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Growth and yield in irrigated and non-irrigated olive trees cultivar Coratina over four years after planting
... The olive grove (Olea europaea L., cv Coratina) was planted in 1992 at a 6 x 6 m spacing. The fertilisations were carried out as reported by Nuzzo et al. (1997), while weeds were systematically controlled by shallow tilling. ...
... The differences between treatments could be due to the effect of several years of water regime on olive trees growth. As reported by Nuzzo et al. (1997), water deficit determined a decrease of canopy development. The density of roots is strictly related to the metabolism of the whole plant (Huck et al., 1987). ...
... Irrigation allowed the trees to explore a greater volume of soil and develop the root system even beyond the wetted area. Similar results were observed by Nuzzo et al. (1997) which found that a greater soil volume was explored by roots of irrigated plants with no difference for the RLD of fine roots. This was mainly ascribed to the fact that the root length of the irrigated plants was distributed in a greater volume. ...
Minirhizotrons were used to observe, throughout the annual cycle, the root length density (RLD, cm cm-3) of fine roots in young olive trees (Olea europaea L., cv. Coratina) grown in irrigated and rainfed conditions. The trial was carried out in a semi-arid Mediterranean environment of Southern Italy. The root length density at different depths and distances from the trunk was examined during winter rest, flowering, and pit hardening. Results proved that RLD of irrigated trees was always higher than that shown by the nonirrigated ones, except at the end of July, when heavy rainfall wetted the soil surface layers stimulating root activity in the rainfed plants. Irrigated trees, differently from plants grown under rainfed conditions, showed a root density peak during the winter rest. Root growth pattern was also affected by the sink-source competition occurring throughout the annual season.
... Nevertheless, although adult olive groves are generally biennial in nature, few studies have assessed the influence of alternate bearing on the pattern of root growth and its relationship to the aerial part of the tree (Fichet and González, 2011). In fact, most studies have focused on the effect of water supply on root growth (Fernández et al., 1992;Nuzzo et al., 1997;Palese et al., 2000). In turn, it is also worth noting that studying the growth period of the roots aids in understanding how the root system works and its relationship to the aerial part of the tree, as well as in identifying the periods when fruit trees absorb the greatest amount of water and mineral elements (Connell and Catlin, 2005). ...
... In the absence of any other sink, however, it is reasonable to think that photoassimilates produced by leaves can be assigned to root growth. In such conditions, the plant seeks to explore the greatest amount of soil volume possible through the emission of roots (Polverigiani et al., 2012) correctly, in terms of volume and frequency, as well as fertilization practices (Nuzzo et al., 1997), thus contributing to a better use of water by the olive grower, and at the same time, enabling him to reduce electricity and fertilizer costs. ...
The aim of this study was to characterize the phenological, vegetative and
reproductive behavior variables of ‘Frantoio’ olive trees in an “off” year (with a low crop load)
and an “on” year (with a high crop load). To do this, during the 2011–2012 and 2012–2013
seasons, “off” and “on”, respectively, phenological variables, plant growth (shoots and roots)
and reproductive growth (type of flwer, fruit set and growth), were monitored biweekly. In
addition, the yield per tree was assessed, and the crop load was estimated. The main results
showed that crop load strongly inflenced these variables. The distribution and intensity of
vegetative growth, both in the roots and aboveground, decreased more and had lower intensity
in the high fruiting season, with a large part of this growth occurring prior to flwering. With
respect to reproductive variables, a higher percentage of perfect flwers and fruit set in the
low flwering season was observed compared to the high load season. These results suggest a
partial crop load compensation mechanism under low flwering conditions. This mechanism,
however, does not compensate for lower production in the “off” season. In terms of volume,
fruit growth was similar between seasons until pit hardening, then the fruit growth rate dropped
dramatically in the “on” season, indicating that fruit growth, until pit hardening, would not be
affected by the presence of a higher number of fruits per tree.
... Tradicionalmente el olivo (Olea europaea L.) se cultiva como especie de secano, en áreas con precipitaciones anuales que bordean los 400 a 500 mm, aunque en Chile en algunas zonas se cultiva bajo precipitaciones menores, del orden de 200 mm anuales. Varios autores han demostrado el efecto positivo del riego sobre la producción, la nutrición y el crecimiento del árbol (Proietti y Antognozzi, 1996;Nuzzo et al., 1997;Androulakis et al., 1997). Investigaciones en las que se comparó la producción de secano y de riego en el olivo, demuestran que el crecimiento del fruto es fuertemente influido por la disponibilidad de agua en el suelo (Nuzzo et al., 1997;Androulakis et al., 1997;Patumi et al., 1999). ...
