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A quantum-like model of homeopathy clinical trials: Importance of in situ randomization and unblinding
Abstract
The randomized controlled trial (RCT) is the 'gold standard' of modern clinical pharmacology. However, for many practitioners of homeopathy, blind RCTs are an inadequate research tool for testing complex therapies such as homeopathy.
Classical probabilities used in biological sciences and in medicine are only a special case of the generalized theory of probability used in quantum physics. I describe homeopathy trials using a quantum-like statistical model, a model inspired by quantum physics and taking into consideration superposition of states, non-commuting observables, probability interferences, contextuality, etc.
The negative effect of blinding on success of homeopathy trials and the 'smearing effect' ('specific' effects of homeopathy medicine occurring in the placebo group) are described by quantum-like probabilities without supplementary ad hoc hypotheses. The difference of positive outcome rates between placebo and homeopathy groups frequently vanish in centralized blind trials. The model proposed here suggests a way to circumvent such problems in masked homeopathy trials by incorporating in situ randomization/unblinding.
In this quantum-like model of homeopathy clinical trials, success in open-label setting and failure with centralized blind RCTs emerge logically from the formalism. This model suggests that significant differences between placebo and homeopathy in blind RCTs would be found more frequently if in situ randomization/unblinding was used.
... Instead, there is growing evidence that in the fields we examine here, we witness the appearance of epistemologically novel features: to use the terminology of T. S. Kuhn, we see the emergence of a new paradigm. 27 It is very premature to fully describe this new scientific realm, but the 'weak quantum theory' as formulated by Atmanspacher et al, 25 theoretical work by Beauvais,17,18 and a few other attempts, might represent previews of what its principal components are. ...
... 9 As suggested by Beauvais, finding symptoms typical of one remedy in another study group may represent such a 'channel change' due to the inadequacy of non-local correlations for the transmission of information. 17 In homeopathy, and especially in view of some key properties of remedies, a direct implication of contextuality and significance appears. This becomes particularly evident when we take into account the 'coincidence' of the symbolic meaning of several homeopathic remedies with their curative specificity, as we commented in an earlier work. ...
... They contended that here a novel situation presents itself where some (but not all) of the features of the quantum microcosm reappear, 8,14,25 where quantum mechanics may serve as a metaphor for homeopathy, 10 and where new tools, such as contextuality and entanglement, may be sourced from the quantum formalism. 14,17 Moreover, the relationship between the symbolic meaning of a crude substance and the curative properties of the corresponding remedy, along with the identification of the curative action of remedies either in a direct or an inverse sense with respect to the crude substance-in a way reminiscent of similar patterns encountered in linguistics, myths and dream analysis 32 -poses additional challenges to any attempts to fully understand the underlying phenomenon. Metaphors from quantum mechanics have been of great importance for us to realise just how fundamental the role of non-repeatability is for the understanding of the whole homeopathic phenomenon and the recognition of the eventual crystallisation of a new scientific paradigm. ...
We discuss questions related to the ‘Benveniste Affair’, its consequences and broader issues in an attempt to understand homeopathy. Specifically, we address the following points:
1. The relationship between the experiments conducted by Benveniste, Montagnier, their collaborators and groups that independently tested their results, to ‘traditional’ homeopathy.
2. Possible non-local components such as ‘generalised entanglement’ as the basis of the homeopathic phenomenon and experimental evidence for them.
3. The capability of highly diluted homeopathic remedies to provoke tangible biological changes in whole organisms and cellular experimental systems.
4. Aspects of the similia principle related to the above.
5. Suggestions that can lead to experimental verifications of the non-local hypothesis in homeopathy.
... In 2013, I proposed a modeling of homeopathy clinical trials using quantumlike probabilities where the negative effects of blinding in homeopathy trials were taken into account. 25 This modeling was an adaptation of a previous model aimed to describe Benveniste's in vitro experiments. 26 Most physicians and biologists are admittedly unenthusiastic to read articles with mathematical reasoning. ...
... 35 In an article in 2013, I made a parallel between homeopathy clinical trials and single-photon interference in a MacheZehnder apparatus, a device whose principle is similar to Young's two-slit experiment. 25 On the basis of this modeling resting on quantum-like logic, I predicted that higher successes should be achieved in blind homeopathy clinical trials with local blind design. 25 Indeed, as we have seen, a local or in-house blind design is equivalent to an open-label design according to the modeling. ...
... 25 On the basis of this modeling resting on quantum-like logic, I predicted that higher successes should be achieved in blind homeopathy clinical trials with local blind design. 25 Indeed, as we have seen, a local or in-house blind design is equivalent to an open-label design according to the modeling. In contrast, the spreading of outcomes between placebo and verum was predicted for centralized blind design. ...
In previous articles, a description of 'unconventional' experiments (e.g.
in vitro or clinical studies based on high dilutions, 'memory of water' or
homeopathy) using quantum-like probability was proposed. Because the mathematical
formulations of quantum logic are frequently an obstacle for physicians and
biologists, a modified modeling that rests on classical probability is described
in the present article. This modeling is inspired from a relational
interpretation of quantum physics that applies not only to microscopic objects,
but also to macroscopic structures, including experimental devices and observers.
In this framework, any outcome of an experiment is not an absolute property of
the observed system as usually considered but is expressed relatively to an
observer. A team of interacting observers is thus described from an external view
point based on two principles: the outcomes of experiments are expressed
relatively to each observer and the observers agree on outcomes when they
interact with each other. If probability fluctuations are also taken into
account, correlations between 'expected' and observed outcomes emerge. Moreover,
quantum-like correlations are predicted in experiments with local blind design
but not with centralized blind design. No assumption on 'memory' or other
physical modification of water is necessary in the present description although
such hypotheses cannot be formally discarded. In conclusion, a simple modeling of
'unconventional' experiments based on classical probability is now available and
its predictions can be tested. The underlying concepts are sufficiently intuitive
to be spread into the homeopathy community and beyond. It is hoped that this
modeling will encourage new studies with optimized designs for in vitro
experiments and clinical trials.
... 17 This theory serves as a formal framework to describe possible quantum-like entanglement effects between the patient, the homeopathic substance, and the practitioner to describe the clinical effects of homeopathy. [18][19][20][21][22][23] Other hypotheses have been proposed to explain homeopathic treatment effects on a physicochemical level, such as nano-bubbles, 24 epitaxy, 25 hormesis, 26,27 silicacompounds, 28 isotopic positional correlations, 29 amino acids and peptides, 30 and others. However, the consensus opinion of the authors is that the four main conceptual approaches outlined earlier are currently the most commonly discussed hypotheses within the homeopathic research community. ...
... Based on related considerations, Beauvais hypothesized that centralized blinding eliminates differences between homeopathic samples and controls, whereas local blinding procedures should not influence any such differences. 22,23 We did not find any physicochemical investigation that addressed this prediction. ...
Objectives:
In parts I and II of our review of physicochemical research performed on homeopathic preparations, we identified relevant publications and analyzed the data in terms of individual experiments, looking for the most promising techniques that were used in the past. In this third part, we analyze the results of the experiments seeking to extract information about the possible modes of action underpinning homeopathic preparations.
Methods:
We summarized the results from the 11 experimental areas previously introduced, extracting the general findings and trends. We also summarized the results in terms of specific research topics: aging, medium used for potentization, sample volume, temperature, material of potentization vessel, and, finally, the use of molecules to probe homeopathic samples.
