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Electromagnetic field interactions with the human body: observed effects and theories

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Abstract

The effects of nonionizing electromagnetic (EM) field interactions with the human body were reported and human related studies were collected. Nonionizing EM fields are linked to cancer in humans in three different ways: cause, means of detection, and effective treatment. Bad and benign effects are expected from nonionizing EM fields and much more knowledge is necessary to properly categorize and qualify EM field characteristics. It is concluded that knowledge of the boundary between categories, largely dependent on field intensity, is vital to proper future use of EM radiation for any purpose and the protection of the individual from hazard.

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... For an average Sun-to-Earth distance r = 1.5 × 10 11 m and a Sun's radius R = 6.7 × 10 8 m, the average solid angle Ω of the Sun viewed from the Earths distance r (Ω = πr 2 /R 2 ) is~6.26 × 10 −5 Sr. From Equations (1) and (2), the radiation power density from the Sun reaching the Earth's surface at 2.4 GHz is~10 −16 W/m −2 (~10 −17 mW/cm 2 ). The Sun's theoretically calculated value of radiation power density at microwave frequencies reaching the Earth at a point near the Earth's orbit in Space is seven orders of magnitude higher than NASA's measured power density on the Earth's surface at 2.4 GHz [10], which is equal to~10 −23 W/m 2 (~10 −24 mW/cm 2 ) ( Figure 1). ...
... Radiation 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 3 mW/cm 2 ). The Sun's theoretically calculated value of radiation power density at microwave frequencies reaching the Earth at a point near the Earth's orbit in Space is seven orders of magnitude higher than NASA's measured power density on the Earth's surface at 2.4 GHz [10], which is equal to ~10 −23 W/m 2 (~10 −24 mW/cm 2 ) ( Figure 1). The difference between the measured and theoretical value of power density is possibly due to radiation scattering by cosmic particles, small-size bodies and plasma in the Space area between the Sun and the Earth. ...
... The associated power density natural limit of ~10 −23 to 10 −21 mW/cm 2 is compared with the ICNIRP exposure limit of ~1 mW/cm 2 for man-made microwave sources. The ICNIRP/FCC thermal exposure limit for man-made EMR is ~10 21 -to 10 23 -fold higher than the natural microwave radiation limit at Earth's surface of single microwave frequencies from the Sun (the plot is an extensive modification of that in NASA's report CR 166661 [10]). ...
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The critical arguments for radiofrequency radiation exposure limits are currently based on the principle that radio frequencies (RF) and electromagnetic fields (EMFs) are non-ionising, and their exposure limits are even 100-fold lower than those emitted from the Sun in the whole RF-EMF spectrum. Nonetheless, this argument has been challenged by numerous experimental and theoretical studies on the diverse biological effects of RF-EMF at much lower power density (W/m2) levels than today’s exposing limits. On the other hand, less attention has been given to counterarguments based on the differences in the physics concepts underlying man-made versus natural electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and on the fact that man’s biology has been adapted to the natural EMR levels reaching Earth’s surface at single EMF wavelengths, which are the natural limits of man’s exposure to EMFs. The article highlights the main points of interaction of natural and man-made radiation with biomatter and reveals the physical theoretical background that explains the effects of manmade microwave radiation on biological matter. Moreover, the article extends its analysis on experimental quantum effects, establishing the “ionising-like” effects of man-made microwave radiation on biological matter.
... I am aware of three different types of evidence for cumulative effects. Three of the human occupational exposure studies from the 1970's reviewed in Raines (1981), showed that effects increased substantially with increasing time of exposure to a particular type and intensity of EMF. ...
