ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

The rural sustainability index is a scientifically based tool to quantify the performance of agriculture. The sustainability of crop production is quantified from three perspectives; people, planet and profit. Within each perspective, one condition was selected that must be met to warrant agriculture. These are: No hazardous work should be used within the crop production chain; agricultural crops should not be grown on land allocated to nature by national law or regulations and, when a GM-crop is present or is introduced in a region, it should not harm development opportunities of other farmers. If these excluding conditions are met, the sustainability of agriculture is assessed through five performance indicators on school attendance, water use and consumption, fertilizer use, pesticide use, and farm income. For each of the five indicators, critical values and target values have been given that limit the transition range between non-sustainable and sustainable production. The five indicators are combined into a sustainability index. The index aims at improving the socio-economic position of farmers while protecting the environment.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Quantifying the sustainability of agriculture
M. G. Bos & H. van den Bosch & H. Diemont &
H. van Keulen & J. Lahr & G. Meijerink & A. Verhagen
Published online: 11 January 2007
#
Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2007
Abstract The rural sustainability index is a scientifically based tool to quantify the
performance of agriculture. The sustainability of crop production is quantified from three
perspectives; people, planet and profit. Within each perspective, one condition was selected
that must be met to warrant agriculture. These are: No hazardous work should be used
within the crop production chain; agricultural crops should not be grown on land allocated
to nature by national law or regulations and, when a GM-crop is present or is introduced in
a region, it should not harm development opportunities of other farmers. If these excluding
conditions are met, the sustainability of agriculture is assessed through five performance
indicators on school attendance, water use and consumption, fertilizer use, pesticide use,
and farm income. For each of the five indicators, critical values and target values have been
given that limit the transition range between non-sustainable and sustainable production.
The five indicators are combined into a sustainability index. The index aims at improving
the socio-economic position of farmers while protecting the environment.
Keywords Agriculture
.
Sustainability
.
Crop Production
.
Water
.
Nutrients
.
Pest Control
.
Pesticides
.
Environment
.
Income
.
Education
Introduction
To meet the food-challenge, there are two options; use current agricultural practices and
expand the cropped area at the same rate as the growth of world population or improve
Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115
DOI 10.1007/s10795-006-9014-y
M. G. Bos (*)
International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation,
P.O. Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands
e-mail: bos@itc.nl
H. van den Bosch
:
H. Diemont
:
J. Lahr
Alterra, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
H. van Keulen
:
A. Verhagen
Plant Research International, PRI, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
G. Meijerink
Agricultural Economic Research Institute, LEI, P.O. Box 29703, 2505 LS The Hague, The Netherlands
practices so that crop yield per hectare increases. To illustrate the impact of (horizontal)
expansion of agricultural land, it is good to visualize the area needed. At present about
16,000,000 km
2
land is used for agriculture. A growth of 2.8% per year, matching the
growth of world population, would each year require the reclamation of about 45,000 km
2
nature for agriculture. We recommend focusing on the second option so that we can avoid
the unwanted infringement into nature areas.
In order to grow, the crop should be sufficient healthy to consume water. Thus plant
diseases should be controlled through the sustainable use of pesticides. For the crop to grow,
this water must contain food that can be transferred into bio-mass. This in turn, asks for the
sustainable use of fertilizer. Sustainable rural development is seen as a process that promotes
the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources,
maximizing the subsequent social and economic benefits in an equitable (or fair) manner,
without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. The sustainability of agriculture
therefore has been viewed from five perspectives within the people, planet, profit concept.
They are related to the; social position of the rural community, availability of water, soil
fertility, crop protection and the rural economy.
The structure of the index
As mentioned, the sustainability of agricultural production is viewed from the people,
planet, profit concept. Within each of these perspectives there is a condition sine qua non
that needs to be fulfilled before agriculture can be termed sustainable. These excluding
conditions are:
People No hazardous work or child labour
1
should be used within the crop production
chain (ILO 2002).
Planet Crops should not be grown on land allocated to nature by national law or
regulations.
Profit When a genetically modified crop is present, or is introduced in a region, it should
not harm development opportunities of other (non-GM-crop) growers.
If these three conditions are satisfied, the sustainability of agriculture will be evaluated
through selected performance indicators.
Which indicators are to be used?
It is important to ensure that indicators, that are selected to quantify the sustainability of
agriculture, describe performance with respect to the objectives established for the crop
production system and its boundary conditions. A meaningful indicator can be used in two
distinct ways. It characterizes the current performance of the production system, and, in
conjunction with other parameters, may help to identify the correct course of action to
1
According to the ILO, child labour is, generally speaking, work for children that harms them or exploits
them in some way (physically, mentally, morally, or by blocking access to education). Thus, labour during
school holidays is not child labour. In fact, the school year often is designed to fit on-farm labour
requirements.
2 Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115
improve its performance. In this sense the use of the indicator as a function of time is
important because it assists in identifying trends that may need to be reversed before
agriculture can be labeled as being sustainable. A more complete description of desirable
attributes of performance indicators is given below (Bos et al. 2005).
Science based An indicator should be based on theoretical or empirically quantified,
statistically tested, causal model of that part of the crop production process it describes.
Reproducible The data needed to quantify the performance indicator must be measurable
with available technology, reproducible and verifiable.
Transparent Performance indicators should be transparent to the customers of agricultural
products.
Manageable This requirement for an indicator is particularly important as implementation
is the ultimate goal. Particularly for routine management, performance indicators should be
technically feasible, and easily used by policy makers, assessing staff and by farmers given
their level of skill and motivation.
Cost-effective The cost of using indicators in terms of finances, equipment, and human
resources, should be well within the farmers income and the monitoring budget.
As mentioned above, the sustainability of agriculture is viewed from five perspectives
within the people, planet, profit concept. They are related to the; social position of the
rural community, availability of water, soil fertility, crop protection and the rural economy.
Within each of these five perspectives a long-list of indicators was screened on the above
attributes. During subsequent discussions within the team and with stakeholders, the listed
indicators were ranked on their impact on sustainability. As a result, five indicators were
selected to quantify the level of sustainability (Table 1).
As can be read from the last column of Table 1, there is some interaction between the
indicators; e.g. crop yield is influenced by the skills of the farmer, the availability of water and
the wise use of fertilizers and pesticides. In turn, crop yield has a major impact on farm income.
