic pathway via its effect on stress response and cortisol secretion, thereby impacting on cortex associated cognition, amygdala associated affect and striatal motivational processing. The secretion of melatonin is decreased in schizophrenia, contributing to its etiology, pathophysiology and management. Melatonin is likely to have impacts on the metabolic side effects of anti-psychotics that contribute to subsequent decreases in life-expectancy.
Past research shows that violent video game exposure increases aggressive thoughts, angry feelings, physiological arousal, aggressive behaviors, and decreases helpful behaviors. However, no research has experimentally examined violent video game effects on physiological desensitization, defined as showing less physiological arousal to violence in the real world after exposure to video game violence in the virtual world. This experiment attempts to fill this gap. Participants reported their media habits and then played one of eight violent or nonviolent video games for 20 min. Next, participants watched a 10-min videotape containing scenes of real-life violence while heart rate (HR) and galvanic skin response (GSR) were monitored. Participants who previously played a violent video game had lower HR and GSR while viewing filmed real violence, demonstrating a physiological desensitization to violence. Results are interpreted using an expanded version of the General Aggression Model. Links between desensitization, antisocial, and prosocial behavior are discussed.
Numerous studies have shown that exposure to media violence increases aggression, though the mechanisms of this effect have remained elusive. One theory posits that repeated exposure to media violence desensitizes viewers to real world violence, increasing aggression by blunting aversive reactions to violence and removing normal inhibitions against aggression. Theoretically, violence desensitization should be reflected in the amplitude of the P300 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP), which has been associated with activation of the aversive motivational system. In the current study, violent images elicited reduced P300 amplitudes among violent, as compared to nonviolent video game players. Additionally, this reduced brain response predicted increased aggressive behavior in a later task. Moreover, these effects held after controlling for individual differences in trait aggressiveness. These data are the first to link media violence exposure and aggressive behavior to brain processes hypothetically associated with desensitization.
Meta-analytic procedures were used to test the effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, empathy/desensitization, and prosocial behavior. Unique features of this meta-analytic review include (a) more restrictive methodological quality inclusion criteria than in past meta-analyses; (b) cross-cultural comparisons; (c) longitudinal studies for all outcomes except physiological arousal; (d) conservative statistical controls; (e) multiple moderator analyses; and (f) sensitivity analyses. Social-cognitive models and cultural differences between Japan and Western countries were used to generate theory-based predictions. Meta-analyses yielded significant effects for all 6 outcome variables. The pattern of results for different outcomes and research designs (experimental, cross-sectional, longitudinal) fit theoretical predictions well. The evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior. Moderator analyses revealed significant research design effects, weak evidence of cultural differences in susceptibility and type of measurement effects, and no evidence of sex differences in susceptibility. Results of various sensitivity analyses revealed these effects to be robust, with little evidence of selection (publication) bias.
Background:
There has been no reported research comparing Jewish Israeli and Palestinian adolescents regarding the effect of ongoing political violence on adolescent psychosocial, family, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and aggression problems.
Aims:
To compare Israeli and Palestinian responses regarding the relationship between exposure to traumatic events and psychosocial, behavioural, emotional and family problems.
Method:
A cluster sample of youths aged 14-18 years, including 442 Jewish Israeli adolescents in Ariel, Haifa and Tel-Aviv, and 450 Palestinian adolescents in Gaza cities, villages and refugee camps were surveyed in 2006 using our Traumatic Events Questionnaire (TEV), the Brief Symptoms Inventory (BSI), the PTSD Symptom Scale - Interview (PSS-I), the Index of Peer Relations scale (IPR), Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) and the MacMaster Family Assessment Device (FAD).