... Varios autores han demostrado el efecto positivo del riego sobre la producción, la nutrición y el crecimiento del árbol (Proietti y Antognozzi, 1996;Nuzzo et al., 1997;Androulakis et al., 1997). Investigaciones en las que se comparó la producción de secano y de riego en el olivo, demuestran que el crecimiento del fruto es fuertemente influido por la disponibilidad de agua en el suelo (Nuzzo et al., 1997;Androulakis et al., 1997;Patumi et al., 1999). Proietti y Antognozzi (1996) encontraron que la aplicación de agua de riego aumenta el valor comercial del fruto, al obtener un incremento en su tamaño y una mejor relación pulpa/hueso. ...
In order to determine the effects of different regulated deficit irrigation (RDC) strategies in olives (Olea europea L.), four irrigation treatments were applied, for three seasons, in an eight-year-old orchard of cv. 'Sevillana' olives, growing in the locality of Tierras Blanca, San Felipe, V Region, Chile (32°47' S; 70°42' W; 800 m above sea level). Treatments were: T1, irrigated at 100% of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) for the entire season; T2, 100% ETc from beginning of shoot growth until the end of fruit growth stage II and 40% ETc during stage III; T3, 100% ETc from beginning of shoot growth until the end of fruit growth stage II and 25% ETc during stage III; and T4, 60% ETc throughout the entire season. Both stem water potential and stomatal conductance were affected by RDC, especially when 40 and 25% ETc were applied. During fruit stage III, water stress did not affect the fruit-bearing load, however during this stage severe water stress affected the final fruit weight. Water stress during the whole season (60% ETc), produced a strong reduction on the fruit-bearing load of the season of high production, which seems to have its origin in the previous season. According to the results, the best strategy for RDC in olives seems to be moderate stress (application of 40% Etc) in phase III of fruit growth.
... The results were similar to those by Pierantozzi et al. [60], who found that irrigation had a slight effect on the yield of olive fruit per tree, as also measured by Jukić Špika et al. [62] on meliorated karst on the cultivar Oblica. In contrast, Nuzzo et al. [67] found differences in yield between irrigated and non-irrigated trees of the Coratina cultivar in the first four years after planting. Irrigation has a greater impact on olive fruit yield when it is carried out before flowering because it more greatly affects the formation of flowers and fruit set than when it is carried out after fruit set during the summer period [68]. ...
Olive groves in the Mediterranean may lose production sustainability because of their vulnerability to climatic change. Irrigation is an important measure that could significantly affect fruit yield, olive fruit fly infestation, and oil characteristics. The aim of paper was to compare the regulated deficit irrigation with different water management practices, in consecutive years, in two locations in Zadar County (Croatia), affecting fruit morphology, olive fruit fly infestation, and quantity and quality of the extracted Coratina cultivar oil. Treatments, namely C—rainfed, T1—deficit irrigation (produce’s practice), T2—regulated deficit irrigation, and T3—full irrigation (100% ECTO), were established. Irrigated treatments had a positive effect on all morphological characteristics of the fruit. The pulp mass, independently of the year, increased in irrigated treatment (ranging from 1.04 to 1.65 in C to 2.25 and 2.30 in the irrigated treatments) and resulted in a higher oil content on a fresh weight basis (ranging from 16.39% to 17.85% in C to 19.48% to 23.26% in the irrigated treatments). However, fruit yield per tree was only location-dependent. When olive fruit fly presence was high, fruit infestation was greatest in the irrigated compared to the rainfed treatment. According to quality parameters, all oils were classified as EVOO. Individual phenols were influenced by irrigation, while the composition of fatty acids was more influenced by location than treatment. The sensory characteristics of the resulting oil were slightly reduced compared to rainfed treatment. The results indicate that regulated deficit irrigation benefits water use sustainability without compromising the quality of the oil.
... The vegetative characteristics measured in different irrigation treatments have a relationship with the genotype and the amount of irrigation water; increasing irrigation water leads to increased growth of vegetative organs in the olive genotypes. Studying different olive cultivars for several years has shown that growth parameters such as height, crown size, and trunk diameter decrease in the trees without irrigation (Michelakis, Vouyoukalou, and Clapaki 1995;Nuzzo et al. 1997;Gholami, Arzani, and Arji 2013). Arzani and Arji (2000) concluded that severe drought stress prevented vegetative growth in olive seedlings, i.e., growth in different organs decreased in the plants under water shortage stress due to a decrease in cell turger and not receiving sufficient water for cell growth and division. ...
