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The influence of use-related, environmental, and managerial factors on soil loss from recreational trails

Authors:

Abstract

Recreational uses of unsurfaced trails inevitably result in their degradation, with the type and extent of resource impact influenced by factors such as soil texture, topography, climate, trail design and maintenance, and type and amount of use. Of particular concern, the loss of soil through erosion is generally considered a significant and irreversible form of trail impact. This research investigated the influence of several use-related, environmental, and managerial factors on soil loss on recreational trails and roads at Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area, a unit of the U.S. National Park Service. Regression modeling revealed that trail position, trail slope alignment angle, grade, water drainage, and type of use are significant determinants of soil loss. The introduction of individual and groups of variables into a series of regression models provides improved understanding and insights regarding the relative influence of these variables, informing the selection of more effective trail management actions. Study results suggest that trail erosion can be minimized by avoiding “fall-line” alignments, steep grades, and valley-bottom alignments near streams, installing and maintaining adequate densities of tread drainage features, applying gravel to harden treads, and reducing horse and all-terrain vehicle use or restricting them to more resistant routes.
68 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 69

in recommended camping distance from waterbodies from
a perspective that there should be consistency between the
guidance provided by land management agencies and low
impact education and communication programs, such as


suggest that it’s time to reexamine the biophysical and social
-
native management options, and where there are needs for

and suggest alternative actions based on the current body of
research.
Background


streams, and springs), imposing regulations that prohibit camp-


COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION
Conflicting Messages about
Camping Near Waterbodies
in Wilderness:
A Review of the Scientific Basis and
Need for Flexibility
PEER REVIEWED
by Jeremy Wimpey
by Jerey Marion
by Ben Lawhon
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2018). An earlier survey by Washburne and Cole (1983) reported the following percentages of
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and 100 feet as the most common value (22 units, 23%).
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
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
their individual units. However, such programs generally recommend extra precaution when
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
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Outdoor Ethics (the Center). Five of the primary federal land management agencies have been






adaptations are sometimes necessary.

Trace program’s Education Review Committee, composed of representatives of the federal land


was selected that would be generally applicable to the diverse array of environmental settings


70 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 71



-


also important, with 22% reporting that they chose their site because it was not too close to other
groups.
These and other surveys reveal that visitors are strongly attracted to water in both frontcountry
(developed) and wildland settings. Their reasons are varied and include the need for water,










The following problem description section examines some of the existing literature related to

Problem Description: Shoreline Camping
Ecological Concerns



sedge cover can survive low to moderate levels of trampling due to their substantially greater






-


provide educational consistency by establishing a universal distance to guide campers in their



wildlife access to water sources, particularly in arid environments, and 3) to promote visitor soli-

a concern, and deeper soils with organic litter and dense ground vegetation cover, particularly


to limited water sources for wildlife and the potential for human-introduced pollutants to enter

-
mendations and agency guidance for camping distances from surface waters in wilderness is

-




ecological, cultural/historic, social/experiential, and wildlife and rare/sensitive species research
and management concerns.
Social Science: Visitors Are Attracted to Water

-





factors included the facilities and services available, fees, campground age, campsite spacing,

2-


visitor interviews reinforced the regression results, revealing the most important determinant for
August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 7372 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2
-
sary. Campsites larger than around 1,000 feet2 (93 m2) might be considered excessively large,







camp and relocate to a safe location.



elevated levels of total coliform bacteria and available phosphate compared to controls (King




bacteria.



in place for several years, but Cole cautions that compliance was low, and enforcement had
Figure 2 – 




-







vegetation and organic litter, and allow water to percolate into shoreline soils. As demonstrated
in Figure 2, it may be possible to reroute water access trails so they do not drain campsites to





An additional concern for shoreline campsites along streams and rivers is the increased poten-

vegetation cover on campsites as well as the reduction and removal over time of shrub and tree



Figure 1a-b – 

in Minnesota’s Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCAW) (right).
74 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 75
camping occurs in riparian areas wildlife may be deterred from visiting water sources even at