... Cellular DNA damage Glaser (1971); Yakymenko et al. (1999) Glaser (1971); Tolgskaya and Gordon (1973); Raines (1981); Lai (1994); Grigor'ev (1996) Adey (1981Adey ( , 1988; Walleczek (1992); Yakymenko et al. (1999); Gye and Park (2012); Pall (2013Pall ( , 2015aPall ( , 2015bPall ( , 2016aPall ( , 2016b); Asghari et al. (2016) Endocrine effects Glaser (1971); Tolgskaya and Gordon (1973); Raines (1981) Dasdag and Akdag (2016); Wang and Zhang (2017) 4. Wi-Fi and other EMFs may be particularly damaging to young people Most arguments that have been made that microwave frequency EMFs may be much more damaging to young children have centered on the much smaller skulls and skull thickness in young children, increasing the exposure of their brains to EMFs (Gandhi and Kang, 2001;Gandhi et al., 2012). However there are other arguments to be made. ...
... Cellular DNA damage Glaser (1971); Yakymenko et al. (1999) Glaser (1971); Tolgskaya and Gordon (1973); Raines (1981); Lai (1994); Grigor'ev (1996) Adey (1981Adey ( , 1988; Walleczek (1992); Yakymenko et al. (1999); Gye and Park (2012); Pall (2013Pall ( , 2015aPall ( , 2015bPall ( , 2016aPall ( , 2016b); Asghari et al. (2016) Endocrine effects Glaser (1971); Tolgskaya and Gordon (1973); Raines (1981) Dasdag and Akdag (2016); Wang and Zhang (2017) 4. Wi-Fi and other EMFs may be particularly damaging to young people Most arguments that have been made that microwave frequency EMFs may be much more damaging to young children have centered on the much smaller skulls and skull thickness in young children, increasing the exposure of their brains to EMFs (Gandhi and Kang, 2001;Gandhi et al., 2012). However there are other arguments to be made. ...
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Repeated Wi-Fi studies show that Wi-Fi causes oxidative stress, sperm/testicular damage, neuropsychiatric effects including EEG changes, apoptosis, cellular DNA damage, endocrine changes, and calcium overload. Each of these effects are also caused by exposures to other microwave frequency EMFs, with each such effect being documented in from 10 to 16 reviews. Therefore, each of these seven EMF effects are established effects of Wi-Fi and of other microwave frequency EMFs. Each of these seven is also produced by downstream effects of the main action of such EMFs, voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) activation. While VGCC activation via EMF interaction with the VGCC voltage sensor seems to be the predominant mechanism of action of EMFs, other mechanisms appear to have minor roles. Minor roles include activation of other voltage-gated ion channels, calcium cyclotron resonance and the geomagnetic magnetoreception mechanism. Five properties of non-thermal EMF effects are discussed. These are that pulsed EMFs are, in most cases, more active than are non-pulsed EMFs; artificial EMFs are polarized and such polarized EMFs are much more active than non-polarized EMFs; dose-response curves are non-linear and non-monotone; EMF effects are often cumulative; and EMFs may impact young people more than adults. These general findings and data presented earlier on Wi-Fi effects were used to assess the Foster and Moulder (F&M) review of Wi-Fi. The F&M study claimed that there were seven important studies of Wi-Fi that each showed no effect. However, none of these were Wi-Fi studies, with each differing from genuine Wi-Fi in three distinct ways. F&M could, at most conclude that there was no statistically significant evidence of an effect. The tiny numbers studied in each of these seven F&M-linked studies show that each of them lack power to make any substantive conclusions. In conclusion, there are seven repeatedly found Wi-Fi effects which have also been shown to be caused by other similar EMF exposures. Each of the seven should be considered, therefore, as established effects of Wi-Fi.
... The Raines 1981 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) report [4] reviewed an extensive literature based on occupational exposures to non-thermal microwave EMFs. Based on multiple studies, Raines [4] reports 19 neuropsychiatric effects to be associated with occupational microwave/radiofrequency EMFs, as well as cardiac effects, endocrine including neuroendocrine effects and several other effects. ...
... The Raines 1981 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) report [4] reviewed an extensive literature based on occupational exposures to non-thermal microwave EMFs. Based on multiple studies, Raines [4] reports 19 neuropsychiatric effects to be associated with occupational microwave/radiofrequency EMFs, as well as cardiac effects, endocrine including neuroendocrine effects and several other effects. ...
