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Social Ties and Susceptibility to the Common Cold
Abstract
Objective:
To examine the hypothesis that diverse ties to friends, family, work, and community are associated with increased host resistance to infection.
Design:
After reporting the extent of participation in 12 types of social ties (eg, spouse, parent, friend, workmate, member of social group), subjects were given nasal drops containing 1 of 2 rhinoviruses and monitored for the development of a common cold.
Setting:
Quarantine.
Participants:
A total of 276 healthy volunteers, aged 18 to 55 years, neither seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus nor pregnant.
Outcome measures:
Colds (illness in the presence of a verified infection), mucus production, mucociliary clearance function, and amount of viral replication.
Results:
In response to both viruses, those with more types of social ties were less susceptible to common colds, produced less mucus, were more effective in ciliary clearance of their nasal passages, and shed less virus. These relationships were unaltered by statistical controls for prechallenge virus-specific antibody, virus type, age, sex, season, body mass index, education, and race. Susceptibility to colds decreased in a dose-response manner with increased diversity of the social network. There was an adjusted relative risk of 4.2 comparing persons with fewest (1 to 3) to those with most (6 or more) types of social ties. Although smoking, poor sleep quality, alcohol abstinence, low dietary intake of vitamin C, elevated catecholamine levels, and being introverted were all associated with greater susceptibility to colds, they could only partially account for the relation between social network diversity and incidence of colds.
Conclusions:
More diverse social networks were associated with greater resistance to upper respiratory illness.
... Title and abstract screening removed 3392 studies, full-text review excluded 45 studies, resulting in 11 eligible studies (10-13,21-27), with nine included in the meta-analysis (10)(11)(12)(13)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27). Two eligible studies (21,22) were not included in the meta-analysis, as they did not report sufficient quantitative information. One study (15) included in the meta-analysis presented pooled data from three similar studies from the same research group: Prather 2017a was referred to as 'The Pittsburgh Cold Study 2' (PCS2), Prather 2017b as 'The Pittsburgh Cold Study 3' (PCS3) and Prather 2017c as 'The Pittsburgh Mind-Body Center Study' (PMBC) in the Prather 2017 paper (11). ...
... No study received the highest possible mark of all nine stars: each was judged to have a risk of bias or lack of clarity in methodological reporting. Results of the NOS were converted to AHRQ standards: four studies were good (10)(11)(12)22), two were fair (23,25) and five were poor (13,21,24,26,27). Only one study (23) was truly representative of the general population; the other studies looked at select groups such as military recruits, mothers of young children, university students or volunteers responding to advertisements. ...
... Only one study (23) was truly representative of the general population; the other studies looked at select groups such as military recruits, mothers of young children, university students or volunteers responding to advertisements. All studies addressed confounders, with seven studies (10)(11)(12)(13)22,25,27) addressing what we considered most important: being chronically ill or immunocompromised. ...
Background
Upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) are common, mostly self-limiting, but result in inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions. Poor sleep is cited as a factor predisposing to URTIs, but the evidence is unclear.
Objective
To systematically review whether sleep duration and quality influence the frequency and duration of URTIs.
Methods
Three databases and bibliographies of included papers were searched for studies assessing associations between sleep duration or quality and URTIs. We performed dual title and abstract selection, discussed full-text exclusion decisions and completed 50% of data extraction in duplicate. The Newcastle–Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale assessed study quality and we estimated odds ratios (ORs) using random effects meta-analysis.
Results
Searches identified 5146 papers. Eleven met inclusion criteria, with nine included in meta-analyses: four good, two fair and five poor for risk of bias. Compared to study defined ‘normal’ sleep duration, shorter sleep was associated with increased URTIs (OR: 1.30, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.19–1.42, I2: 11%, P < 0.001) and longer sleep was not significantly associated (OR: 1.11 95% CI: 0.99–1.23, I2: 0%, P = 0.070). Sensitivity analyses using a 7- to 9-hour baseline found that sleeping shorter than 7–9 hours was associated with increased URTIs (OR: 1.31, 95% CI: 1.22–1.41, I2: 0%, P < 0.001). Sleeping longer than 7–9 hours was non-significantly associated with increased URTIs (OR: 1.15, 95% CI: 1.00–1.33, I2: 0%, P = 0.050, respectively). We were unable to pool sleep quality studies. No studies reported on sleep duration and URTI severity or duration.
Conclusions
Reduced sleep, particularly shorter than 7–9 hours, is associated with increased URTIs. Strategies improving sleep should be explored to prevent URTIs.
... In contrast, social network size (F (6,282) = 0.96, p = 0.43, η p 2 = 0.02) and loneliness scores (F (6,288) = 1.69, p = 0.14, η p 2 = 0.03) did not significantly change during the time course (see Table S1). As predicted, both the average loneliness (r (52) = 0.52, p < 0.01; see Fig. 1B) and alexithymia in the first month (T1) positively correlated with the average perceived stress in the 6 months (r (52) = 0.40, p < 0.01; see Fig. 1C), showing that individuals with greater dysfunctional emotional awareness and higher subjective lack of social con- www.nature.com/scientificreports/ nection experienced more stress during the transition phase. ...
... In contrast, social network size (F (6,282) = 0.96, p = 0.43, η p 2 = 0.02) and loneliness scores (F (6,288) = 1.69, p = 0.14, η p 2 = 0.03) did not significantly change during the time course (see Table S1). As predicted, both the average loneliness (r (52) = 0.52, p < 0.01; see Fig. 1B) and alexithymia in the first month (T1) positively correlated with the average perceived stress in the 6 months (r (52) = 0.40, p < 0.01; see Fig. 1C), showing that individuals with greater dysfunctional emotional awareness and higher subjective lack of social con- www.nature.com/scientificreports/ nection experienced more stress during the transition phase. ...
... nection experienced more stress during the transition phase. In addition, T1 alexithymia positively correlated with psychosocial stress (r (52) = 0.49, p < 0.01) already at study entry, but was not significantly associated with the increase in stress levels (i.e. maximum stress minus baseline) during the first examination phase (p > 0.05), indicating that alexithymia is associated with consistently increased perceived stress levels rather than increased acute stress responsiveness. ...
The risk for developing stress-related disorders is elevated in individuals with high alexithymia, a personality trait characterized by impaired emotional awareness and interpersonal relating. However, it is still unclear how alexithymia alters perceived psychosocial stress and which neurobiological substrates are mechanistically involved. To address this question, we examined freshmen during transition to university, given that this period entails psychosocial stress and frequently initiates psychopathology. Specifically, we used a functional magnetic resonance imaging emotional face matching task to probe emotional processing in 54 participants (39 women) at the beginning of the first year at university and 6 months later. Furthermore, we assessed alexithymia and monitored perceived psychosocial stress and loneliness via questionnaires for six consecutive months. Perceived psychosocial stress significantly increased over time and initial alexithymia predicted subjective stress experiences via enhanced loneliness. On the neural level, alexithymia was associated with lowered amygdala responses to emotional faces, while loneliness correlated with diminished reactivity in the anterior insular and anterior cingulate cortex. Furthermore, insula activity mediated the association between alexithymia and loneliness that predicted perceived psychosocial stress. Our findings are consistent with the notion that alexithymia exacerbates subjective stress via blunted insula reactivity and increased perception of social isolation.
... Social network size and diversity were measured using the "Social Network Index" (Cohen et al., 1997). Social network size relates to the total number of persons for which the participant reports social interaction with over the past 2 weeks, either in person, on the phone, or over the internet, across 11 types of social groups (spouse/partner, parents, children, relatives, friends, religious groups, students/teachers, co-workers, neighbors, volunteer groups, and "other groups"). ...
... Social network size relates to the total number of persons for which the participant reports social interaction with over the past 2 weeks, either in person, on the phone, or over the internet, across 11 types of social groups (spouse/partner, parents, children, relatives, friends, religious groups, students/teachers, co-workers, neighbors, volunteer groups, and "other groups"). In order to compute a score for personal social network size, a count variable was created as the sum total of members in a participant's social network across all groups (Cohen et al., 1997). Social network diversity was calculated as a sum of social groups for which a participant reported interacting with in the past 2 weeks (Mowbray & Scott, 2015). ...
In recent years, accumulating evidence has pointed to the possible negative effects of cannabis use in social and interpersonal context. In this study, we explored the association between level of cannabis use and perceived social support and the extent to which social network size and diversity may mediate this association. Data from the NESARC-III was analyzed. Participants were either non-cannabis users (N = 32,523), using cannabis without qualifying for a diagnosis of cannabis use disorder (N = 2729), or qualifying for Cannabis Use Disorder (CUD; N = 972). Perceived social support was measured by the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List-12 and social network size and diversity were measured using the “Social Network Index.” Baron and Kenny’s statistical method was used for mediation analyses, with control for possible covariates and Bonferroni corrections applied. After controlling for covariates, social network size and diversity independently and fully mediated the association between level of cannabis use and general perceived social support (direct effect: b = −0.02, p = 0.0521, and b = −0.02, p = 0.057, respectively). According to these analyses, level of cannabis use was significantly associated with decreased social network size and diversity, which in turn were associated with lower perceived social support. Our findings highlight the need to address possible changes in social network among cannabis users.