Results:
Palestinian respondents had higher scores in the TEV, BSI, PSS-I and BPAQ questionnaires, and greater problems in functioning as revealed in the IPR and FAD. The social functioning of the adolescents with their peers predicted mental health symptoms and PTSD symptoms. Lower socioeconomic status predicted mental health symptoms, PTSD, pathology of participants' family functioning and the social functioning of the adolescents with their peers. Parents' education positively effected the FAD score and the avoidance item on the PSS-I, and religiosity improved the score on the FAD. Females reported more symptoms on the BSI and PSS-I than males, and males more symptoms on the FAD and IPR than females.
Conclusions:
Both respondent groups had significant emotional and behavioural problems. Individual and community treatment, and community and social development, are likely to be useful for both populations, particularly Palestinians.
Two studies examined violent video game effects on aggression-related variables. Study 1 found that real-life violent video game play was positively related to aggressive behavior and delinquency. The relation was stronger for individuals who are characteristically aggressive and for men. Academic achievement was negatively related to overall amount of time spent playing video games. In Study 2, laboratory exposure to a graphically violent video game increased aggressive thoughts and behavior. In both studies, men had a more hostile view of the world than did women. The results from both studies are consistent with the General Affective Aggression Model, which predicts that exposure to violent video games will increase aggressive behavior in both the short term (e.g., laboratory aggression) and the long term (e.g., delinquency).
Analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) has been used in studies of autonomic function and risk assessment in different patient groups such as in patients with diabetes mellitus, after myocardial infarction (MI) and other cardiovascular disease. Ectopic beats can, however, interfere with HRV analysis and give erroneous results. We have therefore studied the impact of ectopic beats on HRV analysis and the ability of a filter algorithm to correct this. Power spectral analysis of synthetic data with an increasing proportion of ectopic beats and 24-h Holter recordings from 98 healthy subjects and 93 post MI patients was done with and without digital filtering and interpolation of errors in the data stream. The analysis of HRV was seriously hampered by less than 1% of ectopic beats. A filter algorithm based on detection and linear interpolation of ectopic beats and other noise in the data stream corrected effectively for this in the synthetic data employed. In the healthy subjects and the post MI patients, filtering markedly reduced the extra variability related to non-normal beats. The software could automatically analyse over one hundred 24-h files in one batch. HRV analysis should include filtering for ectopic beats even with a small number of such beats. It is possible to make a fast analysis automatically even in huge clinical series, which makes it possible to use the method both clinically and in epidemiological studies.
In addition to numerous reports about psychophysiological stress responses to acute stressors, there are few data available on gender differences of stress-induced heart rate responses in multiple age groups applying the same psychological stressor. Second, the assessment of poststress recovery appears to be neglected in the empirical literature. For this study, data from 5 independent studies were reanalyzed to investigate the impact of age and gender on heart rate responses and poststress recovery to a standardized psychosocial stress task (Trier Social Stress Test; TSST) in 28 children, 34 younger adults, and 26 older adults. As expected, prestressor baselines correlated significantly with chronological age (r = -.27, p =.01). There was a marked age-related decrease in the heart rate stress response (p =.0003) with children and younger adults showing significantly higher increases than elderly persons. The analysis of gender effects showed that girls had higher heart rate increases during the stress exposure than boys (p =.03). In younger adults, stress responsivity was also higher in women (p =.03). Peak heart rate responses were comparable in older men and women, with only men returning to prestressor baselines during the observation period. In sum, this reanalysis revealed differential heart rate responses and recovery after exposition to the TSST in healthy children, younger adults, and elderly adults.
This article presents a brief overview of existing research on the effects of exposure to violent video games. An updated meta-analysis reveals that exposure to violent video games is significantly linked to increases in aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, and cardiovascular arousal, and to decreases in helping behaviour. Experimental studies reveal this linkage to be causal. Correlational studies reveal a linkage to serious, real-world types of aggression. Methodologically weaker studies yielded smaller effect sizes than methodologically stronger studies, suggesting that previous meta-analytic studies of violent video games underestimate the true magnitude of observed deleterious effects on behaviour, cognition, and affect.