... The Raines 1981 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) report [4] reviewed an extensive literature based on occupational exposures to non-thermal microwave EMFs. Based on multiple studies, Raines [4] reports 19 neuropsychiatric effects to be associated with occupational microwave/radiofrequency EMFs, as well as cardiac effects, endocrine including neuroendocrine effects and several other effects. ...
Article
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Dozens of reviews and thousands of primary literature studies have shown the existence of many different non-thermal health effects of microwave and lower frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs); however current safety guidelines and standards only recognize thermal effects. This leaves both individuals and companies unprotected, particularly with the very large increases in microwave frequency exposures that are occurring over time. It has recently been shown that many, perhaps even all non-thermal health effects are produced by activation of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) in the plasma membranes of cells, with EMFs activating these channels, producing large increases in intracellular calcium levels [Ca2+]i. The voltage sensor controlling the VGCCs is thought to be extremely sensitive to activation by weak EMFs. Diverse health effects are thought to be produced by downstream effects of increased [Ca2+]i produced by VGCC activation. It is difficult if not impossible to currently predict the biological effects of different EMFs because pulsation patterns, frequencies and EMF polarization each have strong influences on biological effects; there are also windows of exposure producing maximum biological effects within the exposure window. While decreasing exposures on the order of 100 to 1000-fold will no doubt be useful, we also need to have genuine biological measures of damage to allow optimization of both the type of EMF exposures as well as intensities. Biological optimization should be done by studying cells in culture that have high densities of various types of VGCCs, measuring such effects as increases in [Ca2+]i and increases in nitric oxide (NO) production following EMF exposures. Such cell culture-based assessment of biological damage should allow progressive improvement of wireless communication devices and various other electronic devices by choosing designs that lower biological responses.
... The Raines (1981) NASA report reviewed extensive literature based on occupational exposures to non-thermal microwave EMFs, with that literature coming from U.S., Western European and Eastern European studies. There are no obvious differences in the literature coming from these different regions. ...
... There are no obvious differences in the literature coming from these different regions. Based on multiple studies, Raines (1981) reports 19 neuropsychiatric effects to be associated with occupational microwave/radiofrequency EMFs. ...
... It is important to consider the different criteria that allow one to judge whether a cause and effect relationship is justified by the studies listed in Table 3 and the individual studies cited in Raines, 1981. There are five such criteria that should be considered in making that judgment (See pp.39-43 in Hennington and Buring, 1987): ...
Article
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Non-thermal microwave/lower frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs) act via voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) activation. Calcium channel blockers block EMF effects and several types of additional evidence confirm this mechanism. Low intensity microwave EMFs have been proposed to produce neuropsychiatric effects, sometimes called microwave syndrome, and the focus of this review is whether these are indeed well documented and consistent with the known mechanism(s) of action of such EMFs. VGCCs occur in very high densities throughout the nervous system and have near universal roles in release of neurotransmitters and neuroendocrine hormones. Soviet and Western literature shows that much of the impact of non-thermal microwave exposures in experimental animals occurs in the brain and peripheral nervous system, such that nervous system histology and function show diverse and substantial changes. These may be generated through roles of VGCC activation, producing excessive neurotransmitter/neuroendocrine release as well as oxidative/nitrosative stress and other responses. Excessive VGCC activity has been shown from genetic polymorphism studies to have roles in producing neuropsychiatric changes in humans. Two U.S. government reports from the 1970's-80's provide evidence for many neuropsychiatric effects of non-thermal microwave EMFs, based on occupational exposure studies. 18 more recent epidemiological studies, provide substantial evidence that microwave EMFs from cell/mobile phone base stations, excessive cell/mobile phone usage and from wireless smart meters can each produce similar patterns of neuropsychiatric effects, with several of these studies showing clear dose-response relationships. Lesser evidence from 6 additional studies suggests that short wave, radio station, occupational and digital TV antenna exposures may produce similar neuropsychiatric effects. Among the more commonly reported changes are sleep disturbance/insomnia, headache, depression/depressive symptoms, fatigue/tiredness,dysesthesia, concentration/attention dysfunction, memory changes, dizziness, irritability, loss of appetite/body weight, restlessness/anxiety, nausea, skin burning/tingling/dermographism and EEG changes. In summary, then, the mechanism of action of microwave EMFs, the role of the VGCCs in the brain, the impact of non-thermal EMFs on the brain, extensive epidemiological studies performed over the past 50 years, and five criteria testing for causality, all collectively show that various non-thermal microwave EMF exposures produce diverse neuropsychiatric effects. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier B.V.