... Bonding social capital affects also physical health. Cohen et al. (1997) found that people with more social ties were much more immune to common cold. Having distant and strained relationships with parents is a good early predictor for developing various diseases later in life. ...
... Those aged 16-25 constitute only 15 percent of the sample and for this reason the tstatistic for the age 16-25 significantly undervalues the strength of the correlation. (5) and (6) suggests that this effect seems to interplay with age (the introduction of marital status lowers the parameter for age [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. Younger people are both more trusting and usually unmarried. ...
The main motivation for writing this dissertation was to understand the apparent paradox of modern Polish social life. Namely, survey research shows that Poles score very low on measures of social capital. They are distrustful and do not participate in voluntary associations. According to scientific literature, such outcomes would generally be correlated with various negative socio-economic outcomes. However, in the case of Poland, the opposite is true. The Polish economy is growing and the state has managed to address some of its main problems – it has lowered economic inequality and improved educational outcomes. Poland is a state of relatively low corruption. This paradox requires investigation.
The empirical analysis in this dissertation is based on regression analysis. Most models were created with data from Polish Social Diagnosis panel. Country comparisons implement data from European Social Survey and World Values, which are complemented with data from organisations such as Eurostat, World Bank or Transparency International.
There are a few important findings presented in the dissertation. Similarly to data from other countries, social capital in Poland correlates with higher education, being male, or being optimistic. However, contrary to what can be found in the literature, in Poland it is the youngest members of the society who seem to have the most social capital. In addition, reverse estimation of social capital, based on socio-economic outcomes of the country, suggests that Poland should have much higher levels of social capital than what the survey research indicates. Finally, Poles are not inwardly focused on family, which is a predictable feature of societies with low amounts of social capital. Additionally, there is a positive trend of rising social capital, especially among the youngest members of the society. These results converged in a hypothesis in which Poland presents as a country with a substantial amount of social capital and the indicators of low levels of social capital are not the result of cultural traits but rather a result of historical negative shocks which affected the Polish willingness to cooperate. These negative shocks were the effect of communism, wars, a history of foreign occupation and explicit policies aiming at preventing Poles from cooperation. As such, the reluctance to trust or cooperate may be seen as a learned pattern of defiance to a hostile social environment.
The dissertation tests some potential historical factors and provides some findings that suggest such factors do play a role in shaping the contemporary state of social capital in Poland. In particular, historical demographics and migration patterns seem to affect the current regional level of social capital in Polish society.
... (The internal connection between YouTube/Google/Verily and the alignment of those entities with censorship requests by the WHO, et al., is a suggested context for response to Question 8.) 12 10 Please see section "Censorship of Promising COVID-19 Treatments -Nebulized Budesonide," page 9 above. ...
... Cohen, S et al. in JAMA. [10] j. Thus, government responses that induced fear, psychological stress, and isolation, including face masking impositions, were diametrically opposite to known science and had the predictable effect, given their scale, of directly in themselves causing large numbers of deaths. ...
... Direct behavioral observations of monkeys interacting within a closed or contained system have the added benefit of creating an objective record of all possible interactions and interaction partners, without reliance on self-reports to construct networks that represent social interactions (e.g., the Social Network Index; Cohen et al., 1997). Like humans, rhesus monkeys' social relationships and roles in their social networks have clear implications for their health and wellbeing (for a review, see McCowan et al., 2016) and social network features that are not typically measured in humans seem to play a particularly important role in heath in rhesus monkeys, including how certain animals are of their status and the number of indirect social connections (or "friends of friends") they have (for a review, see Brent, 2015) and the importance or centrality of their social role (how many individuals and groups they connect) (Duboscq et al., 2016). ...
... The vast majority of studies evaluating psychological and physiological functions as related to social network parameters in people ask participants to self-report on the number of friends, acquaintances, or contacts they have (e.g., using a tool like the Social Network Index: Bickart et al., 2014;Cohen et al., 1997) or self-report on or extract the number of social media contacts they have (e.g., Kanai et al., 2012;Lewis et al., 2008, but see Morelli et al., 2017 for an alternative approach). Given the findings in the human literature, we expected that we might see a relationship between affective reactivity and out-degree ("outgoing") grooming partners as this is likely the closest proxy for self-reported close social contacts in humans. ...
Accumulating evidence demonstrates that the number of social connections an individual has predicts health and wellbeing outcomes in people and nonhuman animals. In this report, we investigate the relationship between features of an individuals’ role within his social network and affective reactivity to ostensibly threatening stimuli, using a highly translatable animal model — rhesus monkeys. Features of the social network were quantified via observations of one large (0.5 acre) cage that included 83 adult monkeys. The affective reactivity profiles of twenty adult male monkeys were subsequently evaluated in two classic laboratory-based tasks of negative affective reactivity (human intruder and object responsiveness). Rhesus monkeys who had greater social status, characterized by age, higher rank, more close social partners, and who themselves have more close social partners, and who played a more central social role in their affiliative network were less reactive on both tasks. While links between social roles and social status and psychological processes have been demonstrated, these data provide new insights about the link between social status and affective processes in a tractable animal model of human health and disease.
... Network size. Network size is defined as the number of close others with whom individuals are in regular contact (see Social Network Index; Cohen et al., 1997). Building on research findings which suggest that emotional support is typically provided by close social ties (Dunbar & Spoors, 1995;Hill & Dunbar, 2003;Stiller & Dunbar, 2007), our definition of network members does not include loose ties. ...
... In its simplest version, the ERROSS model can be tested crosssectionally with individuals identifying network members, emotion regulation strategies provided by each network member, and psychosocial outcomes. To allow for the computation of ERROSS model parameters (i.e., network size, strategies, and repertoire), it is important to use "personalized" measures such as the Social Network Index (SNI; Cohen et al., 1997), where respondents indicate the name of network members across different relationship categories (e.g., romantic partner, family, coworkers, etc.), and then choose from a checklist of emotion regulation strategies which ones are associated with each network partner (e.g., Emily -comforts, reassures). Which network members and emotion regulation strategies to include in such a checklist is both a theoretical and an empirical question, and should be informed by the research question and study context at hand. ...
Do people really fare better if they can rely on many social ties? Research suggests that benefits of interpersonal emotion regulation (ER) can be derived from both large and small social networks. Building on the intrapersonal regulatory flexibility model, we propose the emotion regulation repertoire of social support (ERROSS) model that views effective socioemotional support as the combination of network size and ER strategies, resulting in a repertoire of ER resources one can draw on. Best outcomes in mental health should follow from both a large network and a diverse repertoire of strategies. ERROSS is applied as an example in the context of bereavement, and specific contributions of the model are highlighted.
... Biological factors underlying the stress-infection association have also been explored, with studies suggesting a role for systemic proinflammatory cytokine production (Cohen et al., 1999), natural killer cell cytotoxicity (Cohen et al., 2002), catecholamine levels (Cohen et al., 1997), leukocyte telomere length (Cohen et al., 2013), cardiovascular stress reactivity (Boyce et al., 1995), and cortisol levels or cortisol stress reactivity (Cohen et al., 2002;Janicki-Deverts et al., 2016). Comparably fewer studies have explored local airway processes, in particular airway J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Nitric Oxide and Respiratory Infection 7 mucosal immune responses, to stress . ...
... Comparably fewer studies have explored local airway processes, in particular airway J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Nitric Oxide and Respiratory Infection 7 mucosal immune responses, to stress . Cohen et al. (1997) found that social support increased mucociliary clearance of infection. A number of studies have examined immunoglobulin A (IgA) (Bosch et al., 2004) and other molecules relevant to adaptive and innate immunity extracted from saliva (Bosch et al., 2003), but a clear relationship with cold symptoms has not been established and factors more directly linked to airway mucosal immunity have not been studied in detail. ...
Nitric oxide (NO) is a ubiquitous signaling molecule that is critical for supporting a plethora of processes in biological organisms. Among these, its role in the innate immune system as a first line of defense against pathogens has received less attention. In asthma, levels of exhaled NO have been utilized as a window into airway inflammation caused by allergic processes. However, respiratory infections count among the most important triggers of disease exacerbations. Among the multitude of factors that affect NO levels are psychological processes. In particular, longer lasting states of psychological stress and depression have been shown to attenuate NO production. The novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has caused a pandemic, and with that, sustained levels of psychological stress globally, also adversely affects NO signaling. We review evidence on the role of NO in respiratory infection, including COVID-19, and stress, and argue that boosting NO bioavailability may be beneficial in protection from infections, thus benefitting individuals who suffer from stress in asthma or SARS-CoV-2 infection.
... There was an adjusted relative risk of 4.2 comparing people with fewest (one to three) to those with most (six or more) types of social ties. 15 In other words, those that had only one to three social ties (defined as a phone call or visit from a friend every 2 weeks) were 4.2 times more likely to develop the signs and symptoms of a cold than those with six or more social ties during that time. ...
... 35 Bir sosyal role sahip olmanın benlik saygısını artırdığına dair kanıtlar bulunmaktadır ve bu stresli yaşama uyumu güçlendirmekte ve depresyonu önlemektedir. 36,37 Ayrıca sosyal bağlar, arkadaşlık ve sosyalleşme için fırsatlar sunmaktadır. 35 Sosyal bağlar, akıl sağlığını açık bir biçimde etkilemektedir. ...