Target values and critical values of indicators
Using the attributes on science, reproducibility and transparency of any selected indicator, it
is virtually impossible to give a razor-sharp division between the sustainable value and non-
sustainable value of an indicator. In practice, the sustainable and non-sustainable ranges of
the indicator will be separated by a transition range (Fig. 1). The transition range is
bounded by a target value and a critical value. Of both, the numerical values will be
explained in following sub-sections.
Customers of end-products
The goal of the Rural Sustainability Index is to promote sustainable crop cultivation and to
sell the end-products to customers worldwide. The index can be used to establish links
between distributors, manufacturers and farmers, thereby improving the sustainable
Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115 3
production of food and fiber. Thus, the index aims to improve the socio-economic position
of farmers while protecting the environment. These aims must be attained in such a way
that the end-product can be sold at a competitive price to (western) customers.
Communication thus needs to channel information into two directions:
Farmers (or a cooperative of farmers) need to receive transparent information on the
demands set for sustainable agricultural production. Information on recommended changes in
crop production practices, needed to improve the level of sustainability, should to be provided
through consortia of distributors and manufactures. However, communication with farmers or
local cooperatives will be the task of the extension service (or local schooling system).
As mentioned before, the index assesses the sustainability of agricultural production
from the viewpoint of the consumer of the end-products. It is anticipated that the target
consumer desires to contribute to poverty alleviation of rural population in developing
countries. It further is anticipated that the customer likes that (rural) development is
sustainable. To market products under the Rural Sustainability Index, advertising texts and
a paper label are needed that provide transparent information on the method by which
sustainability is determined and on the level of sustainability by which the labeled product
is produced. The diagram of Fig. 2 may serve for this purpose.
Farmers and the index
Using the Rural Sustainability Index should improve the social and economic conditions of
farmers through sustainable on-farm crop production. Since the index is initiated by a group
of distributors and manufacturers of agro-related products, they anticipate improving these
conditions in three ways (Bos et al. 2005):
& Provide better access by the (cooperative of) farmers to the international market.
& Stimulate that farmers receive a fair share of the world market price for their
product.
& Arrange that farmers are being paid in due time.
Table 1 Selected key indicators for sustainable agricultural production
Perspective Indicator Major aspects being assessed by the indicator
People Percentage of children completing
primary school
Ability of farmer to read documentation, manuals, etc
Level of child labour
Potential for non-farm jobs for rural population
Planet Water use and consumption Water availability
Crop yield (productivity)
Drainage of water from field to downstream
environment
Fertilizer use Potential pollution of groundwater and the
downstream environment
Depletion of soil fertility
Crop yield
Pesticide use Environmental risk downstream of agricultural area
Potential pollution of groundwater in relation to
drinking water safety
Crop yield
Profit Gross margin of crop production Potential income of farmer
Position of farmer with respect to market
4 Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115
Directly related to this poverty alleviation aim is the aim to protect the environment. In
other words; the present level of sustainability should be improved. Introduction of the
index, however, should not exclude farmers from the market if they produce a crop in a
manner that is almost sustainable. The term almost sustainable could be defined as: two of
the five indicators are red while short-term improvement is anticipated. As illustrated in
Fig. 3, it thus is needed to decide on:
& How many indicators are allowed to be red at the beginning of the transition (grace)
period. Tentatively it is assumed that two indicators may be red at the beginning of this
period.
& How many years (cropping seasons) lasts the transition period? It is assumed that
5 years is an acceptable period provided that progress is made during each year. As
shown in Fig. 3, all indicators should be in the sustainable range at the end of this
period.
The indicators
As shown in Table 1, five indicators were selected to quantify sustainable crop production
within the people-planet-profit concept. The following section gives a short description of
these indicators with their critical value and target value.
People: percentage of children completing primary school
As was recognized by the Millennium Development Goals (UN 2000); education is
development. It creates choices and opportunities for people, reduces the twin burdens of
poverty and diseases, and gives a stronger voice in society. For nations it creates a dynamic
workforce and well-informed citizens able to compete and cooperate globally opening
doors to economic and social prosperity.
It is important to note that the indicator measures education of boys and girls.
Distinguishing between primary ed ucation of girls and boys is important because
disaggregated data serve as an indicator for gender equality. In many societies, education
Range of
indicator
values
Critical value
Target value
Sustainable range
Transitional range
Non-sustainable range
Fig. 1 Terminology on indicator
related values and ranges
Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115 5
rates for boys are higher than for girls. In addition to the criterion of equity it is noted that
education of women is extremely important, as it has been shown for instance, that child
mortality decreases when mothers have had primary education. Education is important for
sustainable production for several reasons:
& When children spend time in school, it means that they are less likely to be involved in
child labour.
& Education increases the potential for finding employment outside the agricultural
sector. In many societies, the level of hidden unemployment in rural areas is high. With
at least primary schooling, people have a better chance to find employment outside of
agriculture if necessary.
& Education enables people to read and write, and make calculations. For farmers this is
an important skill, because it enables them to read documentation, manuals, etc.
Although the number of children completing primary school does not automatically
reflect on adult literacy, educating children means educating the farmers of the future.
The ratio is defined as:
Completing Primary School ¼
Total enrolment in last grade of primary education 100
e
Where e equals the number of children in the age-group eligible to participate in primary
education according to national regulations.
The 1990 Conference on Education for All pledged to achieve universal primary
education by 2000. But in 2000, 104 million school-age children were still not in school,
57% of them girls of which 94% were in developing countries mostly in South Asia and
Sub-Saharan Africa (Fig. 4). The Millennium Development Goals set a more realistic, but
still difficult, deadline. The second MDG is to achieve universal primary education. The
associated target is: to ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will
be able to complete a full course of primary schooling.
Following the MDG, it is recommended to set the target over a period of years: by 2015,
90 % of all boys and girls alike should be able to complete a full course of primary
schooling. It is not realistic to set high targets for the present value of the ratio. The decision
of (rural population and farmers) to enroll their children may depend on factors not under
Fig. 2 Graphical presentation of
the sustainability index. Sustain-
able: all green (outer ring) Nearly
sustainable: no red and 2 or less
(or however many) are yellow
Non-sustainable: one indicator
shows (weakest link in the chain)
6 Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115
their control, such as availability of schooling opportunities, or ability to pay schooling
expenses. Although schooling is usually free, there are often expenses such as books,
writing materials or school uniforms. Hence, the target value may have to be differentiated
among countries or regions. During the transition period, there should be a continuous
improvement. The critical value of the ratio is related to Fig. 4. If this percentage for the
considered region drops below the average value shown in Fig. 4, we will consider the
system unsustainable (critical value).