... The greater biological activity of pulsed field exposures were sufficiently well documented 30-48 years ago, such that it influenced safety standards of the 1960s and 1970s. For example, the Canadian Standards Association 48 years ago in 1966, adopted lower standards [see Table 2 in ref. (23)] for occupational exposure to pulsed field exposures (1 mWhr/cm 2 , limited to 6 min exposure) in contrast to those for continuous, that is non-pulsed exposures (10 mW/cm 2 , for which there was no time limitation). In 1974, in the United States, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) adopted essentially identical standards as had Canada for occupational pulsed field and non-pulsed field exposure (23). ...
... For example, the Canadian Standards Association 48 years ago in 1966, adopted lower standards [see Table 2 in ref. (23)] for occupational exposure to pulsed field exposures (1 mWhr/cm 2 , limited to 6 min exposure) in contrast to those for continuous, that is non-pulsed exposures (10 mW/cm 2 , for which there was no time limitation). In 1974, in the United States, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) adopted essentially identical standards as had Canada for occupational pulsed field and non-pulsed field exposure (23). In 1970, the Czechoslovakian government adopted more stringent occupational and general public standards for pulsed field exposures vs non-pulsed field exposures (23). ...
... In 1974, in the United States, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) adopted essentially identical standards as had Canada for occupational pulsed field and non-pulsed field exposure (23). In 1970, the Czechoslovakian government adopted more stringent occupational and general public standards for pulsed field exposures vs non-pulsed field exposures (23). Pulsed fields are, of course, produced by any type of wireless communication device since it is the pattern of pulsations that conveys the information. ...
Article
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This review considers a paradigm shift on microwave electromagnetic field (EMF) action from only thermal effects to action via voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) activation. Microwave/lower frequency EMFs were shown in two dozen studies to act via VGCC activation because all effects studied were blocked by calcium channel blockers. This mode of action was further supported by hundreds of studies showing microwave changes in calcium fluxes and intracellular calcium [Ca2+]i signaling. The biophysical properties of VGCCs/similar channels make them particularly sensitive to low intensity, non-thermal EMF exposures. Non-thermal studies have shown that in most cases pulsed fields are more active than are non-pulsed fields and that exposures within certain intensity windows have much large biological effects than do either lower or higher intensity exposures; these are both consistent with a VGCC role but inconsistent with only a heating/thermal role. Downstream effects of VGCC activation include calcium signaling, elevated nitric oxide (NO), NO signaling, peroxynitrite, free radical formation, and oxidative stress. Downstream effects explain repeatedly reported biological responses to non-thermal exposures: oxidative stress; single and double strand breaks in cellular DNA; cancer; male and female infertility; lowered melatonin/sleep disruption; cardiac changes including tachycardia, arrhythmia, and sudden cardiac death; diverse neuropsychiatric effects including depression; and therapeutic effects. Non-VGCC non-thermal mechanisms may occur, but none have been shown to have effects in mammals. Biologically relevant safety standards can be developed through studies of cell lines/cell cultures with high levels of different VGCCs, measuring their responses to different EMF exposures. The 2014 Canadian Report by a panel of experts only recognizes thermal effects regarding safety standards for non-ionizing radiation exposures. Its position is therefore contradicted by each of the observations above. The Report is assessed here in several ways including through Karl Popper's assessment of strength of evidence. Popper argues that the strongest type of evidence is evidence that falsifies a theory; second strongest is a test of "risky prediction"; the weakest confirms a prediction that the theory could be correct but in no way rules out alternative theories. All of the evidence supporting the Report's conclusion that only thermal effects need be considered are of the weakest type, confirming prediction but not ruling out alternatives. In contrast, there are thousands of studies apparently falsifying their position. The Report argues that there are no biophysically viable mechanisms for non-thermal effects (shown to be false, see above). It claims that there are many "inconsistencies" in the literature causing them to throw out large numbers of studies; however, the one area where it apparently documents this claim, that of genotoxicity, shows no inconsistencies; rather it shows that various cell types, fields and end points produce different responses, as should be expected. The Report claims that cataract formation is produced by thermal effects but ignores studies falsifying this claim and also studies showing [Ca2+]i and VGCC roles. It is time for a paradigm shift away from only thermal effects toward VGCC activation and consequent downstream effects.