... Retirement was placed in the "social" category because jobs are important venues for social interaction, and the ability to work could depend on sensory function (not just age). Employment status is often included in social participation indices (e.g., Cohen et al. 1997). Life-space and driving are measures of mobility, but mobility is a requirement for many types of social interactions. ...
Objectives:
Our objectives were to (1) determine the prevalence of self-reported hearing, vision, and dual sensory (both vision and hearing) difficulties in older Canadian adults; (2) examine the association between self-report and behavioral sensory measures; and (3) controlling for behavioral sensory measures, examine variables that might explain the self-reported sensory difficulty, including age, sex, cultural background, socioeconomic status, nonsensory comorbidities, cognitive function, and social factors.
Design:
We used baseline data collected from the 30,097 participants of the comprehensive cohort of the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Participants who were 45 to 85 years of age (mean age = 63 years, SD = ± 10.25) were recruited using provincial health registries and random-digit dialing. Analyses were conducted for the sample as a whole or stratified by age. Behavioral sensory data for hearing (pure-tone audiometry) and vision (pinhole-corrected visual acuity) were collected at 11 data collection sites. Self-reported sensory and personal data were obtained through in-person interviews. "Difficulty" was defined as a response of "fair" or "poor" (versus "excellent," "very good" or "good") to questions about hearing ability (using a hearing aid if used) and vision (using glasses or corrective lenses if used). Individuals with both hearing and vision difficulties were defined as having dual sensory difficulties. Variables associated with self-reported sensory difficulties were analyzed with multiple regression models.
Results:
Objective 1. The prevalence of impairments based on behavioral measures was higher than the prevalence of difficulties based on self-report measures. The prevalence based on both types of measures increased with age, but the increase was steeper for behavioral measures. Objective 2. In addition to the expected positive associations between self-report and behavioral measures of hearing [odds ratio (OR) = 2.299)] and vision (OR = 15.247), self-reported sensory difficulty was also explained by other within-modality sensory variables, such as the symmetry of impairment and the use of aids. Objective 3. Controlling for behavioral measures of hearing (better-ear pure-tone average) or vision (better-eye visual acuity), older participants were significantly less likely than younger participants to self-report sensory difficulty. Sensory difficulties were reported more often by males and by those with more comorbid health conditions. Compared to those who did not report vision difficulties, those who did report them were more likely to also report hearing difficulties (OR = 2.921) and vice versa (OR = 2.720). There were modality-specific associations with variables relevant to social participation; for example, independent life space was associated with hearing difficulties, and perceived availability of social support and loneliness with vision difficulties.
Conclusions:
The low prevalence of self-reported sensory difficulties relative to the behavioral measures of sensory impairments indicates that (a) a simple screening question about sensory ability may not be sufficient to identify older adults who are in the early stages of sensory decline, and (b) self-reported sensory ability is associated with sensory and nonsensory factors. Age, gender, and comorbidities are the most notable nonsensory predictors for both self-reported hearing and vision. These findings shed light on how the self-reported sensory difficulties of older adults may reflect clinical measures of sensory impairment as well as nonsensory factors.
... The questionnaire block (which included the AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) was presented full screen using Qualtrics. Participants completed the questionnaires in the following order: Social Network Index (SNI; Cohen et al., 1997), Apathy Motivation Index (AMI; Ang et al., 2017), Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE; Reniers et al., 2011), Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20; Bagby et al., 1994), Short Form Self-Report Psychopathy scale (SRP-SF; Gordts et al. 2017), and AQ. ...
Neuroeconomics paradigms have demonstrated that learning about another’s beliefs can make you more like them (i.e., contagion). Due to social deficits in autism, it is possible that autistic individuals will be immune to contagion. We fit Bayesian computational models to a temporal discounting task, where participants made decisions for themselves before and after learning the distinct preferences of two others. Two independent neurotypical samples (N = 48; N = 98) both showed a significant contagion effect; however the strength of contagion was unrelated to autistic traits. Equivalence tests showed autistic (N = 12) and matched neurotypical N = 12) samples had similar levels of contagion and accuracy when learning about others. Despite social impairments being at the core of autistic symptomatology, contagion of value preferences appears to be intact.
... Social isolation was evaluated with the number of social roles, which are only counted if the respondent interacted with at least one person regularly within that role during the pandemic (from March 2020 onward, that is, during the past four months). Based on the Cohen's Social Network Index (Cohen et al., 1997), the total number of types of social roles was assessed by asking "what kind of people do you meet and talk to on a regular basis? Please circle the appropriate social roles." ...
In the face of the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, billions of people were forced to stay at home due to the implementation of social distancing and lockdown policies. As a result, individuals lost their social relationships, leading to social isolation and loneliness. Both social isolation and loneliness are major risk factors for poor physical and mental health status through enhanced chronic inflammation; however, there might be an interplay between social isolation and loneliness and the association with chronic inflammation. We aimed to clarify the link between social relationship and inflammation in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic by distinguishing whether social isolation only, loneliness only, or both were associated with chronic inflammation markers among community-dwelling adults. The data of 624 people (aged 18-92 years, mean 51.4) from the Utsunomiya COVID-19 seROprevalence Neighborhood Association (U-CORONA) study, which targeted randomly sampled households in Utsunomiya city, Japan, were analyzed. Social isolation was assessed as a structural social network by asking the number of social roles they have on a daily basis. Loneliness was measured with the UCLA loneliness scale. As chronic inflammation biomarkers, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and the concentration of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) were measured. Generalized estimating equations method was employed to take into account the correlations within households. Isolated-Lonely condition (i.e., being both socially isolated and feeling lonely) was associated with higher NLR among men (B = 0.141, 95%CI = -0.01 to 0.29). Interestingly, Nonisolated-Lonely condition (i.e., not socially isolated but feeling lonely) was associated with lower CRP among women (B = -0.462, 95%CI = -0.82 to -0.10) and among the working-age population (B = -0.495, 95%CI = -0.76 to -0.23). In conclusion, being both social isolated and feeling lonely was associated with chronic inflammation. Assessing both social isolation and loneliness is critical for proper interventions to mitigate the impact of social relationship on health, especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Thus, promoting naturally occurring social relations may have more of an overall health effect. Work initiated by Cohen et al. (1997) and supported by others demonstrates the role of social relationships on physiologic processes (Uchino et al., 1999), including immune mediated inflammatory responses (Moynihan et al., 2004) and epigenetic effects (Meloni, 2014;Cunliffe, 2016). ...
The prevalence of psychosocial distress is increasing in the United States. At the same time, the American default lifestyle has steadily displaced household food production with industrial food production, despite increased cultural interest in cooking. An important focus of cooking research to date has been on cooking’s association with nutrition and dietary quality. Less focus has been placed on how cooking might foster the qualities that allow for mitigation of psychosocial distress and promote well-being. Rooted in its evolutionary role in the human experience, cooking requires skills and knowledge that have the capacity to encourage aspects of well-being as described by Seligman as flourishing. Evidence for a beneficial role of cooking in psychosocial health exists, but the exploration is limited, potentially due to lack of a theoretical context to explain these benefits. From this perspective, we review the current literature showing the application of Seligman’s prominent well-being model, Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment (PERMA), to cooking, defined as the activity related to the preparation of food or a meal. We propose that the PERMA model as applied to cooking may function as a theoretical framework to explore psychosocial outcomes associated with cooking. Broader application of this approach may also help to further the application of positive psychology in the developing literature around psychosocial health and nutrition-related chronic diseases.
... Based on the Cohen's Social Network Index, the following types of social roles were assessed: spouse, child, parent, relatives, neighbor, colleague, group member (e.g., clubs, gyms, lessons, religious organizations), school friend, and others. A higher score indicates a higher social integration [20]. ...
Face mask use is a critical behavior to prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2. We aimed to evaluate the association between social integration and face mask use during the COVID-19 pandemic in a random sample of households in Utsunomiya City, Greater Tokyo, Japan. Data included 645 adults in the Utsunomiya COVID-19 seROprevalence Neighborhood Association (U-CORONA) study, which was conducted after the first wave of the pandemic, between 14 June 2020 and 5 July 2020, in Utsunomiya City. Social integration before the pandemic was assessed by counting the number of social roles, based on the Cohen’s social network index. Face mask use before and during the pandemic was assessed by questionnaire, and participants were categorized into consistent mask users, new users, and current non-users. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to examine the association between lower social integration score and face mask use. To account for possible differential non-response bias, non-response weights were used. Of the 645 participants, 172 (26.7%) were consistent mask users and 460 (71.3%) were new users, while 13 (2.0%) were current non-users. Lower social integration level was positively associated with non-users (RRR: 1.76, 95% CI: 1.10, 2.82). Social integration may be important to promote face mask use.
... Previous studies have employed various metrics to describe the social network structure, such as the number of regular relationships that a person maintains over a 7-day or 1-month period, reflecting the network size (Bickart et al., 2011(Bickart et al., , 2012, or the number of different types of these relationships to which an individual belongs, reflecting network complexity (Cohen et al., 1997;Bickart et al., 2011Bickart et al., , 2012. Network size and complexity are focused on the individual egocentric network, in which only direct social ties to the focal individual are involved. ...