Planet: water use and water consumption
For a crop to grow, it should transpire sufficient water through its leaves. This water is
taken from the soil via the roots. Water also moves into the atmosphere through evaporation
from plant surfaces and from the bare soil surface in between the vegetation (following
precipitation or irrigation). If sufficient water is available to meet the sum of evaporation
and transpiration, this ET will reach its (maximum) potential value, ET
potential
. Otherwise,
the actual evapotranspiration (ET
actual
) will be less than ET
potential
.
To evaluate the adequacy of the available of water within a selected agricultural area as a
function of time (throughout the growing season), the dimensionless ratio of actual over
potential evapotranspiration gives valuable information to the farmer and water manager.
The ratio is defined as (Bos 1997; Bos et al. 2005):
Relative evapotranspiration ¼
ET
actual
ET
potential
ð1Þ
The value of this indicator provides information on aspects like; water availability for
crop production (yield) and on the drainage of water from the field (area) where the crop is
grown to the groundwater aquifer and to the downstream ecosystem. If ET
actual
is less than
about 0.9ET
potential
all available water will be consumed and the volume of drainage water
is negligible (Bos 2004). To evaluate the effect of this indicator on crop yield and drainage
we refer to the example of a crop production function shown in Fig. 5.
As illustrated, wheat (or any other crop) can only grow if water is consumed. From a
farmer perspective, maximum yield per hectare would be desirable. However, the
cumulative ET
actual
only will approach ET
potential
if the field is rather wet throughout the
Level of
sustainable
production
current method of
production
desired method of
production
grace period
Y years
Time
Level of sustainability
Fig. 3 Transition period (grace
period) of the rural sustainability
index
Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115 7
growing season. Under rain-fed conditions this will not occur during dry spells, resulting in a
lower than potential crop yield. Following heavy rain or excessive irrigation, however, ET
actual
approaches ET
potential
and the non-consumed part of the water will discharge to the
groundwater aquifer or to a stream (drain). This water then may act as the transporting
vehicle for pollutants (fertilizer, pesticides) to the downstream ecosystem. Hence, the timing
of the application of fertilizer and pesticides should be long enough before an anticipated wet
period so that they are not leached immediately from the field. This leaching would result to
below target values of the related indicators (see sections on fertilizer and pesticides).
If the cumulative ET
actual
becomes as low as 0.7ET
potential
, wheat yield is maximum in
terms of water consumption (in Fig. 5 ET
actual
is about 2,700 m
3
/ha or 270 mm/season).
This would be near the target for irrigated wheat (crops) in water-scarce areas. As shown in
Fig. 5, yield drops sharply if the ET
actual
falls below 0.5ET
potential.
At this deflection point in
the curve of Fig. 5 ET
actual
is about 2,100 m
3
/ha or 210 mm/season). If meteorological
conditions are such that this commonly occurs during the growing season, agriculture
production of wheat (example crop of Fig. 5) becomes non-sustainable due to crop failure.
Besides, fields with a failed crop are vulnerable to soil erosion.
For the above example, the critical value of the relative evapotranspiration equals 0.5
while the target value is 0.7. The part of the available water that is consumed by the crop
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Ea
st A
si
a
& P
aci
fic
E
uro
p
e & C
e
nt
r
a
l
A
si
a
No
r
th
A
m
eri
c
a
Lati
n
Ame
r
ic
a &
C
ar
i
b
b
ea
n
Middl
e E
ast &
N
o
rth A
f
ric
a
S
outh A
si
a
Sub
-
S
aha
r
a
Af
r
ic
a
Fig. 4 Average primary school completion ratio for 20002002 (after UNESCO 2002)
8 Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115
can be increased by farm practices that facilitate the on-field infiltration of water. Most of
these practices also reduce erosion.
Planet: fertilizer use
The fertilizer use indicator has been selected to address two aspects: risk of pollution
resulting from applying to much fertilizer and mining of soil nutrients related to applying
insufficient fertilizer. Representing the effect of fertilizer application in one single indicator
is complicated. First we must realize that a major cash crop is often rotated with other crops
and effects of soil and fertilizer management are carried over to the following crop. In
addition, soil physical and chemical properties influencing the nutrient uptake by the crop
and fertilizer losses to the groundwater may vary widely from location to location.
Moreover, there are many types of fertilizers with specific chemical composition and
application requirements.
This section focuses on two elements that are essential to crop growth and have to be
applied from external sources, i.e. nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). The widely applied
concept of nutrient balances (Smaling 1998; Vlaming et al. 2001; Gachimbi et al. 2002)is
used. The concept of nutrient balances provides insight in both the economic and
environmental effects of fertilizer application. The basic structure of a nutrient balance is
most conveniently represented in an inputoutput diagram (Fig. 6).
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
ET
actual
actual
in m
3
per ha
Yield in kg per ha
sustainable
range for
ET
actual
maximum
yield, kg/m
3
maximum
yield, kg/ha
ET
potential
deflection
point
non-sustainable
range
Fig. 5 Example of a crop production function for wheat. In this example potential water consumption by
wheat is 4,200 m
3
/ha per growing season (10 m
3
/ha equal 1 mm per growing season). The figure refers to
irrigated wheat, Great Plains, US, (Hanks et al. 1969)
Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115 9
The net nutrient balance is the difference between the input and output components. The
storage represents the total stock of a nutrient in the soil, part of which is available for
uptake by the crop during its growing cycle. Table 2 shows the breakdown of the Inputs,
Storage and Output into basic elements. All inputs, storages and outputs are to be expressed
in relation to both N and P.
As nitrogen is required in large quantities by growing crops, and as the soil-plant system
is open for nitrogen, it commonly is the limiting factor in arable cropping systems.
Applying N (in manure, crop residues, N-fixing crop species, and inorganic fertilizer) is a
common agricultural practice to increase crop yields. Using organic sources has additional
benefits: improved soil structure, improved soil biology, increased water holding capacity
of the soil and increased carbon sequestration. Sources of organic material, however, are
limited. When the indigenous fertility of soils often is low, the supply of nutrients in organic
form will never be enough to replenish the outputs and the use of inorganic fertilizer is
therefore inevitable, the more so as the phosphorus content of organic material is not
sufficient to support high production levels.