Drought is currently one of the most severe abiotic factors limiting agricultural production. The high rates of population growth and global warming are expected to further exacerbate the threat of drought, especially in areas with a semi-arid climate as in the Middle East region. Selecting genotypes for improved drought tolerance has long been of interest for those involved in horticulture. The present research investigated the reaction of seven 10-year-old olive genotypes to drought stress in Dallaho Olive Research Station, Iran. To determine the reaction of genotypes to drought stress, physiological and biochemical characteristics, fruit and oil yield, and water use efficiency were measured. The results showed that different genotypes react differently to drought stress while drought decreased vegetative and reproductive traits such as shoot length and diameter, relative water content of the leaves, Ca and K percentage, and fruit yield. Finally, Dd1 and Bn6 showed the highest oil and fruit yield per hectare and the highest water use efficiency. In addition, Bn3 had a favorable status in most of the measured parameters. So, they can be suggested as the genotypes that are tolerant of drought stress. The results also showed that olive yield and irrigation management can be improved by applying proper irrigation levels and using tolerant genotypes.
... It is possible that a small fraction of dead fine roots produced and died during the 2 years had degraded and thus escaped from the sampling in 2016. However, fine roots represent about a quarter of root biomass in young olive trees (Nuzzo et al. 1997), and root biomass was~20% of total plant vegetative biomass both in 2014 and in 2016, therefore a small error in the estimation of fine roots would be an error on a small fraction of the total plant biomass. Additionally, since tree biomass increases exponentially in young plants, most of the biomass production, including roots, occurred during the second year, and fine roots' life span in trees is~1.5 years in temperate conditions (Gill and Jackson 2000). ...
It has long been debated whether tree growth is source limited, or whether photosynthesis is adjusted to the actual sink demand, directly regulated by internal and environmental factors. Many studies support both possibilities, but no studies have provided quantitative data at the whole-tree level, across different cultivars and fruit load treatments. This study investigated the effect of different levels of reproductive growth on whole-tree biomass growth across two olive cultivars with different growth rates (i.e., Arbequina, slow-growing and Frantoio, fast-growing), over 2 years. Young trees of both cultivars were completely deflowered either in 2014, 2015, both years or never, providing a range of levels of cumulated reproductive growth over the 2 years. Total vegetative dry matter growth over the 2 years was assessed by destructive sampling (whole tree). Vegetative growth increased significantly less in fruiting trees, however, the total of vegetative and reproductive growth did not differ significantly for any treatment or cultivar. Vegetative growth over the 2 years was closely (R2 = 0.89) and inversely related to reproductive growth across all treatments and cultivars. When using data from 2015 only, the regression improved further (i.e., R2 = 0.99). When biomass was converted into grams of glucose equivalents, based on the chemical composition of the different parts, the results indicated that for every gram of glucose equivalent invested in reproductive growth, vegetative growth was reduced by 0.73-0.78 g of glucose equivalent. This indicates that competition for resources played a major role in determining tree growth, but also that photosynthesis was probably also enhanced at increasing fruit load (or downregulated at decreasing fruit load). The leaf area per unit of trunk cross sectional area increased with deflowering (i.e., decreased with reproductive growth), suggesting that water relations might have limited photosynthesis in deflowered plants, which had much greater canopies. Net assimilation rate (NAR) increased with reproductive growth and decreased with plant size. Net assimilation rate was also negatively correlated with the leaf area per unit of trunk cross sectional area, suggesting that water relations might have contributed to decreasing NAR at increasing plant size.
... Our water deficit irrigation management based on target ranges of soil water potential (SWP) resulted in the expected water deficit situations for each treatment. The SWP target range were defined to maintain soil water at field capacity (between 0 and −0.02 MPa) for the control, as in other studies (Nuzzo et al., 1997;Yuan et al., 2009) and just below field capacity for the RDI and RDI + G treatment. However, we showed that even at such a moderate level of water deficit, all processes were significantly reduced. ...