When camping is unregulated, visitors may create unnecessarily large numbers of campsites
in popular destinations areas. For example, Cole (1982a) assessed camping impacts around two





proliferation to numbers that substantially exceed actual need can be a common problem asso-
ciated with unregulated and general dispersed camping polices, including in eastern wilderness

Complexity and Challenges of Camping Management in Riparian Zones

exceptionally strong attractant to visitors. Our review of ecological, cultural, social, and wildlife
concerns provides ample support for shifting camping away from the shorelines of water bodies.
However, we note that it is possible for riparian campsites to be carefully located and managed


the proliferation of campsites (often within popular shoreline riparian areas) to excessive and
unnecessary numbers, and (2) universally poor visitor compliance with regulations that establish

locations creates excessively and unnecessarily large campsites and/or dense clusters of

There is evidence that managers may not achieve the closure and recovery of shoreline

use by visitors, and that such regulations promote campsite creation in new areas that meet




are low and shoreline campsites persist. Research indicates that all use must be eliminated for
these campsites to achieve substantial or full recovery, and management experience in most


eat lunch, or relax can prevent their recovery.



larger but had less bare ground (areal extent and percent). They also had more vegetation cover,



Cultural and Historic Concerns

water. Thus, shorelines often have cultural or historic sites, particularly in more arid environ-
ments. While some of these sites have been found and documented, many more may exist but
are undocumented or hidden below ground. Camping activities that remove protective vegeta-
tion and soils may expose cultural and historic resources to theft, damage, or to being eroded


Social and Experiential Concerns

from across the water and from vista points along adjacent ridges and summits. The presence
of barren campsites within a view shed can diminish the feeling of being in a pristine wilderness,
can mar the natural appearance of a photo, and can diminish the aesthetics of natural land-
scapes. Occupied campsites may diminish solitude, particularly given that they become more
visible with colored tents and with sounds traveling farther across water (Cole 1982a). Anglers




from the water are generally less visible and pose fewer problems related to both crowding and

Wildlife and Rare/Sensitive Species Concerns



in arid environments where dependable water sources are rare. Some wildlife, such as bighorn
sheep, are considerably more vulnerable when separated from steep terrain and are easily
displaced from water by the presence of humans (Papouchis, Signer, and Sloan 2001). When
76 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 77


operated more than 2,000 designated campsites for more than four decades in northern Min-


within acceptable levels of change in this heavily visited wilderness (Eagleston and Marion








Observations by the authors reveal high visitor compliance and the near recovery of older adja-
cent closed campsites. These policies can help to establish a clear and easily adopted practice
that allows many visitors to camp in their preferred destination, which can promote greater
compliance among those who are unable to obtain a desired site.
We suggest that a containment strategy (1) can help eliminate unnecessary campsites, (2) can



-




preferred and sustainable (see Marion, Arredondo, Wimpey, and Meadema in this issue for fur-


restore unnecessary, and less resistant, desirable, and appropriate campsites.

programs and land management agencies are a desired goal for low impact messaging, includ-


-



-




unambiguous policy that also includes a compelling rationale.


the most sustainable campsites and then close and restore all others. Cole (1981) recommends
this strategy, noting that providing some riparian campsites avoids eliminating preferred existing
sites and limits increasing campsite numbers further from the shore. This camping manage-
ment strategy is fully described by Marion, Arredondo, Wimpey, and Meadema in this issue of


managerial contexts. An integrative policy can address all the concerns in the prior problem
description section while permitting a limited number of highly sustainable campsites in riparian

An integrative policy should address all the concerns … while
permitting a limited number of highly sustainable campsites
in riparian settings that promote the high-quality camping
experiences that many visitors so strongly desire
There is evidence that the public will be supportive of a designated site camping strategy. For



-



78 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 79

social, and wildlife concerns. However, we also note that managers can and have carefully




suggests that several decades of management experience has not led to the widespread and




Recreation ecology research and management experience has consistently demonstrated the