... The technical report [2] presents what is known today concerning non-ionizing electromagnetic field interaction with the human body. Many significant and interesting effects are identified. ...
... A great variety of theories have been developed to describe the electro-magnetic field of the human body. Some theories regarded the human body as a whole as single prolate spheroid with a single set of electromagnetic constants: permittivity, permeability, and conductivity [2]. In that sense, the body is a simple antenna or probe capable o f intercepting a certain amount of electromagnetic energy, which is converted entirely in to heat. ...
... Proteins figure predominantly in at least one of the theories of cancer advanced by Nobel Laureate Albert Szent-Gyorgyi which currently being researched [2,10]. According to this theory, proteins conduct electron out of the cell interior. ...
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This paper develops a generalized dynamical model to describe the interactive dynamics between normal cells, tumor cells, immune cells, drug therapy, elec-tromagnetic field of the human cells, extracellular heat and fluid transfer, and intercellular fractional mass of Oxygen, cell acidity and Pancreatin enzyme. The overall dynamics stability, controllability and observability have been investigated. Moreover, Ce-sium therapy is considered as a control input to the 11-dimensional dynamics using state-feedback con-trolled system and pole placement technique. This approach is found to be effective in driving the de-sired rate of tumor cell kill and converging the sys-tem to healthy equilibrium state. Furthermore, the ranges of the system dynamics parameters which lead to instability and growth of tumor cells have been identified. Finally, simulation results are dem-onstrated to verify the effectiveness of the applied approach which can be implemented successfully to cancer patients.
... The exposure to microwaves at the frequency of cell phones have increased from natural levels by a factor of about 10 18 due to man-made cell phones and other wireless devices (Bandara, 2018;Philips, 2012;Raines et al., 1981). Microwaves are non-ionizing waves that cause thermal heating in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fet ...
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An increasing number of life science students are taking physics courses in college as more physics-based medical technologies are being implemented in hospitals and clinics. Most of these students are unable to appreciate the connection between physics and their fields when taking a typical physics course. One of the best ways to bridge physics with another area of study is to involve students in a small but exciting research project such as relating the physics of microwaves to biological organisms. A cell phone was used to study the effect of its emitted microwaves on the growth of tomato plants after exposing the seeds to the signal during germination.
... In addition the much earlier US Government (NASA) document [66] also documents EMF occupational exposure causation of neurological/neuropsychiatric effect and cardiac effects [28] lists 15 different published reviews each of which provide substantial bodies of evidence that neurological/neuropsychiatric effects are caused by lowintensity, non-thermal EMF exposures. Lamech [67] showed that smart meter radiation exposure was associated with large increases in EHS, neurological/neuropsychiatric effects and cardiac effects and similar findings were reported in the Conrad study of smart meter radiation. ...