When too much N fertilizer is applied, or the timing is wrong (see section on water use
and water consumption), nitrate leaches to the groundwater or downstream drains (Fig. 7).
Most at risks are sandy soils in high rainfall areas where high doses of N fertilizer are
applied. Also in irrigated areas with high inputs of N, nitrate leaching risk can be high.
Applying P (rock phosphate or super phosphate) will have a dramatic positive impact on
crop yield and, as P is not very mobile in the soil system, leaching is unlikely. The impact
of fertilizer application on crop yield will most likely be determined by P, while the
environmental impact is dominated by N fertilizer application. As a first approach we
define the critical value and target value as follows:
Degradation to the groundwater The concentration of N in the drainage water from the
agricultural area must be less than 50 mg nitrate per liter, being the health standard of the
World Health Organization (WHO);
Mining of nutrients The effect of mining of nutrients is acceptable when during one
specific cropping season less than 10% of the nutrient stock (N or P) is removed.
input
output
STORAGE
inputinput
outputoutput
STORAGE
Fig. 6 Bas ic structure of an
inputoutput diagram
Table 2 Breakdown in basic elements
Inputs Storage Outputs
Mineral fertilizer Soil organic matter Crop yield
Organic fertilizer Soil organic nitrogen Animal products (meat, milk)
Biological N fixation Total soil P Crop residues
Other inputs (deposition,
sedimentation, ...)
Losses to the environment (leaching,
erosion, gaseous, ...)
10 Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115
Planet: pesticide use
The main objective of the sustainability indicator for pesticide use is to prevent adverse
health effects of farmers and operators and to minimize ecological risks of pesticides in
ecosystems. The indicator helps to reduce (over)reliance on pesticides for crop production.
The use of pesticides poses health risks to operators of spraying equipment (occupational
hazards), to consumers of crops and to the environment. The over-use of pesticides may
also lead to a crisis in the agriculture because of a gradual increase of resistance of pest
organisms (Castella et al. 1999). Sustainable use of pesticides implies that pesticides may
be used to maintain or increase the income of farmers, but without posing unacceptable
risks to people and the environment therefore:
& Contamination of spray operators and farm workers should be avoided.
& Contamination of soil, surface water, groundwater and food should be minimized.
& Environmental effects of the pesticides should be minimized.
Table 3 Critical values and target values for selected performance indicators
Indicator Critical value Target value
Percentage of children completing
primary school
Percentage value from Fig. 4 90%
Relative evapotranspiration ET
a
/ET
p
0.5 ET
a
/ET
p
0.7
Fertilizer use in terms of
depletion of stock
outputinput 0.1×storage The concentration in the
drainage water from the area
must be less than 50 mg
nitrate per liter
Pesticide use in terms of Exposure
Toxicity Ratio (ETR)
ETR100 ETR 1
Gross margin of crop
production
Gross margin of other
agricultural activities
Gross margin of current
method of crop production
Fig. 7 The non-consumed part
of the used irrigation water often
recharges the groundwaterbasin
(aquifer). This water leaches part
of the applied fertilizer and pes-
ticides from the field. Monitoring
the groundwater table and runoff
gives valuable information on
water use
Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115 11
In general, these conditions can be met through the application of the principles of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM; FAO 2004a)orGood Agricultural Practice (GAP)
(FAO 2004b; Silvie et al. 2001).
The problem in identifying one leading indicator for pesticide use is that many different
pesticides are used which behave differently in the environment and cause different types of
environmental damage at different concentrations. Therefore, to account for the overall
environmental impact of pesticide use, the most relevant modules of the PRIMET approach
are used. PRIMET (Pesticide Risks in the Tropics to Man, Environment and Trade) was
developed for use in the agricultural sector of Southeast Asia (Van den Brink et al. 2005). It
is a decision support system to estimate risks of pesticide applications to aquatic life (by
off-field spray drift), terrestrial life, groundwater used as drinking water and dietary
exposure.
PRIMET uses a combination of pesticide exposure assessment and risk assessment.
Input consists of the amounts of different active ingredients used in a specified area (such as
a single farm or the area around a village). The model can be tuned to local circumstances
such as temperature, type of water bodies present, soil density, daily drinking water
consumption, etc.
Pivotal to the PRIMET approach is the calculation of the Exposure Toxicity Ratios
(ETR). The ETRs are ratios that provide a quantitative estimate for risk, i.e., the likelihood
that a specific toxic effect occurs. The ratio is based on the predicted environmental
concentrations (PECs) of pesticides and on threshold values for an impact or toxicity
parameter, such as the No Effect Concentration (NEC) or Drinking Water Standard
(DWS). Above these threshold values, negative effects of toxic substances are possible. The
greater the value of an ETR, the higher is the risk. PECs are derived using relatively simple
model calculations of the environmental fate of pesticides. The relevant indicator values are
calculated as:
ETR
water
¼ PEC
water
=NEC
water
ETR
soil
¼ PEC
soil
=
NEC
soil
ETR
Groundwater
¼ PEC
groundwater
DWS
Where:
ETR Exposure toxicity ratio
PEC Predicted environmental concentration
NEC No effect concentration
DWS Drinking water standard
In PRIMET, the terrestrial life module is based on the risk of pesticide use to
earthworms. Although earthworms do occur in the more humid areas, it might be more
appropriate for arid areas to focus on other key invertebrate organisms, such as termites,
ants and/or scarabid beetles. Toxicity data for these species should in that case first be
collected.
The PRIMET system includes several series of model calculations using a number of
input variables. It is beyond the scope of this report to present all of them (van den Bosch
et al. 1998; Van den Brink et al. 2005). However, basically three types of input can be
distinguished.
& Variables that characterize local environmental conditions in an area or field:
hydrology, soil type, climate, etc.;
12 Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115
& Basic properties of the pesticides used: environmental behavior, degradation, toxicity;
& Parameters that describe pesticide use: number of applications, dose applied, frequency
of the applications.