A social network is a web that integrates multiple levels of interindividual social relationships and has direct associations with an individual’s health and well-being. Previous research has mainly focused on how brain and social network structures (structural properties) act on each other and on how the brain supports the spread of ideas and behaviors within social networks (functional properties). The structure of the social network is correlated with activity in the amygdala, which links decoding and interpreting social signals and social values. The structure also relies on the mentalizing network, which is central to an individual’s ability to infer the mental states of others. Network functional properties depend on multilayer brain-social networks, indicating that information transmission is supported by the default mode system, the valuation system, and the mentalizing system. From the perspective of neuroendocrinology, overwhelming evidence shows that variations in oxytocin, β-endorphin and dopamine receptor genes, including oxytocin receptor (OXTR), mu opioid receptor 1 (OPRM1) and dopamine receptor 2 (DRD2), predict an individual’s social network structure, whereas oxytocin also contributes to improved transmission of emotional and behavioral information from person to person. Overall, previous studies have comprehensively revealed the effects of the brain, endocrine system, and genes on social networks. Future studies are required to determine the effects of cognitive abilities, such as memory, on social networks, the characteristics and neural mechanism of social networks in mental illness and how social networks change over time through the use of longitudinal methods.
... On the contrary social isolation is an objective and quantifiable reduction in the size of the social network and the scarcity of social contacts. Socially isolated people have an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases infectious diseases impairment of cognitive ability and an increase in mortality [5][6][7][8][9][10]. Social isolation is also associated with increased arterial pressure C-reactive protein and fibrinogen as well as with increased inflammatory and metabolic stress responses [11][12][13][14]. ...
Purpose: To study the impact of social support (indices of close contacts and social netwotks) on the risk of arterial hypertension (AH) in an open population of 25-64 years in Novosibirsk. Methods: A random representative sample of the population of both sexes of 25-64 years old in Novosibirsk in 1994 (men: n = 657 44.3 ± 0.4 years response - 82.1% women: n = 689 45.4 ± 0.4 years response - 72.5%). The screening survey program included: registration of socio-demographic data determination of the level of social support (ICC - index of close contacts SNI - index of social networks). The period of prospective follow-up of participants was 16 years. Results: In the open population of 25-64 years low rates of ICC and SNI were in 62% and 43.5% of men and 56.8% and 33.9% of women. During the first 5 years the risk of hypertension in men and women with a low ICC was the same in men HR = 2.063 (95% CI 1.019-5.213 p <0.05) and women with HR = 2.009 (95% CI 1.025- 3.938 p <0.05). The increase in the risk of AH in persons with low SNI over 5 years was higher in men in 5.9 (95% CI 1.278-8.361 p <0.05) times 10 years later the risk of developing AH in women 25-64 was 1.884 (95% CI 1.09-3.255 p <0.05). The risk of hypertension was highest among men: never married divorced and widowed with low ICC and SNI. Among women at risk were widowed women with low ICC as well as women with primary education with low ICC and SNI. Conclusion: Low level of social support increased the risk of AH in men and women.
... The RMET is one of the most commonly used assessments of affective ToM available to date (Baron- Cohen et al., 1997) and has demonstrated validity in HD (Eddy et al., 2014;Mason et al., 2015) and acceptable test-retest reliability (Hallerbäck et al., 2009;Khorashad et al., 2015;Prevost et al., 2014;Vellante et al., 2013;Yildirim et al., 2011). This task consists of 36 black and white photographs of pairs of people's eyes, which are presented alongside four words that describe different emotional and mental states (e.g., jealous, panicked, arrogant, and hateful). ...
Objective:
Discrepancies exist in reports of social cognition deficits in individuals with premanifest Huntington's disease (HD); however, the reason for this variability has not been investigated. The aims of this study were to (1) evaluate group- and individual-level social cognitive performance and (2) examine intra-individual variability (dispersion) across social cognitive domains in individuals with premanifest HD.
Method:
Theory of mind (ToM), social perception, empathy, and social connectedness were evaluated in 35 individuals with premanifest HD and 29 healthy controls. Cut-off values beneath the median and 1.5 × the interquartile range below the 25th percentile (P25 - 1.5 × IQR) of healthy controls for each variable were established for a profiling method. Dispersion between social cognitive domains was also calculated.
Results:
Compared to healthy controls, individuals with premanifest HD performed worse on all social cognitive domains except empathy. Application of the profiling method revealed a large proportion of people with premanifest HD fell below healthy control median values across ToM (>80%), social perception (>57%), empathy (>54%), and social behaviour (>40%), with a percentage of these individuals displaying more pronounced impairments in empathy (20%) and ToM (22%). Social cognition dispersion did not differ between groups. No significant correlations were found between social cognitive domains and mood, sleep, and neurocognitive outcomes.
Conclusions:
Significant group-level social cognition deficits were observed in the premanifest HD cohort. However, our profiling method showed that only a small percentage of these individuals experienced marked difficulties in social cognition, indicating the importance of individual-level assessments, particularly regarding future personalised treatments.
... Epidemiological reports on the Japanese population have shown that the percentage of social isolation increased after the GEJE [9,10]. Studies have also shown that socially isolated individuals are at an increased risk for the development of cardiovascular diseases [11,12], infectious diseases [13,14], cognitive decline [15,16], and depressive symptoms [17,18]. ...
Background:
Social isolation and mental health issues have become a severe problem in disaster areas in the Great East Japan Earthquake. This study examined whether the combination of the house damage and social isolation or the combination of the death of family members and social isolation is associated with depressive symptoms among survivors using the baseline study data of the Tohoku Medical Megabank Project Community-Based Cohort Study (TMM CommCohort Study).
Methods:
We used cross-sectional data from a baseline survey of 48,958 participants (18,423 males, 30,535 females; aged 60.1 ± 11.2 years) to examine the association between social isolation measured by the Lubben social network scale 6 (LSNS-6) and depressive symptoms measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depressive Scale (CES-D). The presence of social isolation and depressive symptoms was defined by an LSNS-6 score of < 12 and a CES-D score of ≥16, respectively. We performed a logistic regression analysis to determine the multivariable-adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) [AOR (95% CI)] for depressive symptoms according to sex in the social isolation in comparison to without social isolation, and the associations of the combination of the house damage or the death of family members and social isolation and depressive symptoms.
Results:
Social isolation was significantly associated with depressive symptoms (males: OR = 1.87; 95% CI = 1.72-2.04, females: OR = 2.13; 95% CI = 2.00-2.26). Both males and females respondents with severe house damage and social isolation had a greater risk of depressive symptoms in comparison to those with an undamaged house and without social isolation (males: OR = 3.40; 95% CI = 2.73-4.24, females: OR = 2.92; 95% CI = 2.46-3.46). The risk of depressive symptoms was also higher in both males and females respondents with the death of family members and social isolation in comparison to those without the death of family members and without social isolation (males: OR = 2.18; 95% CI = 1.90-2.50, females: OR = 2.60; 95% CI = 2.35-2.88).
Conclusion:
The findings suggested that a combination of social isolation and severe house damage and the death of family members caused by a large-scale natural disaster was associated with a higher risk of depressive symptoms although the interaction was not statistically significant.
... Clustering and sub-groups in networks, such as communities, small-world degree distributions, node groupings, and modularity, may also contribute to an outbreak's trajectory and persistence (18,19). Additionally, network structure, social support, and sociability may impact individual susceptibility to infection (20,21). Importantly, individual and community traits can interact with network structure, affecting infectious disease dynamics. ...
Behavior, attitudes, and infection can transmit across networks of contacts via social mixing, making network analysis methods a key tool in social and infectious disease epidemiology. Through analysis of the simultaneous processes that influence and shape individuals and networks, we can better understand how to collect social network data, incorporate human behavior and its collective idiosyncrasies into models and statistics as uncertainty, and thus improve the veracity of our conclusions. Using data from a longitudinal social network study of undergraduate students, this dissertation aims to: 1) examine how social structures and contact patterns shape alcohol consumption and use in undergraduate students; 2) evaluate the strengths and limitations of different methods of measuring social contact networks; and 3) develop methods to quantify network uncertainty and hypothesis testing for trait assortativity. First, we applied social network analysis methods to two undergraduate student social networks, investigating network correlates of alcohol consumption, identifying numerous, consistent associations between alcohol use and social position in this population. Specifically, network position, alcohol exposures, and relationship strength were associated with individual alcohol use, suggesting complex relationships between drinking and network topology, as well as proximity to alcohol use. Overall, this chapter adds to the body of evidence of significant relationships between network structure, social position, and alcohol consumption. Next, we systematically compared two social network measurement methods with varying levels of granularity in order understand the unique utility of self-report vs. sensor contact data, as well as trends in data quality and quantity over time. Networks were compared across and within each measurement method, using overall network structure, dyad, and node characteristics. We found few network similarities between measurement methods, suggesting that neither empirical network measurement method are complete representations of the underlying “true” social network. These analyses highlight the impact that network measurement can have on empirical network findings and suggest that researchers should carefully consider which collection method, or combination of methods, could provide them with the highest quality data needed to answer their research questions. Finally, we outlined and defined multiple assortativity sensitivity analyses, uncertainty quantification approaches, and null model-hypothesis testing procedures and applied these methods to a measured social network of undergraduate students. These investigations showed that uncertainty and biases of attribute assortativity may be predictable, given a defined amount and type of data error. Generally, results of these analyses show the potential impacts that data quality, measurement error, and the measured network can have on observed assortativity. We suggest that it be standard practice to conduct and present assortativity sensitivity analyses, and to hypothesize possible confounding or bias related to network data quality and completeness. In toto, this dissertation describes and extensively explores social networks of undergraduate students. We investigated relationships between a risky health behavior of public health importance and network features, as well as how network analysis results using observed networks are reliant on the network measurement method and the types and amounts of data uncertainty and error present. These projects have generated new results and insights into alcohol use and social networks in a college setting, compared empirical social network observations between a traditional and novel instrument, and developed a suite of analytical social network tools. Importantly, the novel methods we defined and implemented in this dissertation provide a framework with which to evaluate network uncertainty, robustness, and hypotheses.
