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Ecological Impacts and Practices of the Coral Reef Wildlife Trade
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... Previous attempts to increase transparency and oversight within the industry have been unsuccessful [14][15][16]. This complex industry involves over 60 exporting countries and targets more than 2000 species [12], but the environmental impacts of harvesting millions of coral reef fish per year for this trade have largely been overlooked [17][18][19][20]. Some species have already been negatively impacted by the marine aquarium trade [21]. ...
Simple Summary
Marine aquarium keeping is a popular hobby that fuels a global industry that still heavily relies on the sourcing of wild organisms, mostly from tropical coral reefs. The European Union (EU) is one of the largest import markets for marine ornamental fish. Despite being mandatory and already fully digital, the record-keeping of what species are imported in what numbers from which exporting countries remains blurry. The present work presents curated and consolidated data reporting the value, the exporting and importing countries, and the number of specimens, species, and families of marine ornamental fish imported to the EU between 2014 and 2021. A 24-million-euro annual trade value was recorded, and 26 million specimens were imported from more than 60 countries (mostly Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka). A watchlist is presented to provide guidance to stakeholders on which marine ornamental fish species being traded most likely require closer monitoring due to their potential impact through trade. The European TRAde Control and Expert System (TRACES) requires some minor tunning to enable authorities to easily monitor the imports of marine ornamental fish into the EU, thus allowing an unprecedented insight into this and other trade activities targeting wildlife.
Abstract
Wild-caught fish from coral reefs, one of the most threatened ecosystems on the planet, continue to supply the marine aquarium trade. Despite customs and veterinary checks during imports, comprehensive data on this global industry remain scarce. This study provides consolidated data on the largest import market by value, the European Union (EU): a 24-million-euro annual trade value, detailing the main exporting and importing countries, as well as the species and families of the 26 million specimens imported between 2014 and 2021. A watchlist alert system based on the number of specimens traded, import trends, and vulnerability index according to FishBase and the IUCN Red List conservation status is presented, providing key information on which species should require closer scrutiny by authorities. While the European TRAde Control and Expert System (TRACES) electronically monitors the movement of live animals to respond quickly to biosecurity risks, one-third of marine ornamental fish imported lack species-level information. With minor adjustments, TRACES holds the potential to significantly enhance data granularity and the monitoring of wildlife trade, with marine ornamental fish being an interesting case study to validate this approach.
... A major challenge to ensure traceability in this trade system is the inability to identify coral species due to the high morphological similarities between species and genera, resulting in inconsistent reporting (Thornhill 2012). Analyses of the CITES trade data are also impaired by errors in labels for coral sources and the use of nonstandardized units (Nijman 2010, Rhyne et al. 2012. ...
Scleractinian corals are key reef-builders in tropical marine ecosystems. Harvests of wild stocks for the global marine aquarium trade have raised concerns about unsustainable exploitation. While it is important to ensure that marine ornamental species are used legally and sustainably, it is challenging to trace them through the trade due to the fragmented and complex supply chain. Retailers can provide unique perspectives to narrow knowledge gaps as they interact closely with both suppliers and consumers. Through semi-structured interviews of retailers based in Singapore, we investigated their knowledge of the supply chain, trade practices, and consumer preferences. We also surveyed taxa available for sale at these brick-and-mortar aquarium shops. Our study revealed at least 42 genera from 14 families of scleractinian corals present across 20 shops in Singapore. Retailers displayed a lack of familiarity in coral provenance and trade regulations, suggesting that they have limited awareness of traceability along the supply chain. Import decisions were not guided by traceability and environmental sustainability, but instead were driven by demand and supply factors such as aesthetics, rarity, and availability. This underscores the need for more outreach and engagement efforts to raise awareness among commercial stakeholders towards improving traceability and sustainable management in the marine aquarium industry.