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Millimeter wave (MM-wave) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) are predicted to not produce penetrating effects in the body. The electric but not magnetic part of MM-EMFs are almost completely absorbed within the outer 1 mm of the body. Rodents are reported to have penetrating MM-wave impacts on the brain, the myocardium, liver, kidney and bone marrow. MM-waves produce electromagnetic sensitivity-like changes in rodent, frog and skate tissues. In humans, MM-waves have penetrating effects including impacts on the brain, producing EEG changes and other neurological/neuropsychiatric changes, increases in apparent electromagnetic hypersensitivity and produce changes on ulcers and cardiac activity. This review focuses on several issues required to understand penetrating effects of MM-waves and microwaves: 1. Electronically generated EMFs are coherent, producing much higher electrical and magnetic forces then do natural incoherent EMFs. 2. The fixed relationship between electrical and magnetic fields found in EMFs in a vacuum or highly permeable medium such as air, predicted by Maxwell’s equations, breaks down in other materials. Specifically, MM-wave electrical fields are almost completely absorbed in the outer 1 mm of the body due to the high dielectric constant of biological aqueous phases. However, the magnetic fields are very highly penetrating. 3. Time-varying magnetic fields have central roles in producing highly penetrating effects. The primary mechanism of EMF action is voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) activation with the EMFs acting via their forces on the voltage sensor, rather than by depolarization of the plasma membrane. Two distinct mechanisms, an indirect and a direct mechanism, are consistent with and predicted by the physics, to explain penetrating MM-wave VGCC activation via the voltage sensor. Time-varying coherent magnetic fields, as predicted by the Maxwell–Faraday version of Faraday’s law of induction, can put forces on ions dissolved in aqueous phases deep within the body, regenerating coherent electric fields which activate the VGCC voltage sensor. In addition, time-varying magnetic fields can directly put forces on the 20 charges in the VGCC voltage sensor. There are three very important findings here which are rarely recognized in the EMF scientific literature: coherence of electronically generated EMFs; the key role of time-varying magnetic fields in generating highly penetrating effects; the key role of both modulating and pure EMF pulses in greatly increasing very short term high level time-variation of magnetic and electric fields. It is probable that genuine safety guidelines must keep nanosecond timescale-variation of coherent electric and magnetic fields below some maximum level in order to produce genuine safety. These findings have important implications with regard to 5G radiation.
... Evidence for health effects of RF/MW is not new (Adams & Williams, 1976;Bergman, 1965;Bolen, 1988;Raines, 1981). A 1971-1972 naval report bearing over 2300 citations, many from Russia and eastern Europe, already documented health effects of microwave/RF/MW, emphasizing "non-ionizing radiation at these frequencies" (Glaser, 1972). ...
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Importance: A mystery illness striking U.S. and Canadian diplomats to Cuba (and now China) “has confounded the FBI, the State Department and US intelligence agencies” (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017). Sonic explanations for the so-called health attacks have long dominated media reports, propelled by peculiar sounds heard and auditory symptoms experienced. Sonic mediation was justly rejected by experts. We assessed whether pulsed radiofrequency/microwave radiation (RF/MW) exposure can accommodate reported facts in diplomats, including unusual ones. Observations: (1) Noises: Many diplomats heard chirping, ringing or grinding noises at night during episodes reportedly triggering health problems. Some reported that noises were localized with laser-like precision or said the sounds seemed to follow them (within the territory in which they were perceived). Pulsed RF/MW engenders just these apparent “sounds” via the Frey effect. Perceived “sounds” differ by head dimensions and pulse characteristics and can be perceived as located behind in or above the head. Ability to hear the “sounds” depends on high-frequency hearing and low ambient noise. (2) Signs/symptoms: Hearing loss and tinnitus are prominent in affected diplomats and in RF/MW-affected individuals. Each of the protean symptoms that diplomats report also affect persons reporting symptoms from RF/MW: sleep problems, headaches, and cognitive problems dominate in both groups. Sensations of pressure or vibration figure in each. Both encompass vision, balance, and speech problems and nosebleeds. Brain injury and brain swelling are reported in both. (3) Mechanisms: Oxidative stress provides a documented mechanism of RF/MW injury compatible with reported signs and symptoms; sequelae of endothelial dysfunction (yielding blood flow compromise), membrane damage, blood-brain barrier disruption, mitochondrial injury, apoptosis, and autoimmune triggering afford downstream mechanisms, of varying persistence, that merit investigation. (4) Of note, microwaving of the U.S. embassy in Moscow is historically documented. Conclusions and relevance: Reported facts appear consistent with pulsed RF/MW as the source of injury in affected diplomats. Nondiplomats citing symptoms from RF/MW, often with an inciting pulsed-RF/MW exposure, report compatible health conditions. Under the RF/MW hypothesis, lessons learned for diplomats and for RF/MW-affected civilians may each aid the other.