Results:
We identified a number of effects that appear consistently throughout the data: Differences to controls seem to increase with: time, moderate temperature, small samples volume, and in ionic medium, whereas high temperatures seem to abolish differences to controls. Based on the present analysis, there is no consistent evidence to date for the nanoparticle hypothesis to explain specific homeopathic treatment effects. However, the quantum coherence domain hypothesis, the dynamic water cluster hypothesis, and the weak quantum theory are still contenders and need to be further assessed experimentally.
Conclusions:
The field requires further targeted experimentation to validate past findings reporting differences between homeopathic dilutions and controls, and to expand these findings by specifically testing the three main working hypotheses that are currently at hand.
... The gold standard for assessing the efficacy of a medical treatment is the randomized controlled trial (RCT). 1 In his paper of 2013, Beauvais presented the application of a socalled 'quantum-like model of homeopathy' by introducing the idea of a type of randomization/unblinding which he called 'in situ'. 2 He predicted that randomized studies based on this type of randomization/unblinding lead to more pronounced effects in placebo controlled randomized homeopathic trials. ...
... When Beauvais introduced the idea of a new type of randomization/unblinding, which he called 'in situ', he hypothesized that randomized studies based on this type of randomization/unblinding lead to more pronounced effects in placebo controlled randomized homeopathy trials. 2 His paper was first published in the Homeopathy. Thereupon, Peter Fisher invited the homeopathic community to verify Beauvais' theory in practical experimental methods whereby the involvement of nonlocal mechanisms in homeopathic treatment might be tested. ...
Introduction:
Beauvais presented the application of a so-called 'quantum-like model of homeopathy' by introducing the idea of a type of randomization/unblinding which he called 'in situ'. He predicted that randomized studies based on this type of randomization/unblinding lead to more pronounced effects in placebo controlled randomized homeopathic trials. We designed an experiment regarding wheat germination and stalk length to investigate Beauvais' idea of 'in situ randomization/unblinding' using a homeopathic dilution of sulphur (LM VI) as compared to placebo as well as to water.
Aim and method:
The primary aim of this double-blind randomized controlled experiment was to investigate whether there are differences of 'in situ randomization/unblinding' vs 'central randomization/unblinding' with respect to the effect of a homeopathic substance compared to placebo. The secondary aim of our study was to examine possible differences between the sulphur and the placebo group in the 'in situ' arm regarding germination and/or stalk growth of wheat seedlings measured after a seven days exposure. Wheat was treated either with sulphur LM VI, placebo, or water. The wheat grains were placed on glass lids and treatment was performed following the 'in situ randomization/unblinding' as well as 'central randomization/unblinding' method. Germination was measured and classified into three categories.
Results:
Under 'in situ' randomization/unblinding the odds of a seed not to germinate is 40% lower if treated with sulphur compared to placebo (p=0.004). In contrast, these odds are practically equal in the 'central' meta-group (OR=1.01, p=0.954). Under 'in situ' randomization/unblinding the odds of a seed to germinate with a length ≥1mm is practically equal if treated with sulphur or with placebo (OR=0.96, p=0.717). In contrast, these odds are 21% higher under sulphur compared to placebo in the 'central' meta-group (OR=1.21, p=0.062). In summary, we found a sulphur effect that is significantly different between 'in situ' and 'central' randomization/unblinding relating to all three stages of germination.
... The reader is referred to other papers on these low dose, organismdependent response amplification phenomena for more in-depth explanations [21,99,119,120]. Given the quantum dot size of some homeopathically-prepared metal NPs [3], it is not also possible to rule out quantum mechanical phenomena in some of the homeopathicallyinduced low dose responses [147][148][149]. Quantum dots per se possess inherent unpredictability in their properties [150][151][152] as another potential explanation for the variability and anomalies of homeopathic medicine effects. ...
... Agitation of the solutions during manufacturing is necessary to generate such phenomena. Nanosilicon may also acquire quantum mechanical properties at small quantum dot sizes [42,164,166,167], a feature that may help account for certain other observations in the homeopathic drug development research literature [147,148,168]. Doping of the nanosilicon and nanosilica by the medicine source material and other trace contaminants in solution during early preparation steps [9] may add more memory and amplification mechanisms [164,169,170]. ...
... As a result, electron movement in quantum dot-sized nanoparticles can lead to quantum confinement, quantum entanglement, and quantum coherence phenomena, as claimed by other researchers for higher homeopathic potencies. 77,96,104,[108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116] Indeed, some investigators have proposed that the medicine information emerges from persistent supra-molecular aggregates of water, reflective of quantum coherence domains at the nano-scale. 10,27,105,106,117 The signal information derives from the original homeopathic manufacturing process of serial dilutions followed at each dilution step by multiple succussions (intense agitation or shaking of the liquid carrier, i.e., the non-linear dynamics of fluid turbulence). ...
Background:
Evidence indicates that homeopathic medicines are complex self-organizing nano-scale systems that generate unique low-intensity electromagnetic signals and/or quantum coherence domains. In Part 1, we reviewed relevant concepts from complex adaptive systems science on living systems for the nature of homeopathic healing.
Aim:
In Part 2, we discuss the complex-system nature of homeopathic medicines. The aim is to relate the evidence on the nature and properties of homeopathic medicines to the complex systems model for homeopathic healing.
Methods and results:
The work is a narrative review, with complexity model development for the nature of homeopathic medicines. Studies suggest that homeopathic manufacturing generates nano-structures of source material, silica and silicon quantum dots if succussed in glassware or including botanical source materials; or carbon quantum dots if succussed in plastic or including any organic source materials, as well as solute-induced water nano-structures carrying medicine-specific information. On contact with physiological fluids (e.g., blood plasma), there is evidence that nano-structures additionally adsorb individualized patterns of the recipient's own proteins on to their surfaces to create a unique protein corona coat (shell). Thus, the simillimum may generate a personalized biological identity upon administration. Consequently, a medicine can serve as an individually salient, self-similar information carrier, whose protein corona constituent pattern reflects the individual's current internal state of health/disease. Homeopathic medicine complexity emerges from interactions of the component parts from source, silica from glassware or carbon from plastic containers, solvents (lactose, water, ethanol), adsorbed biomolecule layers from plant or animal sources, and adsorbed biomolecules of the recipient. Low doses of these complex medicines can act as biological signaling agents to initiate hormesis via a network-wide pattern of adaptive responses by the recipient complex adaptive system, rather than as conventional pharmaceutical drugs. Biological mediators of adaptive responses include inter-connected network elements of the cell danger/damage defense system: for example, gene expression, reactive oxygen species, heat shock proteins, cytokines, macrophages, T-cells, and associated brain-immune system mediator pathways.
Conclusions:
Every homeopathic medicine is a complex nano-scale system involving multiple inter-connected, interacting components, and emergent properties. Simillimum individualization derives from formation of a unique personalized protein corona shell adsorbed to the reactive surface of the homeopathic nano-structures on contact with the recipient's body fluids. Low doses of such complex nano-structures initiate the adaptive processes of hormesis to mobilize endogenous healing of a disease state. The capacity for self-organization and self-similarity in complex systems is the key to future research on the nature of homeopathic medicines and systemic healing during individualized homeopathic treatment.