To compare the video and computer game play patterns of young adolescent boys and girls, including factors correlated with playing violent games.
Data collected in November/December, 2004 from children in grades 7 and 8 at two demographically diverse schools in Pennsylvania and South Carolina, using a detailed written self-reported survey.
Of 1254 participants (53% female, 47% male), only 80 reported playing no electronic games in the previous 6 months. Of 1126 children who listed frequently played game titles, almost half (48.8%) played at least one violent (mature-rated) game regularly (67.9% of boys and 29.2% of girls). One third of boys and 10.7% of girls play games nearly every day; only 1 in 20 plays often or always with a parent. Playing M-rated games is positively correlated (p < .001) with being male, frequent game play, playing with strangers over the Internet, having a game system and computer in one's bedroom, and using games to manage anger.
Most young adolescent boys and many girls routinely play M-rated games. Implications for identifying atypical and potentially harmful patterns of electronic game use are discussed, as well as the need for greater media literacy among parents.
Television and computer game consumption are a powerful influence in the lives of most children. Previous evidence has supported the notion that media exposure could impair a variety of behavioral characteristics. Excessive television viewing and computer game playing have been associated with many psychiatric symptoms, especially emotional and behavioral symptoms, somatic complaints, attention problems such as hyperactivity, and family interaction problems. Nevertheless, there is insufficient knowledge about the relationship between singular excessive media consumption on sleep patterns and linked implications on children. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of singular excessive television and computer game consumption on sleep patterns and memory performance of children.
Eleven school-aged children were recruited for this polysomnographic study. Children were exposed to voluntary excessive television and computer game consumption. In the subsequent night, polysomnographic measurements were conducted to measure sleep-architecture and sleep-continuity parameters. In addition, a visual and verbal memory test was conducted before media stimulation and after the subsequent sleeping period to determine visuospatial and verbal memory performance.
Only computer game playing resulted in significant reduced amounts of slow-wave sleep as well as significant declines in verbal memory performance. Prolonged sleep-onset latency and more stage 2 sleep were also detected after previous computer game consumption. No effects on rapid eye movement sleep were observed. Television viewing reduced sleep efficiency significantly but did not affect sleep patterns.
The results suggest that television and computer game exposure affect children's sleep and deteriorate verbal cognitive performance, which supports the hypothesis of the negative influence of media consumption on children's sleep, learning, and memory.
An experiment was conducted with 150 male college undergraduates playing different video games to investigate the impact of violent content, frustration with gameplay, and the interaction of those factors with aggressive personality (trait hostility). Results indicate that both violent content and frustration individually leads to greater scores on a state hostility scale, and the interaction of violent content and frustration leads to the highest scores on that scale. Results are discussed in terms of the Frustration-Aggression hypothesis and the General Aggression Model.
This study investigated the relationship between violent video games and children's mood. A total of 71 children aged 8 to 12 years played a paper-and-pencil game, a nonviolent video game, and a violent video game. Results indicate that arousal, as measured by heart rate and self-reported arousal, increased significantly after playing the violent video game, as compared with the other two game conditions, with girls reporting more arousal than did boys. There was no significant increase in aggressive mood scores for either boys or girls after playing the violent game. Positive mood, as measured by positive affect, showed no significant increases or decreases after playing either video game. However, positive mood, as measured by general mood, showed a significant increase after playing the violent game for both boys and girls, but only as compared with the paper-and-pencil game. Results are interpreted in terms of social learning and cognitive information processing theories of aggression.