... Microwave RF-EMR is entirely manmade for telecommunications and surveillance and human exposure has highly and rapidly increased, particularly over the last couple of decades. The measured RF exposure levels must be considered with fact that natural background levels of RF-EMR in our living environment without the artificial RF generated for wireless communications are below 10 −15 W/m 2 (13) . ...
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... Non-ionizing radiation (NIR) normally does not produce enough energy to ionize matter [1,2]. In the electromagnetic spectrum, it comprises the frequencies below 3 × 10 15 Hz [1,3]. ...
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The past decade has seen a growing understanding of functional capacities and structural organization of cell membranes. Studies in immunology, endocrinology and neurobiology have led to some unifying concepts about processes of transduction at the membrane surface, and the coupling of surface events to the interior of the cell. My interest in these problems has been directed in no small measure by interactions with Lars Onsager. His kindly tutelage and rigorous criticism have been a source of endless encouragement to those who sought the full measure of his wisdom in the difficult area of the energetics of membrane excitation. Onsager's unflagging interest in mechanisms of ion transportation led him to earnest consideration of a variety of non-classical models of conduction in proteins, always tempered by his deep insight essential aspects of physical chemistry. My discussions with him at the MIT Neuroscience Research Program were a regular stimulus to the experiments which our groups have undertaken in search of answers to questions raised by the models presented here. Above all, Lars Onsager was a kindly, gentle man. In this personal example, he will be as sadly missed as for his broad and imaginative approach to critical questions in the physical and biological sciences.
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Numerous peptides appear to be neurotransmitter candidates in the brain. Some, such as the opioid peptide enkephalins, neurotensin, and substance P, were first isolaterd from the brain. Peptides, such as cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, were known as intestinal hormones and later recognized as brain constituents. Certain hypothalamic-releasing hormones, pituitary peptides, and blood-derived peptides like angiotensin II and bradykinin, may also be central neurotransmitters. The diversity of localization of these peptides throughout the brain implies a multiplicity of potential roles.
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A tutorial review of microwave-induced hyperthermia as an antineoplastic therapeutic modality is presented. Cancer thermotherapy and the various methods of heat induction are surveyed, beginning with fundamental concepts and historical perspectives. Concentrating on microwave-induced hyperthermia, the physics of energy absorption and microwave heating in tissues are presented. The methods and problems associated with nonionizing radiation dosimetry in vivo and in vitro are analyzed. Biological effects and potential hazards associated with microwave exposure are surveyed and related to existing safety standards. The engineering aspects of clinical hyperthermia are treated in detail. Emphasis is placed on specifying objectives, designing and selecting applicators, monitoring and controlling temperature, and engineering systems conforming to legal standards and ethical principles. The recent clinical research in the U. S. and abroad is reviewed and analyzed.
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A model of a mechanism for nonthermal interaction of RF or microwave fields with excitable cellular membranes is presented. It may be possible for an oscillating component of membrane potential to change the conductance of the membrane to all ion species which transverse voltage-dependent membrane channels. Some specific effects on squid giant axon predicted by the model are discussed.