... 1) Weak quantum theory: based on an original paper by Atmanspacher, Römer and Walach (2002), several studies ( Walach, 2000;Milgrom, 2010Milgrom, , 2012Milgrom, , 2014Beauvais, 2013;Almirantis, 2013;Weingärtner, 2007) suggest that the effects of HDs do not involve local (causal) interactions, but a kind of connectedness modelled on the entanglement exhibited by subatomic particles with a common origin, or on Carl G. Jung's notion of synchronicity. In this case, HDs operate as signs (see below), however, their sign characteristic is not fixed by any information content in the remedy ( Walach, 2000). ...
... If the plausibility of this model is assumed, one could hypothesize that the consciousness of the practitioners in the production and application of homeopathic treatment/ experiment could play a role; it means that we might consider the interaction of their cognitive states using the same quantum-like logic. 3,[62][63][64][65][66] Despite some quantum phenomena, such as entanglement, being counterintuitive, they are extremely useful constructs in theoretical and experimental physics. Entanglement is accepted as a fact of nature and is actively being explored as a resource for future technologies including quantum computers, quantum communication networks, and high-precision quantum sensors. ...
Introduction There are two critical pillars of homeopathy that contrast with the dominant scientific approach: the similitude principle and the potentization of serial dilutions. Three main hypotheses about the mechanisms of action are in discussion: nanobubbles-related hormesis; vehicle-related electric resonance; and quantum non-locality.
Objectives The aim of this paper is to review and discuss some key points of such properties: the imprint of supramolecular structures based on the nanoparticle-allostatic, cross-adaptation-sensitization (NPCAS) model; the theory of non-molecular electromagnetic transfer of information, based on the coherent water domains model, and relying (like the NPCAS model) on the idea of local interactions; and the hypothesis of quantum entanglement, based on the concept of non-locality.
Results and Discussion The nanoparticles hypothesis has been considered since 2010, after the demonstration of suspended metal nanoparticles even in very highly diluted remedies: their actual action on biological structures is still under scrutiny. The second hypothesis considers the idea of electric resonance mechanisms between living systems (including intracellular water) and homeopathic medicines: recent findings about potency-related physical properties corroborate it. Finally, quantum theory of ‘non-local’ phenomena inspires the idea of an ‘entanglement’ process among patient, practitioner and the remedy: that quantic phenomena could occur in supra-atomic structures remains speculative however.
Conclusion Further studies are needed to ascertain whether and which of these hypotheses may be related to potential cellular effects of homeopathic preparations, such as organization of metabolic pathways or selective gene expression.
... Besides the 'classical' hypothesis of local causality, other authors used concepts derived from quantum physics, such as non-locality and entanglement. The authors who apply quantum concepts to homeopathy differ in what is entangled among practitioner, patient, and medicine [11,12]. Instead of formulating quantum mechanics with the use of classical analogies, Conte has fixed quantum reality on three basic and unclassical features: integer quanta, the non-commutation and the intrinsic, irreducible indeterminism and quantum interference. ...
... This suggestion was not an encouragement for the practice of homeopathy, but an attempt to understand the persisting success of this alternative medicine in the absence of a rational basis. Based on the hypothesis that quantum-like correlations were responsible for "successful" open-label homeopathy clinical trials, it was proposed to replace the centralized assessment of efficacy in blind trials (generally done by statisticians) with a local assessment (by physicians) [23]. Thieves et al. recently challenged this hypothesis and reported experiments in a plant model (wheat germination) that compared a homeopathy medicine and a placebo both in local and centralized blind designs [24]. ...
Background.
Factors that participate in the biological changes associated with a placebo are not completely understood. Natural evolution, mean regression, concomitant procedures and other non specific effects are well-known factors that contribute to the “placebo effect”. In this article, we suggest that quantum-like correlations predicted by a probabilistic modeling could also play a role.
Results.
An elementary experiment in biology or medicine comparing the biological changes associated with two placebos is modeled. The originality of this modeling is that experimenters, biological system and their interactions are described together from the standpoint of a participant who is uninvolved in the measurement process. Moreover, the small random probability fluctuations of a “real” experiment are also taken into account. If both placebos are inert (with only different labels), common sense suggests that the biological changes associated with the two placebos should be comparable. However, the consequence of this modeling is the possibility for two placebos to be associated with different outcomes due to the emergence of quantum-like correlations.
Conclusion.
The association of two placebos with different outcomes is counterintuitive and this modeling could give a framework for some unexplained observations where mere placebos are compared (in some alternative medicines for example). This hypothesis can be tested in blind trials by comparing local vs. remote assessment of correlations.
... Das war der direkte Versuch, die Hypothese von Francis Beauvais umzusetzen [34][35][36]. Francis Beauvais war ein Mitarbeiter und Kollege von Jacques Benveniste. In seinen Publikationen analysiert er das Scheitern des Benveniste'schen Programms, das «Gedächtnis des Wassers» oder später der «digital biology» zu beweisen. ...
... Le premier, F. Beauvais, a travaillé à l'Unité 200 de l'Inserm dans les années 80 et 90, au sein de l'équipe de J. Benveniste, équipe à laquelle l'auteur de cet article participait également. Prenant en considération les paradigmes de la physique quantique, il propose une formulation statistique complexe qui aboutit à la démonstration qu'une partie des effets du médicament seraient également présente dans le groupe placebo, ce qui contribue à diminuer la différence statistique entre les deux groupes [42]. Il propose la réalisation du codage et de la randomisation in situ sur le lieu même de l'expérience. ...
... The nature of the specific signal from the homeopathic nanomaterial may emerge from the biochemical [284], electromagnetic [33, 98,288], magnetic [289], photon [32,50], and/or quantum mechanical [30, 290,291] properties of nanomaterials at different potencies and in various contexts [30,292]. Available evidence suggests that the nature of homeopathic medicines and their mechanisms of action on living systems are complex and multivariate. ...
... Le premier, F. Beauvais, a travaillé à l'Unité 200 de l'Inserm dans les années 80 et 90, au sein de l'équipe de J. Benveniste, équipe à laquelle l'auteur de cet article participait également. Prenant en considération les paradigmes de la physique quantique, il propose une formulation statistique complexe qui aboutit à la démonstration qu'une partie des effets du médicament seraient également présente dans le groupe placebo, ce qui contribue à diminuer la différence statistique entre les deux groupes [42]. Il propose la réalisation du codage et de la randomisation in situ sur le lieu même de l'expérience. ...
In the absence of new meta-analyses or general reviews relating to clinical research in homeopathy, the most relevant recent publications concern observational studies in allergology (asthma, atopic eczema) and otorhinolaryngology, mainly into acute otitis where a controlled clinical trial is envisaged. New socio-economic studies highlight the contribution of homeopathy in Italy, Brazil and France, while in developing countries, the benefit of homeopathic remedies in chronic pathologies, such as diabetic neuropathy or tuberculous lymphadenitis, is currently being studied. Finally, proposals have been put forward for an assessment of homeopathy taking into account its singularity, in particular the concept of quantum nonlocality which can be applied to high dilutions and which can have a bearing on the organisation of clinical trials, particularly for the placebo group.
Introduction
Fundamental research into the scientific basis of the manufacture of ultra-high dilutions and their working in applications has evolved over the past twenty years since our last critical analysis of the field was published in 1994 [1]. New contenders from the realm of physics (entanglement, non-locality) have entered the scene. The vast majority within the community of the application of ultra-high dilutions are not physicists. This paper attempts to elucidate the concepts of entanglement, non-locality and their application in ultra-high dilution research (UHD).