Environmental variables can be measured and/or specified per farm, per community, per
region or per country. Especially those on climate and soil may apply to larger areas. Some
characteristics are site-specific. However, once these characteristics have been measured
they can be used for all future indicator calculations in the same area. Various pesticide
properties are available in literature or in files submitted for pesticide registration; others
probably need to be requested from pesticide manufacturers. No Effect Concentrations
(NEC) are derived from standard toxicity tests, some of which are required for registration
of the pesticide. Drinking water Standards (DWS) are often set by governments or
international organizations. When these basic properties of the pesticides are known, they
can be used in all calculations and for all areas and countries where the same substances are
used in agriculture. The site- and pesticide-specific information is gathered once and needs
little updating; say every 5 years. It should be kept in a database and be made available for
parties involved in monitoring of the pesticide indicator.
The most elementary input to the PRIMET model consists of data on pesticide use. This
information is specific for individual farms or areas and varies with time. The best way to
collect these data is through the use of questionnaires. These can be completed by farmers
or by personnel involved in farmers organizations. These data should be collected on at
least an annual basis, because pesticide use patterns vary considerably from year to year
depending on infestations by particular pests and the availability of particular pesticides on
the market. Hence, the pesticide indicator would benefit greatly from a system in which
farmers would permanently keep their own records of pesticide use.
It is recommended to calculate the ETR for surface ware, soil and groundwater.
Judgment of the sustainability of pesticide use should be based on the highest of the three
calculated ETR values. The non-sustainable range for the ETR is equal or greater than 100.
The target value is 1.0 (ETR 1.0 is sustainable).
Profit: gross farm income
Since the index is initiated by a group of distributors and manufacturers (Bos et al. 2005)of
agro-related products, it is assumed that farmers receive a fair price for their cash-crops.
This will contribute to improving their livelihoods. There is also a link to the other
indicators. For Planet: if producers receive low prices for their crop, they will have less
opportunities to invest in their farms, for instance to buy fertilizers to replenish soil fertility.
For People: when households have more income, sending their children to school will
become easier, because they can pay school fees, books, etc., or they can hire labour to
work on the farms (instead of relying on the labour of their children).
However, due to the set-up of agricultural markets in various countries, it is uncertain
whether farmers will receive a higher price for their cash-crop, even if they turn out higher
quality crops. There are various reasons for this uncertainty:
& In many countries, there is no price competition. The crop price is set (by the
government) in advance and may be adjusted when world prices rise during the season.
& Prices often apply to a whole region or even a whole country. The same price applies to
all producers, regardless of their location.
Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115 13
& Although the crop value chain has been liberalized in many countries, this has not led
to a competitive market. Usually producers have only one ginnery, mill, etc to where
they can sell their crop.
& In general the crop marketing chain remains heavily regulated with a large influence
exerted by the government.
Thus, we need an indicator to measure economic sustainability of the production of a
cash-crop. Because the indicator needs to be cost effective to measure, we will focus on the
gross margin. The gross margin is the difference between the gross income and variable
costs of growing a crop (and does not include overhead costs). Gross margins allow
comparison of the relative profitability of alternative cropping options that have similar
land, labour, machinery and equipment requirements. Comparisons may therefore be made
of a dominant cash-crop in the region and alternative crops. The gross margin is a
reasonable measure of the relative profitability of activities with similar demands on farm
resources. It is defined as:
GM
crop
¼ P
crop
Q
crop
X
P
input
Q
input

ð2Þ
GM
crop
Gross margins of the considered cash crop
P
crop
Price of the cash crop
Q
crop
Quantity of cash crop sold
P
input
Price per unit of all inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, seeds, hired labour
Q
input
Quantity of input units
Gross margins are e xpressed in a standard unit, for example per hectare. For
sustainability considerations, it is not recommended to calculate the gross margin for each
farmer, but on the basis of average values. Such an average gross margin would be
available at agricultural statistics offices, or can be collected from a sample of farmers.
The gross margins per hectare for the major cash crop must be higher than those for
other agricultural activities. Otherwise, if allowed and markets are available, farmers will
start switching from production of this crop to other activities. Secondly, the gross margins
of an alternative (improved) method of crop production must be higher than those for the
current method of crop production.
The critical values and target values of all five indicators are summarized in Table 3.
Acknowledgements The Rural Sustainability Index was developed as part of the Cotton Made in Africa®
project. The index was discussed with cotton producers, manufactures, distributors, international funding
agencies and with NGOs. Presently, the index is used in three cotton producing countries in Africa ( http://
www.cottonmadeinafrica.com). The project was partly funded by the Michael Otto Foundation, Hamburg,
Germany.
References
Bos MG (1997) Performance indicators for irrigation and drainage. Irrig Drain Syst 11(2):119137 Kluwer,
Dordrecht
Bos MG (2004) Using the depleted fraction to manage the groundwater table in irrigated areas. Irrig Drain
Syst 18.3:201209 Kluwer, Dordrecht
Bos MG, Burton MA, Molden DJ (2005) Irrigation and drainage performance assessment: Practical
guidelines. CABI, Wallingford, UK, p 154
14 Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115
Castella J-C, Jourdain D, Trébuil G, Napompeth B (1999) A systems approach to understanding obstacles to
effective implementation of IPM in Thailand: key issues for the cotton industry. Agric Ecosyst Environ
72:1734
FAO (2004a) http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPP/IPM
FAO (2004b) http://www.fao.org/icatalog
Gachimbi LN, de Jager A, en H, Thuranira EG, Nandwa SM (2002) Participatory diagnosis of soil nutrient
depletion in semi-arid areas of Kenya. Manag Afr Soils 26:15. IIED, London, UK
Hanks RJ, Gardner HR, Florian RL (1969) Plant growth evapotranspiration relations for several crops in
the Central great Plains. Agron J 61:3034
ILO (2002) Every child counts. New global estimates on child labour. ILO, Geneva
Silvie P, Deguine JP, Nibouche S, Michel B, Vaissayre M (2001) Potential of threshold-based interventions
for cotton pest control by small farmers in West Africa. Crop Prot 20:297301
Smaling EMA (Ed.) (1998) Nutrient balances as indicators of productivity and sustainability in Sub-Saharan
African agriculture. Agric Ecosyst Environ, Special issue, 71(1,2,3):346
UN (2000) Millennium Development Goals, http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals
UNESCO (2002) Statistical database. Updated 2004-069-15. Available at: http://stats.uis.unesco.org
van den Bosch H, De Jager A, Vlaming J (1998) Monitoring nutrient flows and economic performance in
African farming systems (NUTMON). II. Tool development. Agric Ecosyst Environ 71:4962
Van den Brink PJ, Ter Horst MMS, Beltman WHJ, Vlaming J, van den Bosch H (2005) PRIMET version
1.0, manual and technical description. A decision support system for assessing pesticide risks in the
tropics to man, environment and trade. Alterra Report 1185. ISSN 156-7197
Vlaming J, van den Bosch H, van Wijk MS, de Jager Ar, Bannink A, van Keulen H (2001) Monitoring
nutrient flows and economic performance in tropical farming systems (NUTMON). Part 1. Manual for
the NUTMON-toolbox. Alterra/LEI, Wageningen, s Gravenhage, the Netherlands
Irrig Drainage Syst (2007) 21:115 15
... Improving agricultural practice and water The relative evapotranspiration is the ratio of ETa to ETp. It is used to indicate that water is adequately available to sustain agricultural production during the growing season [25]. When ETp is the same as ETa during the growing season, the crop is not affected by water scarcity, and the crop yield can be maximized in terms of weight per hectare [25]. ...