Further Research Needs




experience has provided ample ancillary evidence describing numerous limitations and failures.

and improving the implementation of a containment strategy with designated site camping in
popular high-use areas, including those proximate to water bodies, and established site camping
-

sustainable campsites, and spatial-based regulations and low impact camping practices for
visitors.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their appreciation to a peer review conducted by David Cole and helpful
comments from Ken Straley and Ralph Swain.
JEFFREY L. MARION is a recreation ecologist with the U.S. Geological Survey stationed at Virginia Tech;
email: jmarion@vt.edu
JEREMY WIMPEY is the owner of Applied Trails Research, an outdoor recreation rm that develops science-
based solutions to challenging visitor use management issues; email: jeremyw@appliedtrailsresearch.com
BEN LAWHON is education director for the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics; email: ben@lnt.org
80 International Journal of Wilderness | August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 August 2018 | Volume 24, Number 2 | International Journal of Wilderness 81





-

-






-








References
-



-

-



-

-






-

-

-



















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... People of all ages and abilities can use trails with different functions such as access to attractive areas, recreation and wildlife watching (Grimwade et al., 2009;Santarém et al., 2015), sports activities, relaxation, and travel to the destination (Grimwade et al., 2009). Trails are designed to avoid the uncontrolled dispersal of visitors (Olive and Marion, 2009) and provide more infrastructure to allow access to natural areas (Ballantyne et al., 2014). As national Parks and protected areas are major destinations for outdoor recreation, the ecosystems of those areas are being extensively affected by human activities (Chatterjea, 2007). ...
... As national Parks and protected areas are major destinations for outdoor recreation, the ecosystems of those areas are being extensively affected by human activities (Chatterjea, 2007). This may result in increased environmental degradation and wildlife habitat disruption by concentrating visitor activities into speci ed areas like trails and recreation sites (Chatterjea, 2007;Clius et al., 2012;Cole, 2004;Dixon et al., 2004;Farrell and Marion, 2001a;Olive and Marion, 2009). ...
... Additionally, TPI landform elements act as a softening mediator, which increases the probability of soil loss occurrences over the study area. Additionally, this nding found that TPI was an important factor in trail erosion with valley positions eroding more than mid-slope and ridge trails, which also agrees with Dixon et al. (2004) and Olive and Marion (2009). From the aforementioned analysis (Fig. 6), it can be noted that other predictors do not play a crucial role in hiking trail width, however, these factors are likely in uenced on hiking trail width by a combination of ooding-related erosion periodically (Olive and Marion, 2009 ...
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The present study aims to use different machine-learning algorithms to map trail susceptibility and use it to find the best hiking trail between specified locations across the Sarigol National Park and Protected Area (SNPP), Iran based on the least cost path analysis. Furthermore, the study compares the predictive performance of Artificial Neural Network, Support Vector Regression, and Gene expression programming model for trail susceptibility mapping. We have considered nine trail susceptibility conditioning factors as model input, namely Land use coverages, Landform classes, Annual precipitation, NDVI, Soil types, LS-factor, Wind explosion index, Topographic witness index, and Elevation. The study concluded that ANN gives better performance in overall accuracy assessment as compared to GEP and SVM models. The importance of predictor variables as identified by the ANN model indicated that the LS factor, Soil types, NDVI, and Landform classes represented the highest level of significance attributed to the model. The study found that LCPA is an efficient tool to find the “lowest land degradation” to connect two locations of hiking trails. This suggested that park planners should consider potential land degradation locations to identify suitable hiking trails.
... Recent research highlights that the trail grade (Meadema et al., 2020;Tomczyk et al., 2017) and trail slope alignment (TSA) are the key factors contributing to trail degradation. Trail grade and TSA contribute to soil loss that helps the creation of gullies and exposed roots, while tread substrate such as organic soil contributes to muddy conditions on flat terrain along the trail (Marion & Wimpey, 2007;Olive & Marion, 2009;Wimpey & Marion, 2010). Moreover, eroded soil may accumulate on flat surfaces, leading to muddy terrain. ...