Method
A selected study on the activity of fundamental research into UHD is performed to gain insight into trends of development activity of fundamental research in this area. In an attempt to nurture further development of theoretical models in fundamental research in UHD, an attempt is made to made recent theoretical concepts more accessible to the larger community including practitioners, policy makers and beneficiaries of UHD.
Results
Fundamental research in UHD had a period of prolific activity and recognition at the turn of the millennium until about ten years ago. Since then, research output as well as its recognition receded sharply suggesting that a period of reflection and consolidation may be in progress.
Conclusion
The study and the knowledge gained from more recent theoretical models in UHD and entanglement suggest that there may be some benefit in stocktaking of what we really know about the fundamental workings of UHD as well as identifying or developing models that include measurable predictors that go beyond metaphorical descriptors.
Introduction
it is assumed that, as measured during randomised placebo-controlled trials, specific and non-specific effects of an intervention do not interact with each other, and are simultaneously observable. It is argued this assumption means the results of RCTs (particularly for complex interventions, such as homeopathy) are treated too simplistically.
Purpose of study
to examine if a complex intervention's specific effects and non-specific effects are complementary (in a sense derived and generalised from quantum theory), i.e., correlated sets of observables from an RCT, in which both are necessary to achieve a more complete understanding of the efficacy of an intervention.
Methods
building on earlier work, and based on the properties of Abelian and non-Abelian algebras, a mathematical argument is developed, which is used to examine the nature of the relationship between a complex intervention's specific effects and non-specific effects as observables from RCTs.
Results
the mathematical argument suggests that it is essentially incorrect to assume specific effects and non-specific effects of a complex intervention (as measured during an RCT of a complex intervention) can be separated into simultaneously measurable, non-interacting sets of observables.
Conclusion
this calls into question not only the legitimacy of conclusions drawn from RCTs, but also the blinded observational stance of the RCT protocol (which currently justifies - and is justified by - a reductionist approach to the efficacy of complex therapeutic interventions). Indeed, such RCTs might well be demonstrating a Heisenberg-type Uncertainty between the specific effects of the intervention and the non-specific effects of the consultation, as complementary observable parts making up a whole irreducible phenomenon: the therapeutic process.
When human polymorphonuclear basophils, a type of white blood cell with antibodies of the immunoglobulin E (IgE) type on its surface, are exposed to anti-IgE antibodies, they release histamine from their intracellular granules and change their staining properties. The latter can be demonstrated at dilutions of anti-IgE that range from 1 x 10(2) to 1 x 10(120); over that range, there are successive peaks of degranulation from 40 to 60% of the basophils, despite the calculated absence of any anti-IgE molecules at the highest dilutions. Since dilutions need to be accompanied by vigorous shaking for the effects to be observed, transmission of the biological information could be related to the molecular organization of water.
Benveniste's experiments (also known as " memory of water " or " digital biology " experiments) remain unresolved. In some research areas, which have in common the description of cognition mechanisms and information processing, quantum-like statistical models have been proposed to address problems that were " paradoxical " in a classical frame. Therefore, the outcomes of the cognitive state of the experimenter were calculated for a series of Benveniste's experiments using a quantum-like statistical model (i.e. a model inspired by quantum physics and taking into consideration superpo-sition of quantum states, non-commutable observables, and contextuality). Not only were the probabilities of " success " and " failure " of the experiments modeled according to their context, but the emergence of a signal from background was also taken into account. For the fi rst time, a formal framework devoid of any reference to " memory of water " or " digital biology " describes all the characteristics of these disputed results. In particular, the diffi culties encountered by Benveniste (reproducibility of the experiments, disturbances after blinding) are simply explained in this model without additional ad hoc hypotheses. It is thus proposed that we see Benveniste's experiments as the result of quantum-like probability interferences of cognitive states.
One-particle quantum interference is presented using probably the simplest setup. This review of experimental facts may be useful as a short self-contained introduction to quantum mechanics, highlighting the dependence of interference on indistinguishability.
quantum interference is evidenced in mental states by using ambiguous figures
The subject of this special issue is quantum models of cognition. A growing number of researchers are looking to quantum theory to circumvent stubborn problems within their own fields. This is also true within cognitive science and related areas, hence this special issue. With less than perfect accuracy, there are two aspects of quantum theory which open the door to addressing problems in a totally new light. The first is known as "contextuality". Even within quantum theory, contextuality is a subtle notion to grasp. The second aspect is "quantum entanglement". Entanglement is a bizarre phenomenon in which seemingly separated quantum systems behave as one. The key move made by researchers exploiting notions of entanglement outside of physics is to view it as a promising means to model
non–separability of cognitive states. Quantum theory was originally invented by physicists to explain findings that seemed paradoxical from a standard physical view point. The papers in this issue are highly interdisciplinary; their authors are based in psychology, mathematics, physics, and computer science. Several of them are speculative, as perhaps should be the case when a field is very new. Within this special issue, interference is being exploited by a number of researchers, for example, in relation to new models of human judgment and decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Science is always presupposing some basic concepts that are held to be useful. These absolute presuppositions (Collingwood)
are rarely debated and form the framework for what has been termed “paradigm” by Kuhn. Our currently accepted scientific model
is predicated on a set of presuppositions that have difficulty accommodating holistic structures and relationships and are
not geared towards incorporating non-local correlations. Since the theoretical models we hold also determine what we perceive
and take as scientifically viable, it is important to look for an alternative model that can deal with holistic relationships.
One approach is to generalise algebraic quantum theory, which is an inherently holistic framework, into a generic model. Relaxing
some restrictions and definitions from quantum theory proper yields an axiomatic framework that can be applied to any type
of system. Most importantly, it keeps the core of the quantum theoretical formalism. It is capable of handling complementary
observables, i.e. descriptors which are non-commuting, incompatible and yet collectively required to fully describe certain
situations. It also predicts a generalised form of non-local correlations that in quantum theory are known as entanglement.
This generalised version is not quantum entanglement but an analogue form of holistic, non-local connectedness of elements
within systems, predicted to occur whenever elements within systems are described by observables which are complementary to
the description of the whole system. While a considerable body of circumstantial evidence supports the plausibility of the
model, we are not yet in a position to use it for clear cut predictions that could be experimentally falsified. The series
of papers offered in this special issue are the beginning of what we hope will become a rich scientific debate.
KeywordsHolism–Non-locality–Entanglement–Complementarity–Generalised quantum theory
After more than 20 years, the case of the "memory of water" still has not been resolved satisfactorily. After the affair with the journal Nature, Benveniste extended his results on high dilutions to an "electromagnetic biology" and then to a "digital biology," where electromagnetic signals supposed to be emitted from biologically active solutions were said to be stored on magnetic memories. Although the results obtained by Benveniste and coworkers were obvious, the difficulties in reproducibility by other teams created doubt of the reality of the alleged phenomenon. In a first step, we analyzed a set of experiments obtained by Benveniste's team in the 1990s. We quantified the relationship between "expected" effects (ie, labels of the tested samples) and apparatus outcomes, and we defined the experimental conditions to observe significant correlations. We concluded that the results of these experiments were related to experimenter-dependent correlations, which did not support the initial "memory of water" hypothesis. The fact that a signal emerged from background noise, however, remained puzzling. Therefore, in a second step, we described Benveniste's experiments according to the relational interpretation of quantum physics of C. Rovelli. In this interpretation, the state of a system is observer-dependent and the collapse of the wave function appears only in the states relative to a given observer. This interpretation allowed us to elaborate a model describing Benveniste's experiments in which the emergence of a signal from background noise was described by the entanglement of the experimenter with the observed system. In conclusion, the pursuit of the experimental "proof" to support the "memory of water" hypothesis has prevented other interpretations. Although our hypothesis does not definitely dismiss the possibility of "memory of water," the experimenter-dependent entanglement could be an attractive alternative interpretation of Benveniste's experiments.
