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68 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 69
in recommended camping distance from waterbodies from
a perspective that there should be consistency between the
guidance provided by land management agencies and low
impact education and communication programs, such as
suggest that it’s time to reexamine the biophysical and social
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native management options, and where there are needs for
and suggest alternative actions based on the current body of
research.
Background
streams, and springs), imposing regulations that prohibit camp-
COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION
Conflicting Messages about
Camping Near Waterbodies
in Wilderness:
A Review of the Scientific Basis and
Need for Flexibility
PEER REVIEWED
by Jeremy Wimpey
by Jerey Marion
by Ben Lawhon
2018). An earlier survey by Washburne and Cole (1983) reported the following percentages of
and 100 feet as the most common value (22 units, 23%).
their individual units. However, such programs generally recommend extra precaution when
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Outdoor Ethics (the Center). Five of the primary federal land management agencies have been
adaptations are sometimes necessary.
Trace program’s Education Review Committee, composed of representatives of the federal land
was selected that would be generally applicable to the diverse array of environmental settings
70 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 71
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also important, with 22% reporting that they chose their site because it was not too close to other
groups.
These and other surveys reveal that visitors are strongly attracted to water in both frontcountry
(developed) and wildland settings. Their reasons are varied and include the need for water,
The following problem description section examines some of the existing literature related to
Problem Description: Shoreline Camping
Ecological Concerns
sedge cover can survive low to moderate levels of trampling due to their substantially greater
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provide educational consistency by establishing a universal distance to guide campers in their
wildlife access to water sources, particularly in arid environments, and 3) to promote visitor soli-
a concern, and deeper soils with organic litter and dense ground vegetation cover, particularly
to limited water sources for wildlife and the potential for human-introduced pollutants to enter
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mendations and agency guidance for camping distances from surface waters in wilderness is
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ecological, cultural/historic, social/experiential, and wildlife and rare/sensitive species research
and management concerns.
Social Science: Visitors Are Attracted to Water
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factors included the facilities and services available, fees, campground age, campsite spacing,
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visitor interviews reinforced the regression results, revealing the most important determinant for
August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 7372 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2
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sary. Campsites larger than around 1,000 feet2 (93 m2) might be considered excessively large,
camp and relocate to a safe location.
elevated levels of total coliform bacteria and available phosphate compared to controls (King
bacteria.
in place for several years, but Cole cautions that compliance was low, and enforcement had
Figure 2 –
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vegetation and organic litter, and allow water to percolate into shoreline soils. As demonstrated
in Figure 2, it may be possible to reroute water access trails so they do not drain campsites to
An additional concern for shoreline campsites along streams and rivers is the increased poten-
vegetation cover on campsites as well as the reduction and removal over time of shrub and tree
Figure 1a-b –
in Minnesota’s Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCAW) (right).
74 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 75
camping occurs in riparian areas wildlife may be deterred from visiting water sources even at
When camping is unregulated, visitors may create unnecessarily large numbers of campsites
in popular destinations areas. For example, Cole (1982a) assessed camping impacts around two
proliferation to numbers that substantially exceed actual need can be a common problem asso-
ciated with unregulated and general dispersed camping polices, including in eastern wilderness
Complexity and Challenges of Camping Management in Riparian Zones
exceptionally strong attractant to visitors. Our review of ecological, cultural, social, and wildlife
concerns provides ample support for shifting camping away from the shorelines of water bodies.
However, we note that it is possible for riparian campsites to be carefully located and managed
the proliferation of campsites (often within popular shoreline riparian areas) to excessive and
unnecessary numbers, and (2) universally poor visitor compliance with regulations that establish
locations creates excessively and unnecessarily large campsites and/or dense clusters of
There is evidence that managers may not achieve the closure and recovery of shoreline
use by visitors, and that such regulations promote campsite creation in new areas that meet
are low and shoreline campsites persist. Research indicates that all use must be eliminated for
these campsites to achieve substantial or full recovery, and management experience in most
eat lunch, or relax can prevent their recovery.
larger but had less bare ground (areal extent and percent). They also had more vegetation cover,
Cultural and Historic Concerns
water. Thus, shorelines often have cultural or historic sites, particularly in more arid environ-
ments. While some of these sites have been found and documented, many more may exist but
are undocumented or hidden below ground. Camping activities that remove protective vegeta-
tion and soils may expose cultural and historic resources to theft, damage, or to being eroded
Social and Experiential Concerns
from across the water and from vista points along adjacent ridges and summits. The presence
of barren campsites within a view shed can diminish the feeling of being in a pristine wilderness,
can mar the natural appearance of a photo, and can diminish the aesthetics of natural land-
scapes. Occupied campsites may diminish solitude, particularly given that they become more
visible with colored tents and with sounds traveling farther across water (Cole 1982a). Anglers
from the water are generally less visible and pose fewer problems related to both crowding and
Wildlife and Rare/Sensitive Species Concerns
in arid environments where dependable water sources are rare. Some wildlife, such as bighorn
sheep, are considerably more vulnerable when separated from steep terrain and are easily
displaced from water by the presence of humans (Papouchis, Signer, and Sloan 2001). When
76 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 77
operated more than 2,000 designated campsites for more than four decades in northern Min-
within acceptable levels of change in this heavily visited wilderness (Eagleston and Marion
Observations by the authors reveal high visitor compliance and the near recovery of older adja-
cent closed campsites. These policies can help to establish a clear and easily adopted practice
that allows many visitors to camp in their preferred destination, which can promote greater
compliance among those who are unable to obtain a desired site.
We suggest that a containment strategy (1) can help eliminate unnecessary campsites, (2) can
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preferred and sustainable (see Marion, Arredondo, Wimpey, and Meadema in this issue for fur-
restore unnecessary, and less resistant, desirable, and appropriate campsites.
programs and land management agencies are a desired goal for low impact messaging, includ-
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unambiguous policy that also includes a compelling rationale.
the most sustainable campsites and then close and restore all others. Cole (1981) recommends
this strategy, noting that providing some riparian campsites avoids eliminating preferred existing
sites and limits increasing campsite numbers further from the shore. This camping manage-
ment strategy is fully described by Marion, Arredondo, Wimpey, and Meadema in this issue of
managerial contexts. An integrative policy can address all the concerns in the prior problem
description section while permitting a limited number of highly sustainable campsites in riparian
An integrative policy should address all the concerns … while
permitting a limited number of highly sustainable campsites
in riparian settings that promote the high-quality camping
experiences that many visitors so strongly desire
There is evidence that the public will be supportive of a designated site camping strategy. For
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78 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 79
social, and wildlife concerns. However, we also note that managers can and have carefully
suggests that several decades of management experience has not led to the widespread and
Recreation ecology research and management experience has consistently demonstrated the
Further Research Needs
experience has provided ample ancillary evidence describing numerous limitations and failures.
and improving the implementation of a containment strategy with designated site camping in
popular high-use areas, including those proximate to water bodies, and established site camping
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sustainable campsites, and spatial-based regulations and low impact camping practices for
visitors.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their appreciation to a peer review conducted by David Cole and helpful
comments from Ken Straley and Ralph Swain.
JEFFREY L. MARION is a recreation ecologist with the U.S. Geological Survey stationed at Virginia Tech;
email: jmarion@vt.edu
JEREMY WIMPEY is the owner of Applied Trails Research, an outdoor recreation rm that develops science-
based solutions to challenging visitor use management issues; email: jeremyw@appliedtrailsresearch.com
BEN LAWHON is education director for the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics; email: ben@lnt.org
80 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 81
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