... It is used to indicate that water is adequately available to sustain agricultural production during the growing season [25]. When ETp is the same as ETa during the growing season, the crop is not affected by water scarcity, and the crop yield can be maximized in terms of weight per hectare [25]. In terms of water consumption, while maintaining maximum crop production, the cumulative value of ETp is as high as 1.42 ETa [25]. ...
... When ETp is the same as ETa during the growing season, the crop is not affected by water scarcity, and the crop yield can be maximized in terms of weight per hectare [25]. In terms of water consumption, while maintaining maximum crop production, the cumulative value of ETp is as high as 1.42 ETa [25]. Appraisal of increased production on development strategies and crop water production requires information on land suitability for agricultural expansion, potential and current crop yields, and the relationship between ETa/ETp, yield, and water consumption patterns via actual evapotranspiration. ...
Article
Full-text available
Agricultural production plays a vital role in the global economy, which is also true in the upper Omo-Gibe basin (UOGB) of Ethiopia. Because of its high percentage contribution to the country's GDP, it figured prominently in job creation and its political, economic, and social stability. Additionally, agricultural production can be increased by increasing crop water productivity and improving agricultural management. Thus, this research aims to develop strategies for increasing the production of maize crops in the water-scarce Omo-gibe basin of Ethiopia. Crop production function analysis and its planting can be studied for the rainfed maize area as a function of the amount of seeds, fertilizers, and water utilized to evaluate crop yield in the study area. To enhance crop productivity in the basin, a total of 30,287.17 ha of suitable pastoral land in the three slope classes has been converted to a rainfed maize area. Furthermore, two strategies in the three land-use conditions are identified to meet the expected 2030 UOGB rainfed maize production target and are assessed based on yield gap increases of one-fourth, two-fourth, and three-fourth. In the first strategy, increasing yield gaps by one-fourth, two-fourths, and three-fourths contributes 23.12, 46.23, and 69.35%, respectively, of the total targeted production in the basin's current rainfed maize area, whereas in the second strategy, increased production for additional suitable land contributed 0.80, 0.39% and 0.68%, 1.61, 0.79 and 1.36, and 2.41, 1.18, and 2.04% of the planned target production in the same order.
... 7 /Y M] f6 2 ) ,9 6 ' 3Y Z Q $X ' J 8ME6 ' Rezaei-Moghaddam et al., 2005 . J 'X ) ,+% Bos et al., 2007 .( 36 /6 -. ...
... Agricultural sustainability should be viewed from three alternative perspectives: people, planet, and profit [7,19]. Agroecology is used to assess and monitor sustainable agriculture, as it is a blend of traditional and modern knowledge to produce crops yield by keeping in mind environmental, social, and ecological aspects [3]. ...
Article
Sugarcane is cash crop that demands various agricultural inputs like fertilizers, labor, etc. The study area is Shevgaon and Paithan sub-districts of Maharashtra, around Jayakwadi Dam on the Godavari River. The objectives of the present study are (1) to assess the sustainability of the Agroecosystem of the sugarcane cultivation in a local context with fewer resources available for study. (2) To identify and know the present status of activities that need to be improved for sustainable agriculture. Agroecological sustainability of sugarcane management practices conceptualized and operationalized using SALT (The sustainability assessment Adaptive and Low-input Tool). Overall, social and economic dimensions showed low values. Sub-indicators within social dimension like organized farmers, participation in decision making and level of trust in public institution were observed low. Most of other sub-indicators are of average values. Farmers training, self help groups, Group farming, subsidies for infrastructure and agricultural inputs, crushing of sugarcane residue, preservation of local seeds, use of locally made and organic fertilizers like vermicopost, biofertilizers can aid sustainable agriculture. Use of MIS,GIS,and IT can support good governance which will improve public trust and participation.
... Notarnicola et al. [101] outline the need to further develop LCA methodology and an integrated account of environmental impacts. Bos et al. [102] present another way to assess whether agriculture is sustainable, the "rural sustainability index" including environmental, social, and economic perspectives. ...
Article
Full-text available
The need for fundamental changes in the way humans interact with nature is now widely acknowledged in order to achieve sustainable development. Agriculture figures prominently in this quest, being both a major driver and a major threat to global sustainability. Agricultural systems typically have co-evolved with other societal structures—retailers, land management, technology, consumer habits, and environmental and agricultural law—and can therefore well be described as socio-technical regimes in the sense of the sustainability transitions literature. This paper aims to give an overview of the emerging field of governing transitions to sustainability agriculture and the topics and trends covered, focusing on how agricultural transitions are being governed through a variety of actors and at a variety of levels. We conduct a systematic review of 153 articles published before the year 2019. We identify two main perspectives: papers that analyse the status quo in farming practices and reasons for lock-in, and papers that explore potential transition pathways and their governance. Predominantly, papers study (local) niche developments and discuss governance options for upscaling, rather than actual regime change. Seven distinct perspectives emerge from our reading of the selected articles: application of theoretical perspectives from the literature on socio-technical transitions; governance and regulation; knowledge and learning; concrete approaches to reduce the environmental impact of agricultural systems; urbanisation, urban agriculture, and local food networks; the role of agri-food businesses; as well as the role of gender. While a variety of local case studies shows potential for small-scale changes that might be transferable to other regions and higher levels of governance, it generally appears that more integrative, comparative work and perhaps more coherence in conceptual approaches would benefit the currently highly fragmented field.