The activity of very high dilutions of silica, a substance cytoxic for macrophages, was tested on the synthesis by mouse peritoneal macrophages of the inflammatory ether-lipid paf-acether and its precursor lyso paf-acether. C57Bl6 female mice received for 25 days either 1.66 × 10−11 M silica (11 sil) or 1.66 × 10−19 M (19 sil) (final concentration) in the tap-water they were given to drink while control mice remained untreated. Isolated macrophages from mice treated with 11 sil produced 44.2 and 30.8% more paf-acether than cells from untreated mice in the presence of 50 and 200 μg zymosan (Z)/ml respectively. When 19 sil was given to the mice, the respective increases were 67.5 and 38%. In an experiment with a blind design, the mice were either untreated or received 19 sil or saline submitted to the same dilution procedure (19 sal). After administration of 19 sil, paf-acether synthesis was 55.5 and 33.5% higher upon stimulation with 50 and 200 μg Z/ml, respectively, than in the 19 sal group. In a third blind experiment, macrophages from mice that received 19 sil formed 61.3 and 28.6% more paf-acether upon stimulation with 50 and 200 μg Z/ml respectively, as compared to mice receiving 19 sal or lactose submitted to the same dilution procedure (19 lac). There was no difference between the 19 sal and the 19 lac groups. The differences between control and silica-treated mice were highly statistically significant in all experiments. There was no effect on the synthesis of lyso paf-acether. These results demonstrate clear ex vivo cellular effect of high dilutions of silica, that cannot be explained in our present state of knowledge.
A quantum dynamic model of decision-making is presented, and it is compared with a previously established Markov model. Both the quantum and the Markov models are formulated as random walk decision processes, but the probabilistic principles differ between the two approaches. Quantum dynamics describe the evolution of complex valued probability amplitudes over time, whereas Markov models describe the evolution of real valued probabilities over time. Quantum dynamics generate interference effects, which are not possible with Markov models. An interference effect occurs when the probability of the union of two possible paths is smaller than each individual path alone. The choice probabilities and distribution of choice response time for the quantum model are derived, and the predictions are contrasted with the Markov model.
Objectives. To assess whether any benefits from adjunctive homeopathic intervention in patients with RA
are due to the homeopathic consultation, homeopathic remedies or both.
Methods. Exploratory double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial conducted from January 2008 to
July 2008, in patients with active stable RA receiving conventional therapy. Eighty-three participants from
three secondary care UK outpatient clinics were randomized to 24 weeks of treatment with either homeopathic
consultation (further randomized to individualized homeopathy, complex homeopathy or placebo) or
non-homeopathic consultation (further randomized to complex homeopathy or placebo). Co-primary outcomes:
ACR 20% improvement (ACR20) criteria and patient monthly global assessment (GA). Secondary
outcomes: 28-joint DAS (DAS-28), tender and swollen joint count, disease severity, pain, weekly patient
and physician GA and pain, and inflammatory markers.
Results. Fifty-six completed treatment phase. No significant differences were observed for either primary
outcome. There was no clear effect due to remedy type. Receiving a homeopathic consultation significantly
improved DAS-28 [mean difference 0.623; 95% CI 0.1860, 1.060; P = 0.005; effect size (ES) 0.70],
swollen joint count (mean difference 3.04; 95% CI 1.055, 5.030; P = 0.003; ES 0.83), current pain (mean
difference 9.12; 95% CI 0.521, 17.718; P = 0.038; ES 0.48), weekly pain (mean difference 6.017; 95% CI
0.140, 11.894; P = 0.045; ES 0.30), weekly patient GA (mean difference 6.260; 95% CI 0.411, 12.169;
P = 0.036; ES 0.31) and negative mood (mean difference 4.497; 95% CI 8.071, 0.923; P = 0.015;
ES 0.90).
Conclusion. Homeopathic consultations but not homeopathic remedies are associated with clinically
relevant benefits for patients with active but relatively stable RA
To assess whether any benefits from adjunctive homeopathic intervention in patients with RA are due to the homeopathic consultation, homeopathic remedies or both.
Exploratory double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial conducted from January 2008 to July 2008, in patients with active stable RA receiving conventional therapy. Eighty-three participants from three secondary care UK outpatient clinics were randomized to 24 weeks of treatment with either homeopathic consultation (further randomized to individualized homeopathy, complex homeopathy or placebo) or non-homeopathic consultation (further randomized to complex homeopathy or placebo). Co-primary outcomes: ACR 20% improvement (ACR20) criteria and patient monthly global assessment (GA). Secondary outcomes: 28-joint DAS (DAS-28), tender and swollen joint count, disease severity, pain, weekly patient and physician GA and pain, and inflammatory markers.
Fifty-six completed treatment phase. No significant differences were observed for either primary outcome. There was no clear effect due to remedy type. Receiving a homeopathic consultation significantly improved DAS-28 [mean difference 0.623; 95% CI 0.1860, 1.060; P = 0.005; effect size (ES) 0.70], swollen joint count (mean difference 3.04; 95% CI 1.055, 5.030; P = 0.003; ES 0.83), current pain (mean difference 9.12; 95% CI 0.521, 17.718; P = 0.038; ES 0.48), weekly pain (mean difference 6.017; 95% CI 0.140, 11.894; P = 0.045; ES 0.30), weekly patient GA (mean difference 6.260; 95% CI 0.411, 12.169; P = 0.036; ES 0.31) and negative mood (mean difference - 4.497; 95% CI -8.071, -0.923; P = 0.015; ES 0.90).
Homeopathic consultations but not homeopathic remedies are associated with clinically relevant benefits for patients with active but relatively stable RA.
Current controlled trials, http://www.controlled-trials.com/, ISRCTN09712705.
This paper was published as Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 2009, 53 (5), pp. 378-388. It is available from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00222496. Doi: 10.1016/j.jmp.2009.01.007 Metadata only entry The use of quantum mechanical concepts in social science is a fairly new phenomenon. This paper uses one of quantum mechanics’ most basic concepts, probability interference, to explain the violation of an important decision theory principle (the ‘sure-thing principle’). We also attempt to introduce other quantum mechanical concepts in relation to the sure-thing principle violation.
Two experimental tasks in psychology, the two-stage gambling game and the Prisoner's Dilemma game, show that people violate the sure thing principle of decision theory. These paradoxical findings have resisted explanation by classical decision theory for over a decade. A quantum probability model, based on a Hilbert space representation and Schrödinger's equation, provides a simple and elegant explanation for this behaviour. The quantum model is compared with an equivalent Markov model and it is shown that the latter is unable to account for violations of the sure thing principle. Accordingly, it is argued that quantum probability provides a better framework for modelling human decision-making.
We conducted two parallel, blinded homeopathic pathogenetic trials conducted at two different sites to determine whether symptoms reported by healthy volunteers were significantly different for homeopathic remedies than for placebos. Study 1 used a two-armed design, testing ozone against placebo. Study 2 used a three-armed design, testing ozone and iridium against placebo. We found significantly more remedy-specific symptoms in provers taking ozone or iridium than in provers taking placebo in the three-armed trial and in both trials pooled for ozone and placebo. We, therefore, conclude that homeopathic remedies produce more symptoms typical for a remedy than non-typical symptoms. The results furthermore suggest a somewhat non-classical pattern because symptoms of one remedy appear to be mimicked in the other trial arm. This might be indicative of entanglement in homeopathic systems.