... A steeper trail grade increases water velocity and heightens erosion risk. Guidelines and studies suggest that trail grades exceeding certain thresholds-such as 10% (Dissmeyer & Foster, 1980;Hooper, 1988), 11% (Olive & Marion, 2009), or 12% (Agate, 1996-are prone to erosion. Trails with lower TSA (0-22 0 ), indicating poor alignment relative to landform contours, are particularly vulnerable to erosion (Wimpey & Marion, 2010;. ...
... According to the trail sustainability rating devised by , trails with a grade between 20% and TSA between 0 to 30 degrees should be avoided as such conditions would increase trail degradation. Olive and Marion (2009) also discovered that valley trails suffered significantly more erosion than those on mid-slopes and ridges, likely due to the trails in valley areas prone to periodic flooding, which erodes the trail surface, and are situated in lower watershed areas with higher water runoff volumes and rates. They suggest avoiding trail placement in floodplains altogether. ...
Article
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Recreation trails are essential for promoting outdoor activities, ecological awareness, and sustainable tourism. This study comprehensively analyses the 14.2km Kiau Nuluh—Gurkha Hut Trail, a proposed trail to be developed northwest of Kinabalu Park. This study aims to assess the trail's characteristics and its sustainability for future use. One hundred forty-two samples were collected at 100m intervals using point sampling methodology, revealing key trail characteristics and sustainability ratings. Findings indicate that the trail predominantly ascending (88%) with sections at higher elevations exhibited narrower tread widths, lesser incisions, steeper trail grades and narrow slope alignment than those at lower elevations. Nearly 90% of the trail is deemed unsustainable, with higher elevations showing escalating unsustainable ratings, highlighting the need for realignment and sustainable trail management strategies. Recommendations include trail realignment according to the acceptable sustainability ratings, realigning the trail to the "side hill" or adhering to the contour lines, and using durable tread materials as one of the erosion control measures. The findings of this study provide baseline information for the future sustainable trail management of the Kiau Nuluh - Gurkha Hut Trail. The insights gained from this research will aid in developing strategies to maintain and improve the trail, ensuring its enjoyment for present and future generations while conserving the natural environment.
... Data on trail condition are often collected by traveling the trail by foot and recording parameters of interest on a handheld GPS unit, tablet, or similar device. Parameters of trail condition may include trail width, depth, surface type, presence of roots or gullying, vegetation damage, and condition class (Hammitt et al., 2015;Olive and Marion, 2009). Trail condition class is a common method for documenting recreational impacts to trails, where classes range from 1 to 5 (see Table 1 in Supplemental Material). ...
... Several studies have assessed trail condition by pairing field data with computational techniques, but most occur within a single protected area or trail (i.e., Olive and Marion 2009, Spernbauer et al. 2023, Tomczyk and Ewertowski 2015. There is also a growing interest among researchers and managers to map, monitor, and model trails through less field-intensive methods. ...
... We incorporate two aspects of trail construction that are thought to influence trail condition: trail grade and trail slope alignment (Leung and Marion, 1996;Olive and Marion, 2009). We calculated the maximum trail grade along 100 m segments of trail (as opposed to the entire trail) to capture local differences and account for differences in trail length, similar to measurements by Hawes et al. (2013). ...
... Utilizar análisis de varianza (ANOVA) para comparar las tasas de erosión entre diferentes tipos de senderos y condiciones (Zar, 2010). Aplicar análisis de regresión múltiple para identificar factores que influyen en la erosión (Olive & Marion, 2009). Interpretación de resultados: 8. ...
... Utilizar análisis de varianza (ANOVA) para comparar las tasas de erosión y compactación entre diferentes tipos de senderos y condiciones (Zar, 2010). Aplicar análisis de regresión múltiple para identificar factores que influyen en la erosión y compactación (Olive & Marion, 2009). Interpretación de resultados: 8. ...
Technical Report
Este documento reune los trabajos de recopilación de información, análisis y validación del Estudio de Límite de Cambio Aceptable y Capacidad de Carga para las Actividades Turístico-Recreativas en los Santuarios El Rosario y Sierra Chincua, dentro de la Reserva de la Biosfera Mariposa Monarca, en el estado de Michoacán, México.