... Furthermore, social isolation itself, in addition to individual psychological stress, is known to have an added impact on the said susceptibility to viral respiratory disease (Cohen et al., 1997). ...
We analyzed all-cause mortality by week (ACM/w) for Canada, and for the Canadian provinces, and by age group and sex, from January 2010 through March 2021; in comparison with data for other countries and their regions or counties.
We find that there is no extraordinary surge in yearly or seasonal mortality in Canada, which can be ascribed to a COVID-19 pandemic; and that several prominent features in the ACM/w in the COVID-19 period exhibit anomalous province-to-province heterogeneity that is irreconcilable with the known behaviour of epidemics of viral respiratory diseases (VRDs). We conclude that a pandemic did not occur.
In addition, our analysis of the ACM/w, by province, age and sex, allows us to highlight anomalies, occurring during the COVID-19 period, which provide strong evidence that:
• Among the most elderly (85+ years), many died from the immediate response to the pandemic that was announced by the WHO on 11 March 2020.
• Predominantly young males (0-44 years, and also 45-64 years) probably indirectly died from the sustained pandemic response, in the summer months of 2020, and into the fall and winter, starting in May 2020, especially in Alberta, significantly in Ontario and British Columbia, whereas not in Quebec.
Our study provides constraints on the mechanisms at play in VRD epidemics.
... Social network size was measured using the Social Network Index (Cohen, Doyle, Skoner, Rabin, & Gwaltney, 1997). This instrument includes 12 multiple-choice items regarding the number of people in participants' social network (e.g. ...
Social experiences including discrimination, low social support, and interpersonal conflict are reliable predictors of depression symptom severity (Costello, 1982; Monroe, Rohde, Seeley, & Lewinsohn, 1999; Phifer & Murrell, 1986). However, individual differences may buffer against or exacerbate risk (Pluess & Belsky, 2015). A more holistic and dimensional approach, in line with modern perspectives on mental health (Kircanski, LeMoult, Ordaz, & Gotlib, 2017), requires an investigation of individual differences that moderate associations of positive and negative social experiences with depression symptom severity. This dissertation assesses relative contributions of social experiences (low social support, discrimination, childhood trauma, and sexual objectification) to variation in depression symptom severity and how social responsiveness traits (rejection sensitivity, need to belong, self-monitoring, dispositional empathy, alexithymia, and a Social Responsiveness latent variable) moderate these associations in a sample of 1,128 college students. It also includes a systematic review of the role of oxytocin system genetic variation in depression. Evidence from the review informed creation of a polygenic score of variation associated with higher oxytocin neurotransmission which was tested in association with depression symptom severity and social responsiveness traits in a sample of 1,022 college students. Discrimination and perceived social support were most strongly associated with depression symptom severity and these associations were moderated by rejection sensitivity, alexithymia, and a Social Responsiveness latent variable. Oxytocin system genetic variation was not associated with depression symptom severity or social responsiveness traits. The polygenic score moderated an association between net social experiences and depression symptom severity, but this effect did not survive Bonferroni correction or tests for moderation of individual social experiences. Results strengthen and expand upon theories of resilience and susceptibility and may inform individualized treatment for depression symptoms, including interventions focused on social cognition (Masi, Chen, Hawkley, & Cacioppo, 2011) and healing from discrimination (Comas-Díaz, 2016). Results align with evidence suggesting genetic variation in the oxytocin system is not robustly associated with depression symptom severity (Tollenaar, Molendijk, Penninx, Milaneschi, & Antypa, 2017). Advisor: Scott F. Stoltenberg
... The Social Network Index (SNI; Cohen et al., 1997) measures the number and type of social networks a person engages in frequently, including friends, family, romantic partners, co-workers, and others (12 total). For each relationship, participants have to say if they have some contact in that social domain and with how many people they have contact at least once every two weeks. ...
Previous studies have indicated that temperature regulation is related to social behavior (for an overview, see IJzerman et al., 2015; IJzerman & Hogerzeil, 2017). However, precise causal relationships between temperature and social behaviors are unclear. These links may be better understood by frequently measuring temperature in daily life and mapping those measurements onto social behaviors. The primary purpose of the present study was to enable such studies by validating a new wireless temperature sensor, the ISP131001 from Insight SiP, for human peripheral temperature measurement in daily life. In our exploratory dataset, we found moderately high correlations between two ISP131001 sensors and a comparison sensor ('r' = .82 for the average of our two ISP sensors). These correlations replicated in our confirmatory dataset ('r' = .94 for the average of our two ISP sensors). A secondary purpose of this report is the inclusion of a standard set of relevant measures for social thermoregulation research. We believe that this standard protocol of measures be included in all future social thermoregulation studies in order to facilitate and encourage data re-use and aggregation across studies.
... We administered the Social Network Index (SNI) developed by Cohen et al. (1997) to assess the offline social connectedness. It measures social participation in 12 different relationships, including relationships with family (spouse, parents, parents-in-law, children, close relatives), friends, neighbors, coworkers, classmates, members of religious groups, fellows from volunteers' networks, and members of other organizations. ...
Online social network sites provide possibilities to enhance social relationships and engage in cognitive activities for older adults. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between the use of one social network site, Facebook, and cognitive functions in older adults considering different dimensions of Facebook use together with different cognitive functions. Seventy healthy older adults completed the use of Facebook form, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and Social Network Index. Their cognitive functions were measured with Digit Span Tasks, Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test, Letter and Category Fluency Tests, Stroop Test, Digit Symbol Substitution Test, and Trail Making Test (TMT-A and TMT-B). After controlling for age, gender, education level, we found that Facebook users performed better on TMT-A compared to non-users. Among Facebook users, the length of having an account, the network size, the daily duration of use, and the frequency of active and passive use correlated with cognitive performance after controlling offline sociality. These findings, which need confirmation by experimental and longitudinal studies, suggested that being connected to a larger network via more prolonged and active use of social media might be associated with higher cognitive functioning.
... Indeed, our findings suggest that social support provided by coworkers and supervisors may serve to buffer the damaging effects of pregnancy discrimination on prenatal stress. This is consistent with prior research from the general medical literature highlighting the power of social relationships in determining health outcomes (Cohen et al., 1997). Here, we extend this work to show that the quality of social ties with people at work can be particularly helpful in enhancing the health and well-being of women as they navigate the transition to motherhood and return to work. ...
Pregnancy represents a critical time during which women are increasingly susceptible to challenges that can shape maternal health postpartum. Given the increasing number of women who are working through the duration of their pregnancies, in this study, we examine the extent to which both maternal psychological and physical health are influenced by social support received at work during pregnancy. Specifically, we examine 118 pregnant employees’ perceptions of coworker support, supervisor support, and stress over the course of 15 working days. We then link prenatal stress levels with postpartum maternal health outcomes following women’s return to work. At the within-person level, coworker support predicted next-day decreases in stress during pregnancy; however, stress did not predict next-day change in coworker support. There was no relationship between supervisor support and next-day change in stress during pregnancy or vice versa. At the between-person level, an interactive effect between coworker support and supervisor support emerged in predicting prenatal stress, such that women who benefitted from supportive coworkers and supportive supervisors during pregnancy reported the lowest levels of prenatal stress which were, in turn, associated with lower incidence of postpartum depression and quicker recovery times from birth-related injuries. Significant indirect effects suggested that when perceptions of supervisor support were higher (but not lower), coworker support during pregnancy predicted lower incidence of postpartum depression and quicker recovery times through reduced prenatal stress. Taken together, our findings provide novel insight into how specific aspects of the workplace environment may interact to shape maternal psychological and physical health during pregnancy and postpartum.
... As to the latter, participants experiencing higher levels of loneliness and social isolation reported greater social and emotional dysfunction, more systemic symptoms and more complaints directly related to their bowel disruption. These observations are in line with previous findings showing that stressful social experiences (especially threats to social connectedness) deeply interfere with healthrelevant physiological processes -in particular inflammatory dynamics (Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2003;Cole et al., 2007;Eisenberger & Cole, 2012;Eisenberger et al., 2017;Moieni et al., 2015;Seeman, 1996) -and increase the risk of chronic inflammation-related diseases (Cohen et al., 1997;Caspi et al., 2006;Kroenke et al., 2006). Similarly, they are consistent with the notion that organisms easily get dysregulated and symptomatic when denied interaction and coregulation -an effect that may even extend to those with properly developed self-regulatory abilities and points to the significance of social interaction dynamics for biological function (Hofer, 1984;. ...