Playing violent video games is related to increased negative affect and cardiovascular reactivity. We examined the influence of high and low aggressive priming during video-game training on violence during game play (e.g., shooting, choking), hostility, frustration with game play, blood pressure, and heart rate. Male undergraduates (N= 36) were assigned to a high aggressive or low aggressive video-game priming condition. After training, they played Metal Gear Solid(tm), which allows players to advance by using stealth, violence, or both. Participants in the high aggressive priming condition used significantly more violent action during game play and reported more hostility than those in the low aggressive priming condition. Heart rate was correlated with feelings of hostility. These findings indicate that both aggressive priming and use of game violence influence arousal and negative affect and might increase behavioral aggression.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the short-term effects on several physiological (arterial pressure and heart rate) and psychological (anxiety and aggressiveness) indexes of playing violent and non-violent videogames in young adults. The study was carried out on a sample of 22 male participants. Subjects invited to participate in the study were recruited from a videogame leisure club. Before and during playing either a violent or non-violent computer game, blood pressure and heart rate were measured. Before and after the game session, the subjects completed the State-Anxiety Inventory-Y (STAI-Y) and the Buss–Durkee Hostility Inventory. The results of the study showed a range of short-term effects of playing violent and non-violent videogames on arterial pressure and on the state anxiety of subjects, but not on hostility measurements. More specifically, the group that played the violent videogames showed a significant increase in the state anxiety score at the end of the game, as compared to the pre-game self-evaluation, and an increase in the systolic blood pressure while the subjects were playing as compared to pre- and post-game values. A decrease in diastolic blood pressure after playing any game was also found. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The purpose of this epidemiological survey (N = 1600) was to describe the factors which middle-aged urban people in Finland perceived as promoting or disturbing sleep. The response rate was 75%. The results suggested that quality of sleep is determined by numerous factors; social and psychological factors, health status, external sleeping conditions, life style and living habits. Every third respondent felt that exercise had a positive impact on sleep. Second in importance were reading and listening to music. Furthermore, sauna, shower and bath, stability in life, psychological factors, positive experience in work, satisfactory sexual life and good and quiet sleeping environment were reported to have positive effects on sleep. Men considered work-related pressure and fatigue (20%) as the most important factor disturbing falling asleep or quality of sleep. In women's ranking work problems appeared no sooner than in the third place. Women reported worries, interpersonal problems, and marital and family discord as the most disturbing factors to sleep (37%). Coffee in the evening had a negative effect on falling asleep. Although a 'nightcap' was considered to improve relaxation on falling sleep, men ranked alcohol as the fourth disturbing factor. Other disturbing factors were stress, irregularities in everyday life because of social events, travelling or atypical catnaps. Eating and exercising too heavily or too late in the evening were found to disturb sleep. On the other hand, temporary lack of exercise seemed to impair the quality of sleep. As external factors disturbing sleep the subjects considered noise light, too high room temperature, tight clothing, unfamiliar sleeping environment and restless children.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Video-game use before bedtime has been linked with poor sleep outcomes for adolescents; however, experimental evidence to support this link is sparse. The present study investigated the capacity of presleep video-game playing to extend sleep latency and reduce subjective feelings of sleepiness in adolescents. The arousing psychophysiologic mechanisms involved and the impact of presleep video-game playing on sleep architecture were also explored.
Thirteen male adolescent "evening types" (mean age = 16.6 years, SD = 1.1) participated in a counterbalanced, within-subjects design with experimental (active video gaming) and control (passive DVD watching) conditions. The experiment was conducted in the Flinders University Sleep Research Laboratory.
Relative to the control condition, presleep video-game playing increased sleep-onset latency (Z= 2.45, p= .01) and reduced subjective sleepiness (Z = 2.36, p = .02)-but only slightly. Video gaming was related to changes in cognitive alertness (as measured by a power: p < 0.01) but not physiologic arousal (as measured by heart rate: p > 0.05). Contrary to previous findings, sleep architecture was unaffected (both rapid eye movement and slow wave sleep: p > 0.05).
Results suggest the direct effect of presleep video-game playing on adolescent sleep may be more modest than previously thought, suggesting that surveys linking stimulating presleep activities to poor sleep need substantiating with empirical evidence.