... Natural processes and recreational use of trails can cause soil loss, braiding and widening, and persistent muddiness which decrease their utility and damage nearby natural resources. Numerous interacting factors influence a trail's susceptibility to degradation including the durability of tread substrates (Hammitt et al., 2015;Leung & Marion, 1996;Marion, 2016), the amount and intensity of precipitation (Bratton et al., 1979;Leung & Marion, 1996;Nepal, 2003;Tomczyk et al., 2016) the resistance of trailside vegetation (Dixon et al., 2004;Marion, 2016) and the type, amount, and timing of use (Bratton et al., 1979;Farrell & Marion, 2001;Leung & Marion, 1996;Marion, 2016;Nepal, 2003;Olive & Marion, 2009;Rowe et al., 2018;Wimpey & Marion, 2010). ...
... Trail grade is the linear slope along a length of trail and can vary between a minimum of zero degrees when running as if along a contour line to a maximum of the local landform grade. The likelihood and severity of soil loss is greater on steep trails with high trail grades than on trails with gentler slopes (Marion & Wimpey, 2017;Meadema et al., 2020;Nepal, 2003;Olive & Marion, 2009;Salesa & Cerdà, 2019). Because travel up and down steep slopes requires more effort and time than travel along flat routes, trail grade is also useful as a predictor of the difficulty or speed of travel along a route (Campbell et al., 2019;Tobler, 1993). ...
... Central value is the midpoint between a factor's high and low levels. It represents the average setting and helps understand the baseline effect of the factor [9]. ...
Article
The geotechnical properties of soils play a crucial role in civil engineering projects. This study uses experimental design techniques to develop predictive models for soil properties such as cohesion, friction angle, and bulk density. The problem addressed is the need for reliable, data-driven models to predict these properties based on easily measurable soil characteristics, thus facilitating better infrastructure planning and construction. This research aims to apply the Taguchi method, a robust design of experiments (DOE) approach, to identify the significant factors affecting soil properties and develop accurate predictive models. Soil samples from various locations in Malaysia were analysed for different percentages of clay, silt, sand, resistivity, and moisture content. These variables were chosen as factors in Taguchi's design, with four factors at two levels. The predictive formulas derived offer a practical means to estimate soil properties based on measurable parameters. Formulas were developed for the cohesion, angle of friction and bulk density, demonstrating the systematic influence of the factors studied. Results show that the sand's percentage and 1D resistivity had the most significant effects, with moisture content contributing to variations in the cohesion.
... Realignment of trails can include altering them to be side-hill trails, following contours instead of fall lines, or including more switches in alignment to limit water flow along the trails and reduce environmental impacts (Meadema et al. 2020). Realignment of trails can be both challenging and costly, however, can save resources in the long term by reducing maintenance requirements as well as reducing environmental impacts such as soil erosion (Olive and Marion 2009;Meadema et al. 2020). Designing and constructing strategically placed pass points, reinforcing trail edges with rocks or logs and active management are ways to further minimise impacts on formal trails with high use (Runkowski 2016). ...
Article
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Mountain biking is a popular recreational activity in natural areas, with thousands of formal trails designed, constructed and maintained by land managers. Increasingly, there are also rising numbers of informal trails created by riders. A challenge for land managers is identifying, assessing, and then mitigating environmental impacts created by trails, including in protected areas. Here we assessed mountain biking trails in a large, popular national park on the Gold Coast, Australia, addressing the currently limited research comparing the extent, environmental impacts, condition and sustainability of these trails. Impacts from the 31.4 km of formal and 33.7 km of informal trails through the forests in Nerang National Park (1659 ha) included soil erosion (16.48 m³) and loss of vegetation along and adjacent to the trails (90,955 m²). Formal trails were six times more popular and wider on average (1.1 m vs 0.7 m) than informal trails, but less incised than informal trails (4.6 cm deep vs 6.3 cm). Generalised Linear Models showed that Trail Grade, slope and alignment best-predicted trail condition, highlighting the importance of good trail design in minimising trail impacts. It is recommended most of the informal trails are closed and rehabilitated, as they were not well-designed, increase fragmentation and have environmental impacts, with some traversing ecologically sensitive areas. In addition, some formal trails need to be upgraded to deal with erosion and other impacts. More broadly, the increasing demand for mountain biking must be addressed, including exploring opportunities to promote areas outside of national parks while minimising environmental impacts and other challenges associated with the creation and use of informal mountain bike trails in protected areas.