IBD is a chronic health condition exacerbated by negative emotional stress experiences. In the current study we examined whether the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic coincided with an increase in stress experiences and accordingly an aggravation of disease activity in IBD patients. Sixty-three IBD patients (30 Crohn’s disease or CD, 33 Ulcerative Colitis or UC) completed an online survey during the COVID-19 related lockdown, assessing clinical disease activity, disease related quality of life, presence of functional gastrointestinal symptoms, social isolation and stress experiences. Scores were then compared to pre-lockdown baseline screening. The pandemic yielded a significant baseline-to lockdown increase in emotional stress and social isolation. Stress increments, particularly those occasioned by interpersonal tension and excessive interpersonal proximity, were associated with a worsening of functional gastrointestinal symptoms. Exacerbations of loneliness coincided with an escalation of CD activity, functional gastrointestinal symptoms, and a decline in subjective health. Lastly, COVID-19 anxiety was significantly related to CD symptom severity and social dysfunction. The findings show that shifts in IBD expression are closely linked to changes in emotional stress experiences and interpersonal relatedness. As such, they contribute to a better understanding of inter-individual differences in IBD progression and provide leads for therapeutic interventions.
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... As such, extreme social distancing measures such as extended "stay at home" or "shelter in place" (SIP) orders may paradoxically increase vulnerability to viral infection (conditional on viral exposure) even as they reduce the risk of viral exposure. Social influences on host resistance to viral infections have been documented in experimental viral challenge studies in humans (19,22,23) and nonhuman primates (24,25). However, the relevance of those studies to current (and historically novel) (26) extended SIP policies is complicated by the fact that earlier research assessed host resistance effects of perceived social isolation ("loneliness") and low social network density ("social ties") rather than objective social isolation (i.e., absence of others). ...
Previous research has linked perceived social isolation (loneliness) to reduced antiviral immunity, but the immunologic effects of the objective social isolation imposed by pandemic “shelter in place” (SIP) policies is unknown. We assessed the immunologic impact of SIP by relocating 21 adult male rhesus macaques from 2,000-m ² field cage communities of 70 to 132 other macaques to 2 wk of individual housing in indoor shelters. SIP was associated with 30% to 50% reductions in all circulating immune cell populations (lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes), down-regulation of Type I interferon (IFN) antiviral gene expression, and a relative up-regulation of CD16 ⁻ classical monocytes. These effects emerged within the first 48 h of SIP, persisted for at least 2 wk, and abated within 4 wk of return to social housing. A subsequent round of SIP in the presence of a novel juvenile macaque showed comparable reductions in circulating immune cell populations but reversal of Type I IFN reductions and classical monocyte increases observed during individual SIP. Analyses of lymph node tissues showed parallel up-regulation of Type I IFN genes and enhanced control of viral gene expression during juvenile-partnered SIP compared to isolated SIP. These results identify a significant adverse effect of SIP social isolation on antiviral immune regulation in both circulating immune cells and lymphoid tissues, and they suggest a potential behavioral strategy for ameliorating gene regulatory impacts (but not immune cell declines) by promoting prosocial engagement during SIP.
... This finding is consistent with previous studies, in which social engagement could improve physical and mental health and reduce risk of fall. [57][58][59][60] In the current study, even after adjusting for physical and cognitive function measures, social activity was still associated with lower risk of fall. As hypothesised in previous studies, for socially active individuals, attention to environmental hazards and adaptation to changes in physical function may be triggered and encouraged by peers in social activities. ...
Objectives
This study was to determine the incidence of falls and identify baseline factors increased risk for incident falls over time among people with diabetes.
Design
This study was a secondary analysis using the baseline and 4 years of follow-up data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS).
Setting
A nationally representative survey of 17 500 Chinese residents aged 45 years and older were recruited in the baseline national survey in 2011. These participants were followed up every 2 years.
Participants
A total of 1238 middle-aged and older adults with diabetes and no history of falls at baseline were included in the current study.
Primary and secondary outcome measures
Information on incidence of falls and medical treatment resulting from falls were determined by self-report.
Results
The findings showed that the incidence of falls was 29.4% during 4 years of follow-up. Participants with incident falls were younger, were more likely to be women, had lower education level and were less likely to be current drinkers. In addition, former drinkers were 2.22 times more likely to fall. Socially active individuals were 47% less likely to fall compared with those without social activities. Every 5 kg increase in grip strength was associated with a 13% lower risk of falls. A 10 mg/dL higher total cholesterol and 1 mg/dL higher blood urea nitrogen were associated with a 4% and 6% higher risk of falls. Finally, participants with depressive symptoms were 1.47 times more likely to fall compared with those without depressive symptoms.
Conclusions
These findings underscore the importance of developing a fall prevention programme for those with diabetes, and this programme should address potentially modifiable risk factors, including levels of total cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen, social activity, depressive symptoms and grip strength.
... Based on the remaining encounters, we generated six binary variables to represent six different types of social encounters during the 3-hour interval: any encounters with spouse/romantic partners, children (including stepchild and child-in-law), sibling (including stepsibling and sibling-in-law), friends, other familial ties (including grandchild/step-grandchild, other relatives), and others (e.g., neighbors, service provider, stranger; 1 (yes) and 0 (no) for each). Consistent with other studies, these indices represent any encounters with each type of social partner during the 3-hr intervals, rather than the number of social partners (Cohen et al., 1997;Ng et al., 2021). ...
Objectives
Marital status contributes to differences in social experiences and well-being in late life. Yet, we know little about the role of conversation in these processes. Drawing on a functionalist perspective and hierarchical compensatory model, this study aimed to understand (a) whether older adults’ marital status is associated with conversation frequency throughout the day, (b) whether contacts with non-spousal ties elicit more conversations among unmarried older adults, and (c) whether conversations exert a stronger effect on mood for unmarried older adults than married older adults.
Methods
Adults aged 65+ (N = 272) provided information about their background characteristics and social partners. Across 5–6 days, they completed ecological momentary assessments (EMA) reporting their social encounters and mood every 3 hours. Concurrently, electronically activated recorders (EAR) captured 30-seconds of sound every 7 minutes. We compared older adults who were: married, widowed, and divorced.
Results
Multilevel models revealed that married older adults engaged in more conversations than divorced older adults throughout the day. Contact with friends elicited more conversations for divorced older adults than married older adults. Furthermore, conversations enhanced mood throughout the day, but this effect was more salient for widowed than married older adults.
Discussion
Findings highlight the role of marital status in older adults’ daily conversational experiences and compensatory processes that may occur. Widowed and divorced older adults differed from married older adults in distinct ways. Divorced older adults may compensate for lack of spouse with friends, whereas widowed older adults may benefit emotionally from engaging in conversations.
... Among these, the Lubben Social Network Scale [144] was the most popular, used in 8 studies. Another 5 validated measures [145][146][147][148][149] were each used in 2 studies and 9 validated measures [150][151][152][153][154][155][156][157][158] were each used in 1 study. Seventy-five (82%) studies found stronger social environments were associated with better cognition and lower dementia risk, while 8 studies (9%) found strong social environments to be associated with poorer cognition and higher dementia risk. ...
Background:
Social environments are a contributing determinant of health and disparities. This scoping review details how social environments have been operationalized in observational studies of cognitive aging and dementia.
Methods:
A systematic search in PubMed and Web of Science identified studies of social environment exposures and late-life cognition/dementia outcomes. Data were extracted on (1) study design; (2) population; (3) social environment(s); (4) cognitive outcome(s); (5) analytic approach; and (6) theorized causal pathways. Studies were organized using a 3-tiered social ecological model at interpersonal, community, or policy levels.
Results:
Of 7802 non-duplicated articles, 123 studies met inclusion criteria. Eighty-four studies were longitudinal (range 1-28 years) and 16 examined time-varying social environments. When sorted into social ecological levels, 91 studies examined the interpersonal level; 37 examined the community/neighborhood level; 3 examined policy level social environments; and 7 studies examined more than one level.
Conclusions:
Most studies of social environments and cognitive aging and dementia examined interpersonal factors measured at a single point in time. Few assessed time-varying social environmental factors or considered multiple social ecological levels. Future studies can help clarify opportunities for intervention by delineating if, when, and how social environments shape late-life cognitive aging and dementia outcomes.
... It was interesting to note that people who have higher social support are also less possibility to evolve colds and are able to compensate faster if they are afflicted from a cold 18 .Social network has been affiliated with several positive consequence, containing faster cure from coronary artery surgery, herpes attacks and age-related cognitive decay and have improving diabetes control 19,20,21 .Informal and formal social agency helps an elderly particular to cure from a hip fracture, breast cancer and buffer the unhealthy effects of stress on psychological and physiological well being. This means that different forms of social support can improve elderly quality of life [22][23][24][25][26] . ...
The present scenario as deference to ageing people clearly shows that their numbers have enlarged over the furthest few decades worldwide and influence to be so in the forthcoming years to change, in the financial formation, disintegrating of social values, exhausting of social values and social organizations such as the joint family. In this changing financial and social environment, the ageing generation is caught between the abatement in conventional values on one hand and the absence of sufficient social security system on the other. Social connections are a substantial issue for elderly as ordinary life occurrence may threaten group. The prevalence of each type of support va friends and neighbours are valuable sources of abutment to ageing people. These social connections help to buffer stress and depression and improve individual's health and self friends and neighbours. Four main types of Social connections and social support play important role in the particularly where precise support and social assurance programs are not available.