Previous research has shown that playing violent video game exposure can increase aggressive thoughts, aggressive feelings, and physiological arousal. This study compared the effects that playing a realistic violent, unrealistic violent, or nonviolent video game for 45 min has on such variables. For the purpose of this study, realism was defined as the probability of seeing an event in real life. Participants (N=74; 39 male, 35 female) played either a realistic violent, unrealistic violent, or nonviolent video game for 45 min. Aggressive thoughts and aggressive feelings were measured four times (every 15 min), whereas arousal was measured continuously. The results showed that, though playing any violent game stimulated aggressive thoughts, playing a more realistic violent game stimulated significantly more aggressive feelings and arousal over the course of play.
To investigate how playing a violent/nonviolent television game during the evening affects sympathetic and parasympathetic reactions during and after playing as well as sleep quality during the night after playing.
In total, 19 boys, 12-15 years of age, played television games on two occasions in their homes and participated once without gaming. Heart rate, heart rate variability (HRV) and physical activity were measured during gaming/participating and the night to follow using a portable combined heart rate and movement sensor. A sleep diary and questionnaires about gaming experiences and session-specific experiences were filled in. Criteria for Selection of Games: Violent game involves/rewards direct physical violence (no handguns) against another person, and nonviolent game involves/rewards no violence; same game design ('third-person game'); conducted in the same manner; no differences concerning motor activity; similar sound and light effects; no sexual content, violence against women or racial overtones.
During violent (vs. nonviolent) gaming, there was significantly higher activity of the very low frequency component of the HRV and total power. During the night after playing, very low frequency, low frequency and high frequency components were significantly higher during the violent (vs. nonviolent) condition, just as total power. There were no significant differences between the three conditions (violent/nonviolent/no gaming) with respect to an index reflecting subjectively perceived sleep difficulties. Nor was there any difference between violent and nonviolent condition for any single sleep item.
Violent gaming induces different autonomic responses in boys compared to nonviolent gaming--during playing and during the following night--suggesting different emotional responses. Subjectively perceived sleep quality is not influenced after a single gaming experience. Future studies should address the development of the autonomic balance after gaming over longer time than a night, physiological adaptation to frequent gaming and potential gender differences.
Eight subjects were kept awake and active overnight in a sleep lab isolated from environmental time cues. Ambulatory EEG and EOG were continuously recorded and sleepiness ratings carried out every two hours as was a short EEG test session with eyes open for 5 min and closed for 2 min. The EEG was subjected to spectral analysis and the EOG was visually scored for slow rolling eye movements (SEM). Intrusions of SEM and of alpha and theta power density during waking, open-eyed activity strongly differentiated between high and low subjective sleepiness (the differentiation was poorer for closed eyes) and the mean intraindividual correlations between subjective and objective sleepiness were very high. Still, the covariation was curvilinear; physiological indices of sleepiness did not occur reliably until subjective perceptions fell between "sleepy" and "extremely sleepy-fighting sleep"; i.e. physiological changes due to sleepiness are not likely to occur until extreme sleepiness is encountered. The results support the notion that ambulatory EEG/EOG changes may be used to quantify sleepiness.
The present experiment used an intraindividual design to investigate the meaning and measurement of "good sleep". Each of 16 subjects slept in an isolation unit according to a schedule (15 sleeps) designed to give variable quality of sleep. Self-rated sleep measures (from the Karolinska Sleep Diary) were obtained after each sleep and subjected to intraindividual regression analyses across time. Most subjective sleep measures showed a strong covariation across conditions. Subjective quality of sleep mainly involved variables of sleep continuity, in particular, perceived calmness of sleep and sleep efficiency. "Sleep quality," "calm sleep," "ease of falling asleep," and ability to "sleep throughout" the time allotted strongly covaried and formed an index of sleep quality. Self-rated ease of awakening deviated from the general pattern and was associated with poor sleep quality. So was reported dreaming (related to awakenings). It was concluded that most subjective sleep measures tend to covary across conditions and that "good sleep" is mainly a question of sleep continuity.