... With tropical fishkeeping being such a large and ubiquitous societal phenomenon, it is going to have environmental impact. The ecological impact of ornamental fish has, to some extent, been examined previously, including the risk of them being released into the wild and becoming invasive (Chang et al., 2009;Gertzen et al., 2008;Marra, 2019;Papavlasopoulou et al., 2013), the impact their harvesting has on their home ecosystems (Friedlander, 2001;Gerstner et al., 2006;Thornhill, 2012) as well as their beneficial role as a low-quantity, high-value fishery (Biondo & Burki, 2020;King, 2019;Teitelbaum et al., 2010). However, despite the exploration of some ecological impacts of fishkeeping, there has been no assessment of the environmental impact of tropical fishkeeping in terms of carbon emissions and water usage. ...
Tropical fishkeeping is a popular practice in societies across the globe and involves recreating and sustaining an entire ecosystem in an aquarium within a domestic setting. The process invariably has an environmental impact, yet an assessment of this impact has previously been limited to the ecological consequences of harvesting fish from the wild or the release of non‐native fish species. Provided here are the first estimates of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) emissions produced from running a tropical aquarium across multiple countries in Northern Europe (France, Poland and the UK), along with water consumption. Estimates were produced in silico and are discussed in the context of freshwater and marine aquariums, calculated using example aquarium sizes of 50, 200 and 400 l. Using estimates from the UK, depending on size and running conditions, a tropical aquarium produces an estimated 85.3–635.2 kg of CO2eq per year, equating to 1.6%–12.4% of the UK annual average household CO2 emissions, and uses 156–31,200 l of water per year, equating to 0.2%–30.1% of the UK annual average household water usage. Despite this, comparison with the CO2eq of an average‐size dog (127–1592 kg of CO2eq per year) or cat (121–251 kg of CO2eq per year), estimated from meat consumption alone, demonstrates that ornamental fishkeeping can be a more environmentally conscious pet choice. In addition, the majority of CO2eq produced from tropical fishkeeping is generated from the energy consumption of aquarium equipment and as more national electricity grids begin to decarbonize, this estimate should decrease.
... Over the past few decades, advances in technology have increased the demand by home aquarists for organisms such as corals, corallimorpharians, and sea anemones that were previously difficult to maintain. Although these species contribute to greater appreciation and understanding of reef ecosystems in more than two million homes and public aquaria worldwide, their collection can degrade reef health through loss of biodiversity (Wabnitz et al. 2003;Thornhill 2012) and overfishing (Shuman et al. 2005;Scott and Baird 2015). This is particularly challenging for longlived species such as some sea anemones, whose populations are unlikely to recover from overcollection (Gasparini et al. 2005). ...
The marine aquarium trade in the United States operates primarily in Florida, and though the trade’s effects on many marine taxa are largely unknown, local declines have been observed for some harvested species. To reverse local declines in the abundance of the giant Caribbean sea anemone Condylactis gigantea, state managers prohibited harvest of this popular aquarium organism in late 2012. To assess the recovery of C. gigantea following the moratorium, we monitored relative abundance at 45 fixed locations in South Florida from 2013 to 2016. Seventeen of the sites were locations provided to us by commercial aquarium-trade collectors. The remaining sites were locations at which C. gigantea was presumably not being exploited. We found increased densities at only 4 of those 17 sites, while densities at the remaining sites remained unchanged. We also examined genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism data to assess genetic diversity and population structure of 82 individuals from seven locations (three collection and four non-collection locations) across South Florida. Observed genetic diversity was comparable in all locations. But the location in the eastern Gulf of Mexico showed a significant FIS value, suggesting inbreeding that might be attributed to a small number of occupants. Condylactis gigantea is generally well mixed across South Florida, though a relatively weak pattern of genetic differentiation was detected. These results suggest limited reproductive success and dispersal that is restricted by hydrological and geographical barriers. We highlight the importance of periodic population and genetic monitoring to assess changes in relative abundance and genetic diversity.
... Out of the 1,000 species of coral reef fish traded (Green, 2003), only 51 have been cultured in captivity for the aquarium trade (Arvedlund et al., 2000) and very few in commercial quantities. Approximately 30 million marine reef fish belonging to roughly 1,800 different species are commercialised every year worldwide (Rhyne et al., 2012;Thornhill, 2012, andWabnitz et al., 2003). ...