... It was interesting to note that people who have higher social support are also less possibility to evolve colds and are able to compensate faster if they are afflicted from a cold 18 .Social network has been affiliated with several positive consequence, containing faster cure from coronary artery surgery, herpes attacks and age-related cognitive decay and have improving diabetes control 19,20,21 .Informal and formal social agency helps an elderly particular to cure from a hip fracture, breast cancer and buffer the unhealthy effects of stress on psychological and physiological well being. This means that different forms of social support can improve elderly quality of life [22][23][24][25][26] . ...
The present scenario as deference to ageing people clearly shows that their numbers have enlarged over the furthest few decades worldwide and influence to be so in the forthcoming years to change, in the financial formation, disintegrating of social values, exhausting of social values and social organizations such as the joint family. In this changing financial and social environment, the ageing generation is caught between the abatement in conventional values on one hand and the absence of a sufficient social security system on the other. Social connections are a substantial issue for the elderly as ordinary life occurrence may threaten the group. The prevalence of each type of support via friends and neighbours are valuable sources of abutment to ageing people. These social connections help to buffer stress and depression and improve an individual's health and self friends and neighbours. Four main types of Social connections and social support play important role in particularly where precise support and social assurance programs are not available.
... The Social Network Index (SNI; Cohen et al., 1997) was used to collect information on participants' social relationships. This measure assesses 12 types of social relationships (e.g., parents, children, spouse, religious and non-religious group affiliations). ...
The aim of the present study was to examine the role of self-perceived burden, social support seeking, and social network diversity in loneliness and psychological distress among women with ovarian cancer. A cross-sectional design was employed whereby 130 women diagnosed with ovarian cancer, recruited through various online sources (e.g., social media), completed the study via Qualtrics. Participants completed questionnaires that assessed self-perceived burden, social support seeking, social network diversity, loneliness, and psychological distress (anxiety, depressive symptoms). The models examined indicated that there were indirect effects of self-perceived burden and social network diversity on psychological distress via loneliness. Social support seeking was not significant in the models. Loneliness, self-perceived burden, and social network diversity should be of clinical concern among those working to support women with ovarian cancer. Future studies on longitudinal patterns or examining other factors associated with loneliness are needed to better understand the mental health of women with ovarian cancer.
Social behaviour requires the brain to efficiently integrate multiple social processes, but it is not clear what neural substrates underlie general social behaviour. While psychosis patients and individuals with subclinical symptoms are characterized by social dysfunction, the neural mechanisms underlying social dysfunctions in schizophrenia spectrum disorders remains unclear. We first constructed a general social brain network (SBN) using resting-state functional connectivity (FC) with regions of interest based on the automatic meta-analysis results from NeuroSynth. We then examined the general SBN and its relationship with social network (SN) characteristics in 30 individuals with schizophrenia (SCZ) and 33 individuals with social anhedonia (SA). We found that patients with SCZ exhibited deficits in their SN, while SA individuals did not. SCZ patients showed decreased segregation and functional connectivity in their SBN, while SA individuals showed a reversed pattern with increased segregation and functional connectivity of their SBN. Sparse canonical correlation analysis showed that both SCZ patients and SA individuals exhibited reduced correlation between SBN and SN characteristics compared with their corresponding healthy control groups. These preliminary findings suggest that both SCZ and SA participants exhibit abnormality in segregation and functional connectivity within the general SBN and reduced correlation with SN characteristics. These findings could guide the development of non-pharmacological interventions for social dysfunction in SCZ spectrum disorders.
Background
Loneliness is a distressing and prevalent symptom in patients with persistent depressive disorder (PDD) that is associated with depression severity, a history of childhood maltreatment and rejection sensitivity. As loneliness is no primary focus of psychotherapy to date and the Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP) particularly addresses interpersonal relationships, we investigate the effects of CBASP on loneliness in an open study in inpatients with PDD.
Methods
Sixty patients with PDD (DSM-5) underwent a comprehensive 10-weeks inpatient program of CBASP. Loneliness, social network characteristics, and depressive symptoms were assessed before and after treatment. Further, history of childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, and rejection sensitivity were measured at baseline.
Results
Loneliness and depressive symptoms significantly and independently decreased, whereas social network characteristics showed no change after 10 weeks of CBASP. Higher levels of loneliness, larger social network size at baseline, and a history of emotional neglect predicted a larger reduction of loneliness, whereas higher levels of rejection sensitivity and depressive symptoms at baseline were associated with an inferior outcome.
Limitations
Unspecific factors of the inpatient setting cannot be ruled out and a control group is lacking.
Conclusions
After 10 weeks of CBASP, PDD patients reported a reduced burden of loneliness. The study provides first evidence that CBASP, which addresses dysfunctional interpersonal patterns and their origin in childhood maltreatment and peer victimization, could provide valuable techniques for developing mechanism based psychotherapeutic intervention for loneliness.
Background:
Although social networks are deemed as moderators of incident Alzheimer's disease (AD), few data are available on the mechanism relevant to AD pathology.
Objective:
We aimed to investigate whether social networks affect metabolism of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarkers during early stage and identify modification effects of genetic factor and subjective cognitive decline (SCD).
Methods:
We studied participants from the Chinese Alzheimer's disease Biomarker and Lifestyle (CABLE) database who received cognition assessments and CSF amyloid-β (Aβ 1-42 and Aβ 1-40) and tau proteins (total-tau [T-tau] and phosphorylated-tau [P-tau]) measurements. The social networks were measured using self-reported questionnaires about social ties. Linear regression models were used.
Results:
Data were analyzed from 886 cognitively intact individuals aged 61.91 years (SD = 10.51), including 295 preclinical AD participants and 591 healthy controls. Social networks were mostly associated with CSF indicators of AD multi-pathologies (low P-tau/Aβ 1-42 and T-tau/Aβ 1-42 and high Aβ 1-42/Aβ 1-40). Significant differences of genetic and cognitive status were observed for CSF indicators, in which associations of social network scores with CSF P-tau and indicators of multi-pathologies appeared stronger in APOE 4 carriers (versus non-carriers) and participants with SCD (versus controls), respectively. Alternatively, more pronounced associations for CSF T-tau (β= -0.005, p < 0.001), Aβ 1-42/Aβ 1-40 (β= 0.481, p = 0.001), and T-tau/Aβ 1-42 (β= -0.047, p < 0.001) were noted in preclinical AD stage than controls.
Conclusion:
These findings consolidated strong links between social networks and AD risks. Social networks as a modifiable lifestyle probably affected metabolisms of multiple AD pathologies, especially among at-risk populations.
In response to growing levels of social isolation and loneliness in cities, the promotion of social connectedness has come to the forefront of urban health, sustainability, and resiliency agendas. Despite policy attention locally and internationally, social connectedness is not consistently defined, conceptualized, or measured in population health and urban planning research. The term has also been used interchangeably with various other concepts in research on social environments and health, particularly social cohesion, social capital, and social inclusion. These discrepancies create confusion for planners and policymakers looking for evidence-informed guidance on the implementation and evaluation of urban interventions designed to promote social connectedness. Further, it presents a challenge for intervention researchers interested in investigating possible causal pathways between urban change, social connectedness, and health. Drawing from contemporary public health and urban planning literature, this paper aims to delineate the concept of social connectedness, including its meaning, measurement, and relationship to neighbourhoods and health. Clarifying social connectedness for urban health research and policy is crucial to interpreting and advancing evidence on its role – both its determinants and impacts – in the development of healthy, sustainable, and resilient cities.
El síndrome respiratorio agudo severo (SARS), cuyo agente causal es el Coronavirus SARS-CoV, surgió en 2003, sin embargo, a finales del 2019, se observó que un nuevo Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) causaba una enfermedad similar a la influenza, denominada COVID-19 (acrónimo del inglés coronavirus disease 2019), la cual, presentaba desde síntomas respiratorios leves hasta lesiones pulmonares graves, y en algunos casos, cursando con insuficiencia multiorgánica y muerte 1,2,3.
Objective
To examine the association between social isolation and mortality and incident diseases in middle-aged adults in urban and rural communities from high-income, middle-income and low-income countries.
Design
Population-based prospective observational study.
Setting
Urban and rural communities in 20 high income, middle income and low income.
Participants
119 894 community-dwelling middle-aged adults.
Main outcome measures
Associations of social isolation with mortality, cardiovascular death, non-cardiovascular death and incident diseases.
Results
Social isolation was more common in middle-income and high-income countries compared with low-income countries, in urban areas than rural areas, in older individuals and among women, those with less education and the unemployed. It was more frequent among smokers and those with a poorer diet. Social isolation was associated with greater risk of mortality (HR of 1.26, 95% CI: 1.17 to 1.36), incident stroke (HR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.07 to 1.40), cardiovascular disease (HR: 1.15, 95% CI: 1.05 to 1.25) and pneumonia (HR: 1.22, 95% CI: 1.09 to 1.37), but not cancer. The associations between social isolation and mortality were observed in populations in high-income, middle-income and low-income countries (HR (95% CI): 1.69 (1.32 to 2.17), 1.27 (1.15 to 1.40) and 1.47 (1.25 to 1.73), respectively, interaction p=0.02). The HR associated with social isolation was greater in men than women and in younger than older individuals. Mediation analyses for the association between social isolation and mortality showed that unhealthy behaviours and comorbidities may account for about one-fifth of the association.