When human polymorphonuclear basophils, a type of white blood cell with antibodies of the immunoglobulin E (IgE) type on its surface, are exposed to anti-IgE antibodies, they release histamine from their intracellular granules and change their staining properties. The latter can be demonstrated at dilutions of anti-IgE that range from 1 x 10(2) to 1 x 10(120); over that range, there are successive peaks of degranulation from 40 to 60% of the basophils, despite the calculated absence of any anti-IgE molecules at the highest dilutions. Since dilutions need to be accompanied by vigorous shaking for the effects to be observed, transmission of the biological information could be related to the molecular organization of water.
1. The effect of high dilutions of two homeopathic drugs Lung histamine (Lung his) and Apis mellifica (Apis mel) used for the treatment of allergic diseases has been assessed on in vitro human basophil degranulation. Experiments were conducted blind. 2. Basophil degranulation induced by 1.66 X 10(-9) M anti-IgE antibody was significantly inhibited in the presence of 5 Lung his (5th centesimal dilution of Lung his) and 15 Lung his (15th centesimal dilution of Lung his) by 28.8% and 28.6% respectively and by 65.8% in the presence of 9 Apis mel (9th centesimal dilution of Apis mel). Basophil degranulation induced by 1.66 X 10(-16) to 1.66 X 10(-18) M anti-IgE antibody was also inhibited by high dilutions of Lung his and Apis mel with an inhibition of nearly 100% with 18 Lung his (18th centesimal dilution of Lung his) and 10 Apis mel (10th centesimal dilution of Apis mel). An alternance of inhibition, inactivity and stimulation was observed when basophils were incubated in the presence of serial dilutions of Lung his and Apis mel. 3. The investigation of the clinical efficacy of high dilutions of Lung his and Apis mel should be envisaged in allergic diseases in parallel with in vitro and ex vivo biological assays.
Homeopathy is scientifically banned, both for lack of consistent empirical findings, but more so for lack of a sound theoretical model to explain its purported effects. This paper makes an attempt to introduce an explanatory idea based on a generalized version of quantum mechanics (QM), the weak quantum theory (WQT). WQT uses the algebraic formalism of QM proper, but drops some restrictions and definitions typical for QM. This results in a general axiomatic framework similar to QM, but more generalized and applicable to all possible systems. Most notably, WQT predicts entanglement, which in QM is known as Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) correlatedness within quantum systems. According to WQT, this entanglement is not only tied to quantum systems, but is to be expected whenever a global and a local variable describing a system are complementary. This idea is used here to reconstruct homeopathy as an exemplification of generalized entanglement as predicted by WQT. It transpires that homeopathy uses two instances of generalized entanglement: one between the remedy and the original substance (potentiation principle) and one between the individual symptoms of a patient and the general symptoms of a remedy picture (similarity principle). By bringing these two elements together, double entanglement ensues, which is reminiscent of cryptographic and teleportation applications of entanglement in QM proper. Homeopathy could be a macroscopic analogue to quantum teleportation. This model is exemplified and some predictions are derived, which make it possible to test the model.
A generalized quantum theoretical framework, not restricted to the validity domain of standard quantum physics, is used to model the dynamics of the bistable perception of ambiguous visual stimuli such as the Necker cube. The central idea is to treat the perception process in terms of the evolution of an unstable two-state system. This gives rise to a "Necker-Zeno" effect, in analogy to the quantum Zeno effect. A quantitative relation between the involved time scales is theoretically derived. This relation is found to be satisfied by empirically obtained cognitive time scales relevant for bistable perception.
Extended Network Generalized Entanglement Theory (Entanglement Theory for short) combines two earlier theories based on complexity theory and quantum mechanics. The theory's assumptions are: the body is a complex, self-organizing system (the extended network) that self-organizes so as to achieve genetically defined patterns (where patterns include morphologic as well as lifestyle patterns). These pattern-specifying genes require feedback that is provided by generalized quantum entanglement. Additionally, generalized entanglement has evolved as a form of communication between people (and animals) and can be used in healing. Entanglement Theory suggests that several processes are involved in complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). Direct subtle therapy creates network change either through lifestyle management, some manual therapies, and psychologically mediated effects of therapy. Indirect subtle therapy is a process of entanglement with other people or physical entities (e.g., remedies, healing sites). Both types of subtle therapy create two kinds of information within the network--either that the network is more disregulated than it is and the network then compensates for this error, or as a guide for network change leading to healing. Most CAM therapies involve a combination of indirect and direct therapies, making empirical evaluation complex. Empirical predictions from this theory are contrasted with those from two other possible mechanisms of healing: (1) psychologic processes and (2) mechanisms involving electromagnetic influence between people (biofield/energy medicine). Topics for empirical study include a hyperfast communication system, the phenomenology of entanglement, predictors of outcome in naturally occurring clinical settings, and the importance of therapist and patient characteristics to outcome.
According to homeopathic theory, symptoms provoked by the homeopathic remedy in a pathogenetic trial (PT) make up the remedy picture serving as the basis for the homeopathic treatment. Little is known whether the symptoms produced by the remedy differ from symptoms produced by placebo. This is because both homeopathic remedy and placebo also produce so-called unspecific effects due to psychological reasons. We therefore explore the distinctiveness of homeopathic symptoms and placebo symptoms.
A three-armed, randomized PT pilot study.
A blinded materia medica expert identifies symptoms with regard to their number and specificity.
21 healthy homeopathic practitioners note symptoms produced after remedy intake.
Patients are randomly assigned to receive either (1) Calendula officinalis, (2) Ferrum muriaticum, or (3) placebo. After a seven-day baseline symptoms recording period, proving substances are taken until symptoms occur. In daily supervision phone calls, symptoms are verified by the supervisor.
Total number of symptoms produced and number of specific symptoms produced.
The results showed that both remedies 'produced' significantly more symptoms than placebo. With regard to the specificity, the Calendula officinalis group displayed more remedy-specific symptoms than placebo. However, in the Ferrum muriaticum group more Calendula symptoms than placebo were also recorded.
In this paper, we review research on homeopathy from four perspectives, focusing on reviews and some landmark studies. These perspectives are laboratory studies, clinical trials, observational studies, and theoretical work. In laboratory models, numerous effects and anomalies have been reported. However, no single model has been sufficiently widely replicated. Instead, researchers have focused on ever-new models and experiments, leaving the picture of scattered anomalies without coherence. Basic research, trying to elucidate a purported difference between homeopathic remedies and control solutions has also produced some encouraging results, but again, series of independent replications are missing. While there are nearly 200 reports on clinical trials, few series have been conducted for single conditions. Some of these series document clinically useful effects and differences against placebo and some series do not. Observational research into uncontrolled homeopathic practice documents consistently strong therapeutic effects and sustained satisfaction in patients. We suggest that this scattered picture has to do with the fourth line of research: lack of a good theory. Some of the extant theoretical models are reviewed, including placebo, water structure, silica contamination, energy models, and entanglement models. It emerges that local models, suggesting some change in structure in the solvent, are far from convincing. The nonlocal models proposed would predict that it is impossible to nail down homeopathic effects with direct experimental testing and this places homeopathy in a scientific dilemma. We close with some suggestions for potentially fruitful research.