Antisocial behavior is a complex phenomenon that arises out of multiple causes involving biologic, psychological, and social forces. Moreover, different forms of violent antisocial behavior may each result from different biopsychosocial pathways. The overview of human psychophysiologic findings presented in this article provides some support for this notion. In particular, the finding of psychophysiologic underarousal (e.g., reduced resting HR and SC levels, increased slow-wave EEG, poor classical conditioning) is one of the most robust and best replicated findings in antisocial populations. The majority of these studies consist of populations exhibiting nonviolent antisocial behavior or milder forms of aggression. Findings of underarousal in institutionalized criminal samples are very few in number and are not well-replicated. The relationship of psychophysiologic underarousal to antisocial behavior, therefore, may be specific to covert forms of antisocial behavior and perhaps to some less severe forms of violent behavior. On the other hand, violence associated with anger and emotional aggression (which is often more impulsive, less controlled, and reactive to some perceived provocation) may have very different psychophysiologic underpinnings. It was suggested that risk factors for emotional aggression include a predisposition to negative affect/arousal and an inability to regulate that affect/arousal. It also was suggested that this effect will be most pronounced in individuals experiencing stressors or adverse social environments, where negative affect and arousal would be increased. Laboratory studies have suggested that overarousal may facilitate aggression in situations in which someone has been provoked. Clinical studies also have indicated a relationship between increased physiologic arousal, negative emotionality, and aggression/antisocial behavior in some populations, with increases in aggression in those also exposed to adverse home environments. Thus, the relationship of increased psychophysiologic arousal to antisocial behavior may be more specific to angry or emotional violence. It is important to note that these psychophysiologic distinctions are speculative for few studies actually have differentiated type of violence in their design. Pitts did group children according to proactive or reactive aggression and found reduced HR levels in both groups, but a substantial increase in HR only in the reactive aggressive group. Lakosina and Trunova found increased SC responsivity in psychopathic individuals characterized by affective violence. These studies provide some initial support for underarousal in proactive/instrumental aggression and overarousal in emotional aggression. It is important, however, that more studies be done with subtypes of violence to test the notion of such differential psychophysiologic patterns. Lastly, some definitional and methodologic considerations need to be mentioned. First, a distinction exists between physiologic arousal and reactivity. Typically, arousal refers to psychophysiologic activity that occurs during a resting state, whereas reactivity refers to activity that occurs in response to some stimulus. Although some studies did assess measures during a resting state, the majority of findings on over-arousal in relation to emotional aggression more accurately reflect psychophysiologic and emotional reactivity to a situation or stimulus. Second, arousal or reactivity are nonspecific terms that can refer to any psychophysiologic response system (e.g., electrodermal, cardiovascular, cortical, and so on). Responses from these systems typically do not correlate in the general population. Thus, it would be worthwhile for future studies to include more than one response system (as done by Raine et al) and see if the arousal/reactivity measures converge. If the measures converge, a general model of arousal or reactivity is supported. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)
Survival of post-myocardial infarction patients is related inversely to their levels of very-low-frequency (0.003 to 0.03 Hz) RR-interval variability. The physiological basis for such oscillations is unclear. In our study, we used blocking drugs to evaluate potential contributions of sympathetic and vagal mechanisms and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system to very-low-frequency RR-interval variability in 10 young healthy subjects.