The effects of a moderate soil water deficit on several shoot growth variables (1st and 2nd order shoot growth and final leaves number, final height and final number of 2nd order shoots) and on net photosynthesis were studied in young peach trees during the two years following plantation (January 2014). Trees were either fully irrigated (C), subjected to moderate water deficit (RDI) or subjected to moderate water deficit and associated with a grass-legume mixture on the entire orchard floor (RDI +G). Irrigation was scheduled according to soil water potential target ranges in order to keep C trees above −0.02 MPa, i.e. at field capacity, and RDI and RDI + G trees between −0.04 MPa and −0.06 MPa. The level of water deficit obtained was moderate but yet significantly reduced by 50% overall tree growth in 2014 in RDI. This reduction was enhanced when water deficit lasted longer and when it was associated with grass in RDI + G. No reduction in growth variables occurred in RDI in 2015 due to the shorter duration of water deficit. Overall reduction was observed in 2015 in RDI + G mostly due to a carry-over effect of the previous year. Net photosynthesis was reduced by the longer and more intense water deficit in 2014, but was not reduced during the soil water deficit in 2015. An indicator of plant process sensitivity to water deficit, taking into account the variable reduction with regards to the control, the water deficit intensity and its duration was used to classify shoot growth variables and net photosynthesis according to their sensitivity to water deficit. Variables could be classified according to the following order of ascending sensitivity: net photosynthesis <1st order final leaf number < final tree height <1st order final shoot length <2nd order final leaf number <2nd order final shoot number <2nd order final shoot length. Applying a moderate water deficit combined with full grass cover drastically reduces overall tree size due to grass competition.
... The effects of WH on tree growth in this site were published in Tubeileh et al. (2009). To adapt to water stress, olive trees have developed some anatomical and physiological mechanisms such as: a larger root:canopy ratio (Nuzzo et al., 1997), high absorption capacity at low soil water potentials (Abd-El-Rahman et al., 1966), root osmotic adjustment (Xiloyannis et al., 1996), wider root cortical tissues (Fernández et al., 1994), initiating new roots only in the spring (Fernández et al., 1990), lowering stomatal conductance (Fernández et al., 2006), accumulation of osmotically active substances (Pierantozzi et al., 2013), etc. However, as the trees grow and enter into their productive age, and given the low level of soil moisture recorded in early July, the trees would need supplemental irrigation if a commercial scale production is sought for. ...
A lack of flower bud formation during the 'on' year is a common characteristic of most alternate-bearing species. Gibberellins (GAs) are generally found to strongly inhibit flowering, although the mechanism by which this occurs is not fully understood. The aim of this research was to identify GAs in olive seeds. The trials were carried out near Potenza in Southern Italy (41°03' N, 15°42' E) on irrigated olive trees (cv Coratina) planted in 1992. In 1997 olive trees in an 'on' year were selected on the basis of similarity in vigour, potential crop load and preliminary leaf gas exchange measurements. Seed samples were collected at the pit hardening phase to identify GAs by GC-MS. Analyses were carried out at IACRLong Ashton Research Station, Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Bristol. GA8, GA17, GA19, GA23, GA28, GA 29, GA29-catabolite, GA34, and GA53 were identified in the seeds of olive trees. The presence of some of these GAs suggests that this species utilises the early C-13 hydroxylation GA biosynthetic pathway, as found in apple, sour cherry, and pea plants. These GAs have a high degree of hydroxylation. Many authors indicated that hydroxylation is necessary for the movement of GAs in the tissue where fruit bud induction occurs. Furthermore, the negative effect of GAs on floral induction increases with the increasing degree of hydroxylation.
Study of the effect of drought and water stress on the young olive seedlings in newly established olive plantation is considered especially important. This research was conducted over two-years, at the College of Agriculture, University of Tehran. The effects of drought stress on plant growth indices and its relation with the physiological reactions of the young olive seedlings were studied. Experimental design was a split plot on the basis of a completely randomized block with three replications and three observations in each plot. In this experiment, one-year-old olive seedlings (cvs. 'Zard', 'Rohgani', 'Mari', 'Fyshomi', 'Dezful' and 'Shengeh') planted in light media i.e. mixture of sand, peat and fertile soil (with ratio of 1:1:1) in plastic pots were selected and irrigated every other day for a period of 3 months before treatment. 2, 6 and 12 days irrigation were applied and the 2 days irrigation treatment was used as control. Treatments were carried out for two months. The result of this experiment showed a significant effect of the increase of irrigation intervals on the reduction of the leaf area, stem growth length, fresh and dry weights of branches. The cultivars also showed significant differences in connection with some growth indices. The interaction between irrigation regime and cultivars on the ratio of root dry weight to above ground parts of the plant became significant.