The marine ornamental fish trading industry is an ever-expanding one, as indicated by its bolstering statistics, which amount to about US$ 300 million. Although the trade is booming, the natural habitats that foster these fishes, such as coral reefs, are steadily declining. One of the reasons for this is the overdependency of the industry on wild-caught fishes. To surpass this, the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) has developed hatchery technology for breeding marine ornamental fishes such as seahorses, clownfishes, damsels, and serranids. It began with the breeding of Hippocampus kuda. This progressed to breeding clownfishes such as Amphiprion chrysogaster, A. ocellaris, A. nigripes, A. peridarion, and A. ephippium and Premnas biaculeatus. Damsel fishes that were bred successfully include Chrysiptera cyanea, C. hemicyanea Neopomacentrus cyanomos, N. nemurus, and Dascyllus carneus. The recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) designed in the Vizhinjam Regional Centre of CMFRI is being used for broodstock development of serranids, tangs, squirrel fishes, and soldier fishes. A standard method was developed for captive breeding and hatchery rearing of anthias Pseudanthias marcia and P. squamipinnis in an advanced indigenous RAS system. The present article provides a bird’s eye view of the important research work done in India concerning marine ornamental fish breeding and reviews important breeding work carried out at Vizhinjam Regional Centre of CMFRI.
The international wildlife trade poses an existential threat to thousands of wild animal species and thus to biodiversity worldwide. In Germany, one of the main sales markets, hundreds of thousands of wild animals are offered for sale as exotic pets every year. Despite all the problems associated with this, the majority of the trade is legal. However, legal does not necessarily mean controlled, humane or sustainable. Preventive measures are urgently needed to effectively regulate the trade and private keeping of wild animals. So far, the German government has only reacted selectively, but this falls far short of the mark. Together with other animal welfare and species conservation organisations, Pro Wildlife is therefore calling for:
• The introduction of a positive list of animal species that are suitable as pets;
• A ban on the trade in wild animals via online portals and commercial animal fairs (including a ban on shipping by post);
• Mandatory labelling of the origin of animals;
• The introduction of an EU Lacey Act at EU level;
• A ban on the import of wild-caught animals.
This study investigates the Condition Index (CI) and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) of Angel Fish (Pterophyllum scalare) cultured under two different feeding conditions over an eight-month rearing period. Two types of feed were utilized namely traditional fish feed and alternative feed incorporating Black Soldier Fly (BSF) larvae. This study assessed the impact of these diets on fish growth, health, and feed efficiency considering CI and FCR as proxies. Used a Python Streamlit app for calculations related to CI and FCR. The findings suggest significant differences in CI and FCR between the two groups, providing insights into sustainable and cost-effective aquaculture practices.
The increasing volume of plastic waste and the widespread use of plastic products pose significant challenges to the effectiveness of strategies, policies, and management projects aimed at combating ocean plastic pollution. Three billion people's livelihoods depend on marine and coastal resources, and the market value of these resources and related blue industries is estimated at US$3 trillion annually, which is about 5% of global GDP. Plastics make up around 80% of the total waste discarded in the ocean, and each year, over 13 million metric tons of plastic enter the marine environment threatening biodiversity and affecting ecosystem services upon which the economy of coastal countries depends. This paper explores the impact of plastic waste on understudied marine and coastal ecosystem services, utilizing the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework as a guide. This study reveals that prioritizing the assessment and study of supporting services is critical for maintaining and sustaining other services. This review provides data on the impact of plastic on marine ecosystem services and highlights the need for effective plastic waste management to sustain these services. Coordinated global actions and initiatives among regions, nations, and industries remain crucial steps in addressing and tackling plastic pollution in the ocean.
Wild-caught fishes from coral reefs, one of the most threatened ecosystems on the planet, continue to supply the marine aquarium trade. Despite customs and veterinary checks during imports, comprehensive data on this global industry remains scarce. This study provides an updated review on one of its largest import markets, the European Union (EU): 24-million-euro annual trade value, detailed exporting and importing countries also diversity of species and families of the 26 million specimens imported between 2014 and 2021. We then show how a watchlist alert system based on the number of specimens traded, import trends, and vulnerability index according to FishBase and IUCN Red List conservation status can provide key information on which species should require a closer scrutiny. The stark decline in trade of the most traded species, Chromis viridis, may warrant monitoring through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). While the European TRAde Control and Expert System (TRACES) electronically monitors the movement of live animals to respond quickly to biosecurity risks, one-third of marine ornamental fishes imported lack species-level information. With minor adjustments, TRACES could enhance the monitoring of wildlife trade, with marine ornamental fish being an interesting case study.