We recorded RR intervals and arterial pressures during three separate sessions, with the patient in supine and 40 degree upright tilt positions, during 20-minute frequency (0.25 Hz) and tidal volume-controlled breathing after intravenous injections: saline (control), atenolol (0.2 mg/kg, beta-adrenergic blockade), atropine sulfate (0.04 mg/kg, parasympathetic blockade), atenolol and atropine (complete autonomic blockade), and enalaprilat (0.02 mg/kg, ACE blockade). We integrated fast Fourier transform RR-interval spectral power at very low (0.003 to 0.03 Hz), low (0.05 to 0. 15 Hz), and respiratory (0.2 to 0.3 Hz) frequencies. Beta-adrenergic blockade had no significant effect on very-low- or low-frequency RR-interval power but increased respiratory frequency power 2-fold. ACE blockade had no significant effect on low or respiratory frequency RR-interval power but modestly (approximately 21%) increased very-low-frequency power in the supine (but not upright tilt) position (P<0.05). The most profound effects were exerted by parasympathetic blockade: Atropine, given alone or with atenolol, abolished nearly all RR-interval variability and decreased very-low-frequency variability by 92%.
Although very-low-frequency heart period rhythms are influenced by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, as low and respiratory frequency RR-interval rhythms, they depend primarily on the presence of parasympathetic outflow. Therefore the prognostic value of very-low-frequency heart period oscillations may derive from the fundamental importance of parasympathetic mechanisms in cardiovascular health.
The evolution of the autonomic nervous system provides an organizing principle to interpret the adaptive significance of physiological responses in promoting social behavior. According to the polyvagal theory, the well-documented phylogenetic shift in neural regulation of the autonomic nervous system passes through three global stages, each with an associated behavioral strategy. The first stage is characterized by a primitive unmyelinated visceral vagus that fosters digestion and responds to threat by depressing metabolic activity. Behaviorally, the first stage is associated with immobilization behaviors. The second stage is characterized by the sympathetic nervous system that is capable of increasing metabolic output and inhibiting the visceral vagus to foster mobilization behaviors necessary for 'fight or flight'. The third stage, unique to mammals, is characterized by a myelinated vagus that can rapidly regulate cardiac output to foster engagement and disengagement with the environment. The mammalian vagus is neuroanatomically linked to the cranial nerves that regulate social engagement via facial expression and vocalization. As the autonomic nervous system changed through the process of evolution, so did the interplay between the autonomic nervous system and the other physiological systems that respond to stress, including the cortex, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the neuropeptides of oxytocin and vasopressin, and the immune system. From this phylogenetic orientation, the polyvagal theory proposes a biological basis for social behavior and an intervention strategy to enhance positive social behavior.
In this review, we address a basic, but unanswered, question about psychosocial interventions for youth: How does psychotherapy work?
We propose a framework for using mediation analysis to answer this question, and we review the youth therapy outcome literature for evidence on mediating mechanisms. We focus our review on clinical trials of empirically supported treatments for youth anxiety, depression, and disruptive behavior (N = 67).
Contrary to previous reports indicating that potential mediators are rarely assessed, 63% of the studies included measures of potential mediating mechanisms in their designs. Across treatment domains, percentages ranged from 22% of the studies of learning-based interventions for anxiety (i.e., systematic desensitization, modeling, and reinforced practice) to 91% of parent training investigations. Despite the rather extensive assessment of potential mediators, only six studies included any attempt to use the measures in a formal mediation test. Thus, despite the positive effects of treatments and surprisingly ample assessment of mediators, we still know remarkably little about how youth psychotherapies work.
We note common problems that hampered mediation testing (e.g., the design of many trials made it difficult to determine the temporal order of change in the mechanism and outcome), and we offer recommendations for improving study design to better assess mechanisms of therapeutic action. We also note the need to test mediation among referred youth treated in representative practice settings to complement the laboratory-based evidence on therapy mechanisms that prevails to date.
Three studies were conducted with the aim of developing a new Swedish self-report measure of core affect (the Swedish Core Affect Scale or SCAS). In Study 1,122 participants rated their current mood on 24 unipolar adjective scales. A revised set of 12 bipolar adjective scales was evaluated in Study 2 employing 96 participants who rated their current mood before and after a mood-inducing naturally occurring event. A slightly revised set of adjective scales was used in Study 3, in which another 96 participants rated several induced moods. The results showed that the adjective scale ratings could be aggregated as reliable measures of the independent valence and activation dimensions proposed in the affect circumplex, and that the aggregated measures discriminated mood differences within and between individuals.