Conclusion
Social isolation is associated with increased risk of mortality in countries at different economic levels. The increasing share of older people in populations in many countries argues for targeted strategies to mitigate its adverse effects.
The aim of the present article is to describe bi-directional interactions between fatigue and infection with common cold producing viruses. Over one hundred years ago, researchers started to investigate the association between been fatigue and infection. Studies of psychological risk factors for upper respiratory tract illnesses (URTIs) have been carried out for over fifty years. Early research did not control for exposure and also often relied on self-report rather than clinical and virological assessment. Research on experimentally-induced URTIs has demonstrated that susceptibility to infection is increased by stress. Other research has shown that job insecurity, few social contacts, emotional disposition, early childhood experiences, sleep problems and self-rated health are key risk factors for infection. This article provides an interpretation of these results in terms of chronic fatigue increasing susceptibility to infection. Infection and illness also lead to changes in behaviour. These effects include greater fatigue, impaired attention and slower motor speed. Such effects occur not only when the person has symptoms but in the incubation period, with sub-clinical infections, and after the symptoms have gone. Those with URTIs are also more sensitive to other negative factors such as prolonged work, and this has implications for safety-critical jobs. Ingestion of caffeine, which is an established countermeasure for fatigue, can reduce the behavioural malaise induced by URTIs. Further support for the use of a fatigue framework comes from a secondary analysis of data on real-life colds. Previous research has demonstrated that chronic fatigue leads to greater effects of acute fatigue. The new analysis showed that those with high levels of fatigue prior to developing a cold had larger behavioural impairments when they became ill.
Existing cardiovascular disease (CVD) and its modifiable risk factors are associated with increased mortality from coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19). Clinical attention has focused on acute interventions for COVID-19, but reducing upstream risks associated with poor outcomes must occur in parallel. This is particularly urgent because risk factors for COVID-19 death are prevalent, and the pandemic has negatively impacted lifestyle and socioeconomic factors that augment these risks. Evidence-based lifestyle interventions have a generally short time-to-benefit, and lower risk of CVD and improve markers of immune function. Wider promotion of healthy lifestyle practices will improve the CVD health of the population and could favorably impact COVID-19 outcomes. Research examining how lifestyle modification affects COVID-19 susceptibility and severity is urgently needed.
Increasing evidence suggests that mental health and physical health are linked by neural systems that jointly regulate somatic physiology and high-level cognition. Key systems include the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the related default-mode network. These systems help to construct models of the 'self-in-context', compressing information across time and sensory modalities into conceptions of the underlying causes of experience. Self-in-context models endow events with personal meaning and allow predictive control over behaviour and peripheral physiology, including autonomic, neuroendocrine and immune function. They guide learning from experience and the formation of narratives about the self and one's world. Disorders of mental and physical health, especially those with high co-occurrence and convergent alterations in the functionality of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the default-mode network, could benefit from interventions focused on understanding and shaping mindsets and beliefs about the self, illness and treatment.
Background
Elevated levels of inflammatory marker and a lack of social connectedness are two prominent risk factors for developing dementia and depression. Horticultural therapy (HT) has been shown to improve social connectedness and inflammatory markers. However, the underpinning mechanisms of HT remained unknown. Within this study, we hypothesized that improved social connectedness mediates the effects of HT on IL-6 levels.
Methods
The present study is a secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial investigating the bio-psycho-social effects of HT. Social connectedness was operationalized as positive relationships with others (PRWO), a sub-scale of the Ryff's scale of psychological well-being. IL-6 was quantified using a commercial ELISA kit. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, 3-month and 6-month post-intervention. Mediation analyses with bootstrapping were run to investigate our primary hypothesis. All analyses were controlled for covariates.
Results
We recruited 59 participants (78% women; 67.10 ± 4.31years). 29 participants partook in HT and 30 participants were included in the waitlist control group. At baseline, social connectedness was significantly correlated with IL-6 levels (β = −0.12, 95% CI = −0.21 to −0.03, p = 0.008). Furthermore, social connectedness at 3-month significantly mediated the effects of HT on IL-6 levels at 6-month (β = 0.32, 95% CI = 0.09 to 0.54, p = 0.005; β = −0.25, 95% CI = −0.45 to −0.05, p = 0.016).
Conclusions
These findings highlight the critical roles of social connectedness as a social determinant of health in eliciting HT's biological effects. When administering HT, interventionalists should consider social connectedness as a modifiable factor for ameliorating increased inflammation in older adults.
Introduction: Emergency responders are at risk of post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). This study investigates the relationship between the different components of received social support (RSS) and PTSS in these occupations.
Method: This cross-sectional study involved emergency responders from New Zealand and the Philippines (n=223). Participants answered an online questionnaire measuring social support and PTSS.
Results: High amount of total received support was significantly associated with lower levels of PTSS. Analyses of RSS components revealed that co-worker, emotional, and tangible support exhibited salutary main effects on PTSS. Furthermore, high amounts of RSS from supervisors were found to be associated with low levels of PTSS only among participants who reported low trauma exposure.
Discussion: Findings were congruent with the main effects model of RSS. Results also underscored the importance of investigating varied manifestations of social support as they may differentially influence the strength of effects of receiving social support by emergency responders.
Background:
Coal miners have been reported to have higher rates of risky/harmful alcohol misuse; however, it is not known if metalliferous mining employees whose working conditions differ in workplace practices, also have increased rates of risky/harmful alcohol misuse. This study aimed to examine alcohol consumption in a sample of Australian metalliferous mining workers and to examine the demographic and workplace factors associated with risky/harmful alcohol use.
Methods:
All employees from a convenience sample of four Australian mine sites were invited to complete a paper-based cross-sectional survey between June 2015 and May 2017. The survey contained questions relating to social networks, health behaviors, psychological distress, demographic characteristics, and risky/harmful drinking. Current alcohol use was measured by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), a validated measure of risky and/or harmful drinking. Factors associated with risky/harmful drinking were investigated using univariate and multivariable logistic regression.
Findings:
A total of 1,799 participants completed the survey (average site response rate 95%). Overall, 94.8% of males and 92.1% of females reported using alcohol in the preceding 12 months. The odds of risky/harmful alcohol use were significantly higher in those who were male, younger, and reported higher psychological distress.
Conclusions/application to practice:
This study identified that metalliferous mining employees engage in at-risk levels of alcohol consumption significantly higher than the national average despite workplace policies and practices that restrict alcohol use. Personal and workplace risk factors that may help target specific employee groups and inform the development of tailored, integrated multicomponent intervention strategies for the industry were identified.
Objectives:
Social isolation is a critical public health issue that affects multiple domains of well-being among older adults, but little is known about social isolation among older military veterans. As such, the purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of social isolation among older veterans and to examine risk factors for social isolation among older veterans.
Method:
Data were derived from Round 1 of the National Health and Aging Trends Study, which is an annual, longitudinal panel survey of Medicare beneficiaries aged 65 and older. The sample included 1,683 veterans, who were primarily White and male. Weighted logistic regression models were used to predict severe social isolation (having no social participation) and social isolation (having only one source of social participation) among older veterans, while controlling for age, sex, race, marital status, education, income, and metropolitan residency.
Results:
After accounting for other predictors, results show that veterans who are 85 and older, male, White, unmarried or unpartnered, with lower educational attainment and lower income are greatly at risk of both severe social isolation and social isolation.
Conclusion:
The results of this study support past research showing that veterans with limited social and economic capital are at great risk of experiencing adverse outcomes in older adulthood, including social isolation. Interventions should therefore aim to improve social connectedness among this population and should address the risk-factors that contribute to social isolation among older veterans.
Background
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is high among married women in Bangladesh. Social isolation is a well-established correlate of women’s exposure to IPV, but the role of such factors in low-income and middle-income countries is not well understood. In this study, we explore whether social connection is protective against IPV among married women in rural Bangladesh.
Methods
Data were drawn from a multistage, stratified, population-based longitudinal sample of 3355 married women in rural Bangladesh, who were surveyed on individual and contextual risk factors of IPV. Negative binomial regression models were used to estimate the association between three different domains of social connection (natal family contact, female companionship and instrumental social support), measured at baseline in 2013, and the risk of three different forms of IPV (psychological, physical and sexual), approximately 10 months later, adjusted for woman’s level of education, spouse’s level of education, level of household wealth, age and age of marriage.
Results
Adjusted models showed that instrumental social support was associated with a lower risk of past year psychological IPV (risk ratio (RR)=0.84, 95% CI 0.769 to 0.914), sexual IPV (RR=0.90, 95% CI 0.822 to 0.997) and physical IPV (RR=0.81, 95% CI 0.718 to 0.937). Natal family contact was also associated with a lower risk of each type of IPV, but not in a graded fashion. Less consistent associations were observed with female companionship.
Conclusion
Our findings suggest that social connection, particularly in the form of instrumental support, may protect married women in rural Bangladesh from experiencing IPV.
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