Article
Full-text available
Objectives: The study was conducted to identify the factors affecting agricultural sustainability in Meshkinshahr. For this purpose, first using theoretical principles to identify and categorize the factors affecting the factors affecting agricultural sustainability and then using the identified indicators, the effective factors were examined. Materials and Methods: First, complete and comprehensive review of domestic and foreign literature was conducted and based on it, a researcher-made questionnaire was developed as the main research tool. The statistical population of the study is farmers of Meshkinshahr city and sampling has been done by simple random method. The number of statistical samples using Cochran's formula was 377 which was distributed among farmers in the 2009-2010 crop year. Also, the reliability and validity of the questionnaire designed based on Cronbach's alpha and factor loading test are evaluated. The relationship between sustainability and sustainability indices in agriculture with structural equations was investigated. Results: Results: The results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that all of the 75 items had two items with a factor load of less than 0.5 and were removed from the questionnaire, but the rest of the items had a factor load of more than 0.5, also in the study of the effect of different indicators on stability. Agriculture The results show that effective indicators include; Individual characteristics, including income, education, age and other variables that affect the latent variable of individual characteristics of farmers in the form of Likert spectrum, and in examining the effect of different indicators, show that individual characteristics with an impact factor of 0.099 on agricultural sustainability at level one Percentages have a significant impact. On the other hand, the variable of economic factors with a coefficient of impact of 0.077 at the level of one percent, has a significant and positive effect. The variable of socio-cultural factors also has a positive and significant effect with an impact factor of 0.971 at the level of one percent. Also, the variable of political factors with an impact factor of 0.964, the variable of environmental factors with an impact factor of 0.912, the variable of managerial factors with an impact factor of 0.132 and the variable of promotional-educational factors with an impact factor of 0.961, at the level of one percent. They are positive and meaningful. Conclusion: Therefore, the results show that the studied indicators in individual, economic, socio-cultural, political, educational and promotional, environmental and managerial dimensions are effective on agricultural sustainability.
Article
Cooperatives are considered an alternative for dealing with socioeconomic and environmental problems and achieving a more sustainable society due to their forms of work based on cooperation. This research proposes to identify how cooperatives can contribute to local sustainability through indicators. By collecting information through field research and applying a questionnaire containing questions about the members and indicators in the social, economic and environmental dimensions, the level of sustainability of the cooperatives and the performance of indicators were determined. The study showed that the cooperatives are characterised by medium sustainability. In the social dimension, it was evident that the indicators of employment opportunity and family succession in the cooperative showed the lowest performance. In the economic dimension, cooperatives manage to ensure financial returns to their members, but they still present weaknesses in economic income, in alternative sources of income, in the efficiency of their production system (Cooper and Mulheres de Barro [lit. Women of Clay]) and in commercialisation (Mulheres de Barro). Regarding the environmental dimension, Mulheres de Barro performed better than Cooper and the research identified that both cooperatives carry out practices to conserve natural resources, and believe that their activities help preserve the environment.
Article
Full-text available
Given the constraints agricultural land, the use of agricultural greenhouses is suggested as a fundamental approach to ensure food provision; nevertheless, the substantial energy consumption associated with greenhouse production, coupled with the constraints and finite nature of energy resources, provide significant difficulties for the human. Hence, to enhance the efficiency of each input in production, the management of agricultural input consumption and decision-making is of paramount significance. The present study was conducted to determine and validate efficient factors for energy consumption in cucumber greenhouses in Iran. This study, by analyzing the energy inputs and outputs, as well as the factors that influence that, assessed the energy efficiency of greenhouse production. The study was conducted in Kerman Province which is known as the center of greenhouse cucumber production center in Iran. A total of 356 greenhouse owners were selected using two-stage cluster sampling method. The study, using a theoretical framework, assessed the influence of technical knowledge, environmental values, environmental beliefs, environmental norms, education levels, Greenhouse’s work experience, educational-extension services, cost-effectiveness, and technical management on energy consumption efficiency. The research findings indicated that a substantial percentage (79%) of the variability in the energy consumption efficiency variable could be accurately anticipated by these factors. Furthermore, the analysis of the effective factors on the sustainability of energy consumption have indicated the large influence of educational-extension services on the greenhouse owners in line with optimal energy consumption. Overall, the findings of the present study contribute to the development of more integrated and more comprehensive models in the area of energy consumption sustainability in greenhouse cropping systems.
Article
Full-text available
The main purpose of this study was Effective factors on the level of technical knowledge of pomegranate producersin Markazi province. The statistical population of this study was consisted of all pomegranate gardeners were the central province in case study (N = 6320). Using Cochran's sampling formula, 240 of them were selected as a sample (N=240). The main instrument in this study was questionnaire which its validity was confirmed by the panel of experts and The reliability of it was also calculated by using a sequential alpha test and through software R (0/75- 0/89). Data were analyzed by SPSS18 software. The results of spirman correlation analysis showed at Among variables, pomegranate cultivation experience, social participation, social capital, Access to credits, amount of earn, amount of production, number of extension calls, The use of communication and information channels and the distance with promotion services centers have a significant relationship with the level of technical knowledge of farmers in the field of pomegranate production. The results of regression analysis showed Membership variables in social networks and organizations and use of resources , communication channels, Yearly earnings and the number of extension contacts have the greatest impact on improving the technical knowledge of antagonists. Also, the range of technical knowledge (cognitive, knowledge and skill) have a significant impact on the improvement of the pomegranate performance. So that they can predict 48. 5 of variance of the dependent variable of the research (pomegranate function).
Article
Full-text available
Citation: Erraach, Y.; Jaafer, F.; Radić, I.; Donner, M. Sustainability Labels on Olive Oil: A Review on Consumer Attitudes and Behavior. Sustainability 2021, 13, 12310. https://doi. Abstract: Product labeling is a way to inform consumers and increase their awareness about sustainability attributes of products. It guarantees the use of specific production conditions, promotes market incentives and highlights environmental, social and/or ethical product attributes. This study provides a literature review of sustainability labels on olive oil including consumer attitudes and behavior towards this product. Results show that consumers have positive attitudes towards olive oil carrying sustainability labels and are willing to pay more for olive oil carrying those labels. However, the major drivers of this behavior are far from being related to sustainability. This insight jeopardizes the main objective of those labels and suggests more clarifications about the information delivered by them. More in-depth investigations are needed about the drivers of consumer behavior towards olive oil carrying sustainability labels.