This article reviews literature regarding the influence of negative emotions, specifically depression, anger/hostility, and anxiety on coronary heart disease (CHD). For each domain, evidence is presented demonstrating the deleterious effects of negative affect on health outcomes in patients with CHD. This is followed by a discussion of the manner in which emotional factors are transduced into cardiac health risk factors. The pathophysiological mechanisms by which negative emotions have been found to exert an influence on CHD are highlighted. Finally, a general overview of the outcomes of interventions designed to ameliorate the effects of these negative emotional states on cardiovascular health are reviewed. Several treatment studies are described in detail for the purpose of elaborating the types of multicomponent interventions that attempt to address negative emotions in populations with CHD.
We assessed the changes in cardiac index and total peripheral resistance underlying blood pressure reactions and recovery from acute mental stress, in relation to socioeconomic status. A sample of 200 men and women aged 47-59 years was divided on the basis of occupation into higher, intermediate, and lower socioeconomic status groups. Blood pressure was monitored using the Portapres, and hemodynamic measures were derived by Modelflow processing of the arterial pressure waveform. Blood pressure increases during two stressful behavioral tasks were sustained by increases in cardiac index and total peripheral resistance. During the 45-min posttask recovery period, cardiac index fell below baseline levels, whereas peripheral resistance remained elevated. Peripheral resistance changes during recovery varied with socioeconomic status and blood pressure stress reactivity, with particularly high levels in reactive low status participants. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that disturbances of stress-related autonomic processes are relevant to the social gradient in cardiovascular disease risk.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between sleep onset latency (SOL) and other sleep-wake patterns and media use habits in Japanese schoolchildren. A total of 9,718 junior high school children responded (12.8 years) and 9199 questionnaires were used in the present analyses. The questionnaire assessed sleep-wake patterns, TV viewing and videogame habits. Overall, 72.1% of the subjects reported short SOL (<or=20 min). Long SOL subjects (>20 min) were strongly associated with disturbed sleep manifested especially by increased risk of night awakenings, decreased sleep depth, and bad sleep in general (overall sleep quality). Prolonged SOL was also associated with daytime sleepiness, difficulties in falling asleep, bad morning feeling and sleep insufficiency. We found a U-shaped relationship between sleep period and SOL. Increase in bedtime was accompanied by increased risk of prolonged SOL. The impact of ultra-short and ultra-long SOL (<or=5 and >or=40 min) was also analysed. Long durations of watching television and playing videogame were significantly associated with prolonged SOL. After adjustment for sex, girls presented significantly higher risk of prolonged SOL. Body mass index adjustment did not reveal any significant results. SOL presents a significant component of sleep-wake habits; poor sleep hygiene and insufficient sleep time significantly increase SOL. Parents, healthcare practitioners and children themselves should be aware of the potentially negative influence of prolonged SOL. Additionally, the optimal coherent sleep-wake schedule must be promoted in parallel with the limitation on the viewing TV and game practices.
The polyvagal theory introduced a new perspective relating autonomic function to behavior, that included an appreciation of the autonomic nervous system as a "system," the identification of neural circuits involved in the regulation of autonomic state, and an interpretation of autonomic reactivity as adaptive within the context of the phylogeny of the vertebrate autonomic nervous system. The paper has two objectives: first, to provide an explicit statement of the theory; and second, to introduce the features of a polyvagal perspective. The polyvagal perspective emphasizes how an understanding of neurophysiological mechanisms and phylogenetic shifts in neural regulation leads to different questions, paradigms, explanations, and conclusions regarding autonomic function in biobehavioral processes than peripheral models. Foremost, the polyvagal perspective emphasizes the importance of phylogenetic changes in the neural structures regulating the autonomic nervous system and how these phylogenetic shifts provide insights into the adaptive function and the neural regulation of the two vagal systems.