At the request of the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, we attempted to replicate the data of Professor Jacques Benveniste that digital signals recorded on a computer disc produce specific biological effects. The hypothesis was that a digitized thrombin inhibitor signal would inhibit the fibrinogen-thrombin coagulation pathway. Because of the controversies associated with previous research of Prof. Benveniste, we developed a system for the management of social controversy in science that incorporated an expert in social communication and conflict management. The social management approach was an adaptation of interactional communication theory, for management of areas that interfere with the conduct of good science. This process allowed us to successfully complete a coordinated effort by a multidisciplinary team, including Prof. Benveniste, a hematologist, engineer, skeptic, statistician, neuroscientist and conflict management expert. Our team found no replicable effects from digital signals.
The assertion that ‘local’ theories of homeopathy are traditional appears to be contradicted by Hahnemann's description of the action of homeopathic medicines as ‘spirit-like’. Entanglement theory prohibits the use of entangled states to convey information. Experimental proof of entanglement can only come indirectly. The implications for clinical research include that positive results will probably be found only in large series and that studies should avoid imposing a causal framework.
Correlations of linear polarizations of pairs of photons have been measured with time-varying analyzers. The analyzer in each leg of the apparatus is an acousto-optical switch followed by two linear polarizers. The switches operate at incommensurate frequencies near 50 MHz. Each analyzer amounts to a polarizer which jumps between two orientations in a time short compared with the photon transit time. The results are in good agreement with quantum mechanical predictions but violate Bell's inequalities by 5 standard deviations.
At the beginning of this series of experiments we were looking for a model based on the use of purified commercially available compounds based on a fully described and accepted pharmacological model to study of the biological effect of high dilutions. Negative feedback induced by histamine, a major pro-inflammatory mediator, on basophils and mast cells activation via an H2 receptor me these criteria. The simplest way of measuring basophil activation in the early 1980's was the human basophil activation test (HBDT).
Our major goal was first to study the biological effect of centesimal histamine dilutions beyond the Avogadro limit, on the staining properties of human basophils activated by an allergen extract initially house dust mite, then an anti-IgE and N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP). Technical development over the 25 years of our work led us to replace the manual basophil counting by flow cytometry. The main advantages were automation and observer independence. Using this latter protocol our aim was to confirm the existence of this phenomenon and to check its specificity by testing, under the same conditions, inactive analogues of histamine and histamine antagonists. More recently, we developed an animal model (mouse basophils) to study the effect of histamine on histamine release.
For the HBDT model basophils were obtained by sedimentation of human blood taken on EDTA and stained with Alcian blue. Results were expressed in percentage activation. Histamine dilutions tested were freshly prepared in the lab by successive centesimal dilutions and vortexing. Water controls were prepared in the same way. For the flow cytometric protocol basophils were first labeled by an anti-IgE FITC (basophil marker) and an anti-CD63 (basophil activation marker). Results were expressed in percentage of CD63 positive basophils. Another flow cytometric protocol has been developed more recently, based on basophil labeling by anti-IgE FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate) and anti-CD203 PE (another human basophil activation marker). Results were expressed in mean fluorescence intensity of the CD203c positive population (MFI-CD203c) and an activation index calculated by an algorithm. For the mouse basophil model, histamine was measured spectrofluorimetrically. The main results obtained over 28 years of work was the demonstration of a reproducible inhibition of human basophil activation by high dilutions of histamine, the effect peaks in the range of 15-17CH. The effect was not significant when histamine was replaced by histidine (a histamine precursor) or cimetidine (histamine H2 receptor antagonist) was added to the incubation medium. These results were confirmed by flow cytometry. Using the latter technique, we also showed that 4-Methyl histamine (H2 agonist) induced a similar effect, in contrast to 1-Methyl histamine, an inactive histamine metabolite. Using the mouse model, we showed that histamine high dilutions, in the same range of dilutions, inhibited histamine release.
Successively, using different models to study of human and murine basophil activation, we demonstrated that high dilutions of histamine, in the range of 15-17CH induce a reproducible biological effect. This phenomenon has been confirmed by a multi-center study using the HBDT model and by at least three independent laboratories by flow cytometry. The specificity of the observed effect was confirmed, versus the water controls at the same dilution level by the absence of biological activity of inactive compounds such as histidine and 1-Methyl histamine and by the reversibility of this effect in the presence of a histamine receptor H2 antagonist.
In this paper we offer the quantum-like (QL) representation of the Shafir-Tversky statistical effect which is well known in cognitive psychology. We apply the so-called contextual approach. We consider the Shafir-Tversky effect to result from mixing statistical data obtained in incompatible contexts which are involved, e.g. in Prisoner's Dilemma or in more general games in which the disjunction effect can be found. As a consequence, the law of total probability is violated for the experimental data obtained in experiments on cognitive psychology by Shafir and Tversky [Shafir, E., Tversky, A., 1992. Thinking through uncertainty: nonconsequential reasoning and choice. Cogn. Psychol. 24, 449-474] as well as Tversky and Shafir [Tversky, A., Shafir, E., 1992. The disjunction effect in choice under uncertainty. Psychol. Sci. 3, 305-309]. Moreover, we can find a numerical measure of contextual incompatibility (the so-called coefficient of interference) as well as represent contexts which are involved in Prisoner's Dilemma (PD) by probability amplitudes-normalized vectors ("mental wave functions"). We remark that statistical data from Shafir and Tversky [Shafir, E., Tversky, A., 1992. Thinking through uncertainty: nonconsequential reasoning and choice. Cogn. Psychol. 24, 449-474] and Tversky and Shafir [Tversky, A., Shafir, E., 1992. The disjunction effect in choice under uncertainty. Psychol. Sci. 3, 305-309] experiments differ crucially from the point of view of mental interference. The second one exhibits the conventional trigonometric (cos-type) interference while the first one exhibits even the so-called hyperbolic (cosh-type) interference. We discuss the QL processing of information by cognitive systems, especially, the QL decision making and both classical and QL rationality and ethics.
Shang's recently published meta-analysis on homeopathic remedies (Lancet) based its main conclusion on a subset of eight larger trials out of 21 high quality trials (out of 110 included trials). We performed a sensitivity analysis on various other meaningful trial subsets of all high quality trials.
Subsets were defined according to sample size, type of homeopathy, type of publication, and treated disease/condition. For each subset, we estimated the overall odds ratios (ORs) from random effect meta-analyses.
All trials were highly heterogeneous (I2=62.2%). Homeopathy had a significant effect beyond placebo (OR=0.76; 95% CI: 0.59-0.99; p=0.039). When the set of analyzed trials was successively restricted to larger patient numbers, the ORs varied moderately (median: 0.82, range: 0.71-1.02) and the P-values increased steadily (median: 0.16, range: 0.03-0.93), including Shang's results for the eight largest trials (OR=0.88, CI: 0.66-1.18; P=0.41). Shang's negative results were mainly influenced by one single trial on preventing muscle soreness in 400 long-distance runners.
The meta-analysis results change sensitively to the chosen threshold defining large sample sizes. Because of the high heterogeneity between the trials, Shang's results and conclusions are less definite than had been presented.