Oceanic thermal anomalies are increasing in both frequency and strength, causing detrimental impacts to coral reef communities. Water temperatures beyond the corals optimum threshold causeing coral bleaching and mass mortality, impacting our global coral reef ecosystems, including marginal high-latitude reefs. Coral bleaching and mortality were observed at the southernmost coral reef, Lord Howe Island Marine Park, during the summer of 2019, coinciding with anomalously high sea surface temperatures across the reef system from January-April. Here we document the extent of coral impacts within the Lord Howe Island lagoonal reef and the recovery from bleaching eight-months later. Significant differences in bleaching prevalence were observed across the lagoonal coral reef, ranging from 16 to 83% across offshore and inshore reef regions and with variable onset timing. Coral mortality of up to 40% was recorded in the reef’s most severely impacted near-shore area. The four most dominant species, Stylophora pistillata, Pocillopora damicornis, Porites spp. and Seriatopora hystrix, were the most susceptible to bleaching, with all coral colonies found either bleached or dead at the most affected inshore site during and following peak heat stress. Interestingly, during the eight-months following bleaching, there was no evidence of bleaching recovery (i.e., re-establishment of symbiosis) at the offshore lagoonal site. However, there was a significant increase in the abundance of healthy coral colonies at the inshore site, suggesting the recovery of the surviving bleached corals at this site. Importantly, we found no evidence for bleaching or mortality in the Acropora spp. and minimal bleaching and no mortality in Isopora cuneata during the study period, typically highly susceptible species. Given the isolation of high-latitude reefs such as Lord Howe Island, our results highlight the importance of understanding the impacts of bleaching, mortality and bleaching recovery on coral population structure and resilience of high-latitude coral reefs.
Costa Rica hosts an active industry for the collection of marine ornamental reef fish that are supplied to the international aquarium fish trade. Little is known about the effects that collection activities may be having upon target species in Costa Rica, although research elsewhere gives reason for concern. Thalassoma lucasanum (Cortez rainbow wrasse) is an important species in this fishery. Costa Rican collectors prize the vibrantly colored terminal phase T. lucasanum individuals, but also collect the less dramatic initial phase T. lucasanum. We measured the density of T. lucasanum and the length of terminal phase individuals on highly collected reefs close to a fishing village and on nearby less-collected reefs located within the Guanacaste Conservation Area. Our findings show that densities of T. lucasanum were significantly lower and that terminal phase individuals were significantly smaller on the reefs near the fishing village where collection pressure was high. These findings indicate that even moderate amounts of relatively non-destructive aquarium fish extraction can negatively affect targeted populations. We present some suggestions for the reform of the aquarium reef fish industry in Costa Rica, which we believe would improve the long-term sustainability of this fishery.
The harvesting of reef building corals has a negative impact on coral reefs. This pressure is likely to increase with the growing human population along the tropical coasts and, therefore, alternative sources of livelihood and sustainable methods for resource extraction are needed. This paper presents the results of two experiments on coral culturing and one study on temporal patterns in the coral recruitment near Zanzibar, Tanzania. The survival and growth of cultured coral fragments of different sizes was compared for several species of corals, and the effects of lesions on coral fragments were examined. Temporal patterns in recruitment were assessed through regular deployment and sampling of terracotta tiles. The results show that within 1 year, fragments as small as 1-2 cm can be reared into coral colonies that can be sold to the aquarium market or used for reef rehabilitation. Lesions had no negative effect on the growth of the fragments, while a larger initial size had a positive impact on the fragment's growth rate. Coral recruitment was seasonal, with two annual peaks in February-April and November-December. This information could be of use for the timing of deployment of artificial settlement substrata for coral-culturing purposes, as well as for the planning of potentially disturbing coastal development.