Article
Full-text available
A comprehensive study of the history of cotton production in Thailand shows the causes of its collapse. Crop protection problems are regarded as major driving forces behind the recent changes in cotton production systems. The cotton industry went through the characteristic sequence leading from subsistence farming to a disaster phase, because of increasing reliance on chemical pesticides. Integration of biophysical and socio-economic aspects of cotton production allows for this evolutionary path and the obstacles to the dissemination of IPM principles among key stakeholders to be explained. Suggestions are made to facilitate the process of collective learning toward more sustainable IPM practices.
Article
Pesticide exposure via for instance spray drift or runoff to surface water, accumulation in the topsoil, and leaching to groundwater potentially affects organisms in water and soil and might also pose risks to humans via dietary exposure, in case they consume contaminated aquatic products like groundwater, macrophytes and fish. To estimate these risks at the household level the PRIMET Decision Support System was developed. PRIMET runs with a minimum of input data and is developed to be used in developing countries. The risk assessment is expressed in Exposure Toxicity Ratio’s which are calculated by dividing the predicted exposure by the safe concentration. This report provides a mathematical description of the processes incorporated into PRIMET and a user manual. PRIMET is freely available at www.primet.wur.nl
Article
The depleted fraction, defined as the ratio of ET actual over total inflow (P + V c), relates parameters of the water balance of an irrigated area with each other in such a way that the (water) manager obtains information on the rate of change of water stored in the area (soil moisture and groundwater). If the annual average of the depleted fraction equals about 0.6 water storage in the area is stable, while water is stored for lower values of the depleted fraction. If the value of the depleted fraction exceeds about 0.6, the volume of water stored in the area decreases. This decrease is partly due to natural drainage and partly due to capillary rise into the root zone of the irrigated crop. Despite this capillary rise, the actual evapo-transpiration drops below the potential ET-value. For most crops, a decrease of ET by about 25% would result in a higher productivity in terms of yield per cubic meter water. However, the yield per hectare (and thus farm income) would decrease. Management of an irrigation system is recommended in such a way that the monthly values of the depleted fraction range is between 0.5 and 0.8. Such a management rule would provide sufficient water for leaching (at the 0.5 side of the range) and provide high crop yield per unit water consumed (at the 0.8 side).
Article
Effective irrigation and drainage systems are essential if growing demands for water resources are to be met. For the use of water for irrigation to be improved we must understand current levels of performance. This book draws together the growing body of knowledge on irrigation and drainage performance assessment that has been gained over the last twenty years. It provides guidelines for practitioners to enable them to design and carry out performance assessment and implement performance-based management. Developed by a working group of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) it provides a generic framework for performance assessment with guidance on the theory and practice of how to audit and assess the performance of irrigation and drainage schemes. © M.G. Bos, M.A. Burton and D.J. Molden 2005. All rights reserved.
Article
Lysimeters, which eliminated runoff and percolation below 90 cm, caused about 10 cm of additional water to be available for growth of grain sorghum in 1967. This additional water doubled yields, with an increase in evapotranspiration of only 50%. Evaporation from soil in the lysimeter was only 32% of the evapotranspiration, compared with 50% for the soil surrounding the lysimeter. Evaporation from the soil within a winter wheat crop during the acuively growing period in the spring, was estimated to be 15 and 37% of evapotranspiration for 1966 and 1967 respectively. Evaporation from the soil within the actively growing crop was estimated to be 34 and 20% of the evapotranspiration for oats and millet, respectively. Estimates of the amount of water evaporated from the soil within a crop allowed for estimation of transpiration from measurements of evapotranspiration. This data indicate that production and transpiration are directly related in this dryland area as de Wit (3) suggests. Please view the pdf by using the Full Text (PDF) link under 'View' to the left. Copyright © . .
Article
This paper summarises the performance indicators currently used in the Research Program on Irrigation Performance (RPIP).Within this Program field data are measured and collected to quantify andtest about 40 multidisciplinary performance indicators. These indicatorscover water delivery, water use efficiency, maintenance, sustainability ofirrigation, environmental aspects, socio-economics and management. Theindicators now are sufficiently mature to be recommended for use inirrigation and drainage performance assessment.
Article
Farm-NUTMON is a research tool that integrates the assessment of stocks and flows of the macro-nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on the one hand and economic farm analysis on the other. The tool is applicable at both the farm and the activity level. It includes a structured questionnaire, a database, and two simple static models (NUTCAL for calculation of nutrient flows and the ECCAL for calculation of economic parameters). Finally, a user interface facilitates data entry, data manipulation and extracts data from the database to produce input for both models. Farm-NUTMON allows (i) estimation of the extent to which farmers generate income from soil nutrient mining, (ii) assessment of the impact of changes in farm management techniques on nutrient balance and economic performance at activity level and farm level, and (iii) calculation of the economic impact of exogenous changes on the farm and activity level.
Article
Two types of threshold-based pest control schemes for cotton have been introduced by CIRAD, in collaboration with national research institutions in West Africa, to escape the traditional calendar-based spraying programme. In the first type (in Benin, Cameroon and Guinea), insecticides are still applied according to a calendar (5 or 6 sprayings at fortnightly intervals), but formulations and dosages depend on the pests observed on the day before spraying. In the second type (Faso, Mali, Senegal and Togo), insecticide is applied at a lower dosage than in the usual calendar-based programme and scouting is performed 6 days after spraying. Further spraying is performed on the next day if the threshold has been attained. Specific procedures depend on the country (sampling plan, insects considered as key-pests): spraying thresholds and active ingredients may vary according to these features. The main benefits of this approach are ecological and economic. A 40–50% reduction in pesticide consumption reduces the protection cost from US50/hatolessthanUS50/ha to less than US30/ha. Accurate timing of spraying results in a 100–200 kg/ha increase in seed-cotton yield. Many constraints remain, the main one being the training of farmers in insect scouting and identification. They may account for the small acreage currently sprayed within the context of threshold-based pest control in cotton.