... The materials of the conference present the results of scientific research in various areas of science and environmental protection legislation against the background of global challenges. The history of the study of these issues in the European context is quite long, as evidenced by numerous scholars' publications (Prędki, 1999); (Olive, Marion, 2009); (Wimpey, Marion, 2010); (Ṧvajda, Korony, Brighton, Michael Esser, 2016); (Amodio, Cerdà, Aucelli, Garfi, 2019); (Sidor, 2020) and the others. We used some methodological aspects for the study of this issue from the works of Volodymyr Sabadukha and Mychailo Kosylo (Sabadukha & Kosylo, 2022), Mykola Haliv and Vasyl Ilnytskyi (Haliv & Ilnytskyi, 2023). ...
Article
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Мета дослідження – на основі архівних матеріалів і літератури охарактеризувати механізм фінансування та весь комплекс проведених заходів, а також напрацьований досвід громадськості у справі охорони природи і раціонального використання природних ресурсів в Івано-Франківській області західного регіону Української РСР. Методологія дослідження ґрунтується на принципах історизму, об’єктивності, системності. При проведенні дослідження застосовувались загальнонаукові (аналіз і синтез, абстрагування) та конкретно наукові методи. Наукова новизна полягає у тому, що на основі вивчення перспективних планів розвитку економіки Івано-Франківської області, основних постанов партії і уряду, відповідних розпоряджень облвиконкому розкрито механізм фінансування та комплекс заходів, проведених громадськістю й відповідними організаціями з охорони природи: удосконалення заповідної справи, ефективне використання земель, будівництво очисних споруд, пилогазоочисних установок, встановлення водоохоронних зон, прибережних смуг малих рік, удосконалення ведення лісового і мисливського господарства. Висновки. Міжвідомча рада охорони навколишнього середовища при облвиконкомі, Івано-Франківська обласна організація Українського товариства охорони природи, обласна інспекція охорони природи, добровільне товариство мисливців та рибалок, пости громадського контролю, педагогічні колективи загальноосвітніх шкіл, загони “голубих” дозорців, “зелені” патрулі вели постійний контроль на промислових підприємствах, організаціях, колгоспах, радгоспах за виконанням комплексних заходів, що позитивно впливало на поліпшення екологічної ситуації. Аналогічні заходи тією чи тією мірою проводилися в усіх областях республіки та західного регіону УРСР з відмінністю, що гори Карпати вносили свої особливості у Івано-Франківській, Львівській, Закарпатській і Чернівецькій областях. Водночас у справі охорони природи і раціонального використання природних ресурсів в Івано-Франківській, як і в інших областях, мали місце істотні недоліки. Охорона природи в СРСР проголошувалася справою загальнодержавною та загальнонародною, офіційно декларувалися значні успіхи в цьому питанні. Радянська пропаганда намагалася створити ілюзію піклування партії і уряду про охорону навколишнього середовища та здоров’я громадян. Проте пріоритетними завданнями залишалися розвиток важкої промисловості регіону, максимальне використання природних і людських ресурсів для військово-промислового комплексу країни.
... Nature-based recreation has become an increasingly popular phenomenon, allowing people to engage with unique landscapes and habitats, endemic biodiversity and local heritages through various activities (Kim et al., 2015), of which one of the most common is TRT. However, studies have shown that unsustainable trail development and management and increased trail access cause negative impacts on flora, fauna, soil and water resources (Evju et al., 2021;Marion & Leung, 2001;Olive & Marion, 2009). Moreover, spatial trail proliferation replicates these impacts across entire ecosystems causing cumulative damage (Ballantyne & Pickering, 2015). ...
Article