Among homeopaths the common idea about a working hypothesis for homeopathic effects seems to be that, during the potentization process, 'information' or 'energy' is being preserved or even enhanced in homeopathic remedies. The organism is said to be able to pick up this information, which in turn will stimulate the organism into a self-healing response. According to this view the decisive element of homeopathic therapy is the remedy which locally contains and conveys this information. I question this view for empirical and theoretical reasons. Empirical research has shown a repetitive pattern, in fundamental and clinical research alike: there are many anomalies in high-dilution research and clinical homeopathic trials which will set any observing researcher thinking. But no single paradigm has proved stable enough in order to produce repeatable results independent of the researcher. I conclude that the database is too weak and contradictory to substantiate a local interpretation of homeopathy, in which the remedy is endowed with causal-informational content irrespective of the circumstances. I propose a non-local interpretation to understand the anomalies along the lines of Jung's notion of synchronicity and make some predictions following this analysis.
A metaphor for homeopathy is developed in which the potentised medicine, the patient, and the practitioner are seen as forming a non-local therapeutically 'entangled' triad, qualitatively described in terms of the transactional interpretation of quantum mechanics.
The nature of the 'active ingredient', in homeopathic high dilutions is investigated. A model for every degree of dilution is introduced; within this the active ingredient can be dealt with in physical terms. In mathematical terms this model has features which correspond to the axioms of weak quantum theory. Features which are similar to entanglement in ordinary quantum theory are discussed in particular.
The authors' experience of conducting clinical trials in homeopathy and analysing data from these has drawn attention to a fundamental problem with the interpretation of results from placebo controlled trials in homeopathy: It is not reasonable to assume that the specific effects of homeopathic medicine and the non-specific effects of consultations are independent of each other-specific effects of the medicine (as manifested by patients' reactions) may influence the nature of subsequent consultations and the non-specific effects of the consultation may enhance or diminish the effects of the medicine. For clinical trials of homeopathy to be accurate representations of practice, we need modified designs that take into account the complexity of the homeopathic intervention. Only with such trials will the results be generalisable to homeopathic practice in the real world. The authors propose that comparative trials are a meaningful way of evaluating the effectiveness of homeopathic treatment.
The assertion that 'local' theories of homeopathy are traditional appears to be contradicted by Hahnemann's description of the action of homeopathic medicines as 'spirit-like'. Entanglement theory prohibits the use of entangled states to convey information. Experimental proof of entanglement can only come indirectly. The implications for clinical research include that positive results will probably be found only in large series and that studies should avoid imposing a causal framework. Homeopathy (2005) 94, 96–99.
The assertion that 'local' theories of homeopathy are traditional appears to be contradicted by Hahnemann's description of the action of homeopathic medicines as 'spirit-like'. Entanglement theory prohibits the use of entangled states to convey information. Experimental proof of entanglement can only come indirectly. The implications for clinical research include that positive results will probably be found only in large series and that studies should avoid imposing a causal framework.
Unlabelled:
BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM: A main problem for the acceptance of many methods belonging to the broad spectrum of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is that there is no conceivable theoretical bridge between the mainstream biomedical model and CAM theories and practice. Although empirical evidence is one important side of the coin of credibility, theoretical feasibility is the other. History of science teaches that no amount of empirical evidence will convince sceptics and followers of more conventional paradigms as long as there is no good theoretical model to make empirical findings plausible.
Methods and solution:
I therefore propose to broaden the spectrum of theoretical concepts beyond the reigning local-causalist model toward a non-local model that encompasses effects as encountered in CAM. Such a model can be derived from a generalized and weaker version of quantum theory recently developed and published by my colleagues and I as weak quantum theory (WQT). This theoretical model predicts nonlocal correlations analogous to Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR)-like correlations in quantum mechanics proper. The discerning moment, though, is that these nonlocal correlations within WQT are not EPR correlations postulated to extend into the classical world, but a broader, generalized version of entanglement not dependent on the strict quantum nature of the system under question. WQT predicts entanglement between elements of a system if two variables or observables are complementary: one describing a global and one the local aspects of the system. Entanglement then ensues between those local elements of a system that are complementary to the global description or observable of that system.
Discussion and conclusions:
This paper explores this rather abstract and general notion and expands it into more concrete examples. It is at the moment a purely explanatory structure, which, however, lends itself to exact empirical testing due to rather precise predictions, which will be developed. Because this structure of generalized entanglement is ubiquitous and also operative in conventional medicine, and because it is derived from one of the strongest theories that science has developed so far, it would constitute a theoretical bridge between the different medical and scientific traditions.
Homoeopathy is widely used, but specific effects of homoeopathic remedies seem implausible. Bias in the conduct and reporting of trials is a possible explanation for positive findings of trials of both homoeopathy and conventional medicine. We analysed trials of homoeopathy and conventional medicine and estimated treatment effects in trials least likely to be affected by bias.
Placebo-controlled trials of homoeopathy were identified by a comprehensive literature search, which covered 19 electronic databases, reference lists of relevant papers, and contacts with experts. Trials in conventional medicine matched to homoeopathy trials for disorder and type of outcome were randomly selected from the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (issue 1, 2003). Data were extracted in duplicate and outcomes coded so that odds ratios below 1 indicated benefit. Trials described as double-blind, with adequate randomisation, were assumed to be of higher methodological quality. Bias effects were examined in funnel plots and meta-regression models.
110 homoeopathy trials and 110 matched conventional-medicine trials were analysed. The median study size was 65 participants (range ten to 1573). 21 homoeopathy trials (19%) and nine (8%) conventional-medicine trials were of higher quality. In both groups, smaller trials and those of lower quality showed more beneficial treatment effects than larger and higher-quality trials. When the analysis was restricted to large trials of higher quality, the odds ratio was 0.88 (95% CI 0.65-1.19) for homoeopathy (eight trials) and 0.58 (0.39-0.85) for conventional medicine (six trials).
Biases are present in placebo-controlled trials of both homoeopathy and conventional medicine. When account was taken for these biases in the analysis, there was weak evidence for a specific effect of homoeopathic remedies, but strong evidence for specific effects of conventional interventions. This finding is compatible with the notion that the clinical effects of homoeopathy are placebo effects.
We present a contextualist statistical realistic model for quantum-like representations in physics, cognitive science, and psychology. We apply this model to describe cognitive experiments to check quantum-like structures of mental processes. The crucial role is played by interference of probabilities for mental observables. Recently one such experiment based on recognition of images was performed. This experiment confirmed our prediction on the quantum-like behavior of mind. In our approach "quantumness of mind" has no direct relation to the fact that the brain (as any physical body) is composed of quantum particles. We invented a new terminology "quantum-like (QL) mind." Cognitive QL-behavior is characterized by a nonzero coefficient of interference lambda. This coefficient can be found on the basis of statistical data. There are predicted not only cos theta-interference of probabilities, but also hyperbolic cosh theta-interference. This interference was never observed for physical systems, but we could not exclude this possibility for cognitive systems. We propose a model of brain functioning as a QL-computer (there is a discussion on the difference between quantum and QL computers).
In this note we propose to use the mathematical formalism of Quantum Mechanics to capture the idea that agents’ preferences, in addition to being typically uncertain, can also be indeterminate. They are determined (realized, and not merely revealed) only when the action takes place. An agent is described by a state which is a superposition of potential types (or preferences or behaviors). This superposed state is projected (or ”collapses”) onto one of the possible behaviors at the time of the interaction. In addition to the main goal of modelling uncertainty of preferences which is not due to lack of information, this formalism, seems to be adequate to describe widely observed phenomena like framing and instances of noncommutativity in patterns of behavior. We propose two experiments to test the theory.
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