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Recent trail development has been motivated by sustainable tourism destination principles, suggesting a paradigm incorporating an eco-cultural trail concept. As with conventional trails, eco-cultural trail destination governance necessitates coordinated development and management of all landscape elements, emphasizing and protecting cultural and natural assets. This research aims to provide a sustainable strategy for developing eco-cultural trails, applying a qualitative approach and stakeholder participation. Two focus groups and a workshop were conducted involving stakeholders representing governmental agencies, private enterprises, academic experts, students, and environmental organizations. A case study trail "Seven Hanging Valleys" was used in this study to develop an eco-cultural trail development and management strategy. Natural and cultural landscapes, trail infrastructure, trail visitor experience, and marketing and collaboration were the examined dimensions. Based on stakeholders' visions, a destination development and management plan was established, aligning the environmental objectives to preserve natural and cultural assets, with improved overall experience for travellers and the community. Management implications:-Community collaboration provides trail managers and policymakers with a framework that identifies the essential levels of investment, programming, and management required to assist trails in becoming more economically and socially driven.-The proposed management plan for eco-cultural trails can assist landscape managers with indicated management priorities when developing eco-cultural trails that aim to respect natural and cultural assets and provide memorable trail-related experiences.-The process of creating a stakeholders' shared vision for the sustainable development of the trail site provides trail managers with a better understanding of existing and future threats and allows them to future-proof trail maintenance and service plans.
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As trilhas ecológicas são locais que promovem o ecoturismo, objetivando a valorização e sensibilização quanto à preservação e conservação dos recursos naturais. No entanto, muitas trilhas não têm recebido valor por parte dos órgãos ambientais ou proprietários, desmerecendo a sua função ambiental. Muito disso se deve à ausência de mapeamento e caracterização ambiental, também de seus recursos naturais importantes como corpos d´água passíveis de potabilidade e/ou balneabilidade. Nesse sentido, o objetivo do presente estudo foi aplicar ferramentas de geoprocessamento na caracterização ambiental de uma trilha utilizada por romeiros, em Delfim Moreira, sul de Minas Gerais, e avaliar pontos de água de interesse dos usuários quanto à sua potabilidade (consumo humano) e balneabilidade (recreação), por meio de análise microbiológica de coliformes totais e Escherichia coli. Os mapas temáticos gerados foram de localização, vegetação, classificação pelo Índice de Vegetação da Diferença Normalizada (NDVI), hipsométrico, declividade, solos, clima, hidrografia e de áreas de preservação permanente (APP). Os resultados de análise microbiológica da água mostraram que as águas das nascentes que cortam a trilha estão contaminadas com coliformes fecais (E. coli), sendo impróprias para consumo de forma imediata. No entanto, as águas das cachoeiras presentes na trilha apresentaram-se excelentes para atividades recreativas. O mapeamento e caracterização ambiental evidenciou tratar-se de uma trilha em área protegida, com facilidade de acesso e baixo grau de esforço físico dos usuários, paisagem exuberante de Mata Atlântica, com forte apelo turístico e econômico por gestores ambientais e turísticos da região.
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This report describes results from a comprehensive assessment of resource conditions on a large (24%) sample of the trail system within Big South Fork National River and Recreational Area (BSF). Components include research to develop state-of-knowledge trail impact assessment and monitoring methods, application of survey methods to BSF trails, analysis and summary of results, and recommendations for trail management decision making and future monitoring. Findings reveal a trail system with some substantial degradation, particularly soil erosion, which additionally threatens water quality in areas adjacent to streams and rivers. Factors that contribute to or influence these problems are analyzed and described. Principal among these are trail design factors (trail topographic position, soil texture, grade and slope alignment angle), use-related factors (type and amount of use), and maintenance factors (water drainage). Recommendations are offered to assist managers in improving the sustainability of the trails system to accommodate visitation while enhancing natural resource protection.
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The 50th anniversary of the US Wilderness Act of 1964 presents a worthy opportunity to review our collective knowledge on how recreation visitation affects wilderness and protected natural area resources. Studies of recreation impacts, examined within the recreation ecology field of study, have spanned 80 years and generated more than 1,200 citations. This article examines the recreation ecology literature most relevant to wilderness and backcountry, with a focus on visitor impacts to vegetation, soil, wildlife, and water resources. We also review relationships with influential factors, such as the amount of use, visitor behavior, and vegetation type. An understanding of these impacts and their relationships with influential factors is necessary for land managers seeking to identify acceptable limits of impact or selecting management actions that will effectively avoid or minimize resource impacts.
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To better understand how high-use destination areas a short distance from trailheads and close to urban areas might best be managed, we studied six such areas in the Alpine Lakes, Mount Fefferson, and Three Sisters Wildernesses in Washington and Oregon. We quantified recreation impacts on system trails, social trails, camp-sites, and lakeshores. We also quantified visitor encounter rates between groups, during the day and in the evening, on the trail, and at the destination. We conducted exit interviews with visitiors to explore who they were, what they encountered, their responses to what they encountered, and their management prferences. Encounter rates in these destination areas were extremely high, clearly exceeding those preferred by most visitors. Most visitors expected to have numerous encounters, and most were not bothered by the high encounter levels they experienced. Only 10 to 23% supported reducing use levels. Recreation use has caused substantial impact in these destination areas, although generally not more than has been reported in many other wildernesses. Most visitors noticed these impacts and reported that impacts dectracted from their experience. Visitors were highly supportive of site management approaches such as trail or site closure programs and revegetation programs. Potential management approaches for dealing with problems in these areas are: (1) increasing visitor education, (2) reducing amount of use (by day users, overnight users, or both), and (3) increasing site management. Intensifying site management programs would have the highest ratio of benefits to costs.
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Managers of protected natural areas seek to protect their natural conditions while providing opportunities for recreational visitation. Camping is an essential element of backcountry and wilderness recreation for a variety of protected natural areas in the U.S. and internationally. Furthermore, overnight visitors to protected areas spend a substantial portion of their time on campsites so their behaviors determine the nature and extent of resource impacts, and the quality of their recreational experiences can be affected by campsite conditions. The U.S. Forest Service manages nearly 2000 designated campsites in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. This research assessed resource conditions on 81 wilderness campsites and paired undisturbed controls in 1982 and 2014 to quantify long-term ecological changes. A comprehensive array of physical, vegetative, and soil indicators were measured to identify long-term trends over 32 years of continuous campsite use.
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The quantity of trail impact on the Appalachian Trail in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, as measured by cross-sectional area loss, was related to soil type, vegetation type, precipitation, and trail slope.-from Authors
Chapter
This chapter explores aspects of natural and human-caused changes on that portion of the archaeological resource base consisting of archaeological sites. It describes previous research, some applications of research results to theory building, management, and field studies, and a set of proposals for future research. Impacts on sites are determined by physical observation, measurement, and description; effects on values are determined by reference to an outside philosophical, methodological, or regulatory standard. Impact types most commonly observed are alteration, transfer, and removal. Transfer and removal of artifacts, without alteration, affects the integrity of the site, and the validity of the cultural inferences based on artifact location or descriptions. Aside from removal of specimens or sediments altogether, extensive disturbance of strata or specimen location is the most detrimental impact the archaeological record can suffer. In conclusion, the study of impacts on archaeological resources has serious implications for archaeological theory building, archaeological resource management, and future research in both theoretical and applied archaeology. Further, the study of impacts on archaeological resources can provide a scientific, theoretical, and methodological underpinning for the future of our profession.