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The Coasts and Their Costs

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Sandy beaches and coastal dunes throughout the world are threatened by human encroachment, and as they are lost, so are the ecosystem services provided by them. Because the economic value of ecosystem services has seldom been assessed, the ecological and socioeconomic consequences of the degradation or destruction of beaches and coastal dunes remain largely unknown. We performed an intensive literature review and found only 18 studies in which ecosystem services from the beach and coastal dunes had been analyzed and their economic value calculated. Recreation, cultural, and aesthetic ecosystem services were those most widely studied and with the highest values. Protection has also been studied, but, surprisingly, the economic value of this ecosystem service assigned by society was smaller. Restoration of coastal dunes is becoming an increasingly necessary and increasingly expensive activity. The activities involved in restoration actions are quite diverse, although there are three goals: restoring natural dynamics, recreational/aesthetic, and protective. Removal of unwanted vegetation seems to be amongst the most expensive restoration activities. The paradox in current development trends on beaches and coastal dunes is that the coasts are over-exploited, but, by doing this, the ecosystem services that we value the most and that drive exploitation trends (recreation, aesthetic, and protection) are degraded or lost. This dead-end situation is the result of ecosystem services not being considered in the decision-making process, and a few ecosystem services being over-exploited while others are ignored. Evidence shows that, before investing in coastal dune restoration, natural ecosystems should be preserved in their own right, with the additional benefits that they provide to society. Economically, socially, and ecologically, conservation is a better choice than degradation followed by restoration.
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Chapter 18
The Coasts and Their Costs
O. Pérez-Maqueo, M. L. Martínez, D. Lithgow,
G. Mendoza-González, R. A. Feagin and J. B. Gallego-Fernández
18.1 Introduction
Coastal dunes are unique ecosystems with considerable ecological, social, and
economic relevance (Martínez et al. 2004a,b). Ecologically, they are unique
because they include species with specific tolerance to burial by sand and salinity
(Maun 2009; Gallego-Fernández and Martínez 2011). These species share their
functional responses to the peculiar environment of the coastal dunes and yet their
phylogeny is very diverse, providing a clear example of evolutionary convergence
in both plants and animals. They are also the preferred site to test the theory of
successional dynamics (Martínez et al. 2001; Feagin et al. 2005; Isermann 2011).
O. Pérez-Maqueo (&)
Red de Ambiente y Sustentabilidad, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Antigua carretera
a Coatepec No. 351, El Haya 91070 Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
e-mail: octavio.maqueo@inecol.edu.mx
M. L. Martínez D. Lithgow G. Mendoza-González
Red de Ecología Funcional, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Antigua carretera a Coatepec
No. 351, El Haya 91070 Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
e-mail: marisa.martinez@inecol.edu.mx
R. A. Feagin
Spatial Sciences Laboratory, Department of Ecosystem Science and Management,
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77845, USA
e-mail: feaginr@tamu.edu
J. B. Gallego-Fernández
Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Universidad de Sevilla,
Ap.1095 41080 Sevilla, Spain
e-mail: galfer@us.es
M. L. Martínez et al. (eds.), Restoration of Coastal Dunes, Springer Series
on Environmental Management, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-33445-0_18,
ÓSpringer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
289
In fact, ecological theory on plant succession was first described in coastal dunes a
century ago (Cowles 1899), and there is still ongoing research on how community
dynamics works in these ecosystems.
Socially, a large fraction of the global human population lives at or near the
coast (Martínez et al. 2007); many cities are also located here, and have developed
on top of dunes. Twenty-one of the 33 megacities ([10 million inhabitants) of the
world are located at the coast and population growth trends indicate that here,
human population will continue increasing at a faster rate than inland (Martínez
et al. 2007). This human preference results in urban development and the con-
struction of infrastructure, which transforms and even destroys coastal dunes.
Economically, tourism, one of the largest industries in the world, takes place
predominantly at the coast, especially on sandy coasts, yielding millions of dollars
in revenue. Besides these direct economic benefits, coastal dunes are also highly
relevant to humans, since they offer many ecosystem services to society, such as
the protection of human structures from erosion as well as the impact of hurricanes
and storms by providing sediments, a physical barrier, or resistant vegetation
(Nordstrom and Jackson, Chap. 2, this volume). Protection, in particular, will
become increasingly relevant because of the encroaching human population at the
coast, and also because of the risks associated with global climate change such as
an increasing sea level and storminess (Webster et al. 2005).
Other additional ecosystem services provided by sandy coasts and coastal dunes
include: sand and minerals for extraction, retention and purification of ground
water, raw materials, plants with pharmaceutical use, food for primary and higher
trophic level consumers, habitats and refuge for plants and animals, recreation,
education, scientific research, cultural and environmental heritage (Bell and Lee-
worthy 1990; King 1995; Lubke and Avis 1998; Arens et al. 2001; Peterson and
Lipcius 2003; Everard et al. 2010; Nordstrom and Jackson, Chap. 2, this volume).
In spite of the evident relevance of coastal dunes, they are threatened by human
encroachment throughout the world. As they are lost, the ecosystem services
provided by them will be lost too. Because the economic value of the ecosystem
services has seldom been assessed, the ecological and socio-economic conse-
quences of their destruction remain largely unknown. Large amounts of money
have already been invested in coastal dune restoration and, since destruction
continues, restoration needs (and their costs) will also increase. Given this sce-
nario, it is relevant to analyze what would be the best option for our beaches and
coastal dunes: to restore? To conserve these ecosystems and manage their eco-
system services? Should we sustain the status quo because of immediate revenues?
An important question to answer is: what are the costs of our coasts? What are the
costs of restoring beaches and coastal dunes, and what are the economic benefits
derived from ecosystem services provided by them?
In this chapter we aim to achieve three goals: first, we performed a literature
search to assess a proxy estimate of the economic value of the beach and coastal
dunes in terms of their ecosystem services. Second, we used the information that
was available on the costs of restoration projects described in this book, which
have been performed on beaches and coastal dunes in different countries: New
290 O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.
Zealand (Hesp and Hilton, Chap. 5, this volume); Italy (Acosta et al., Chap. 12,
this volume); USA (Pickart, Chap. 10, this volume; Feagin, Chap. 6, this volume);
Netherlands (Arens et al., Chap. 7, this volume; Grootjans et al., Chap. 15, this
volume); Denmark (Vestergaard, Chap. 4, this volume), and Spain (Muñoz-
Reinoso et al., Chap. 9, this volume). We also gathered additional information in
order to have a larger set of data with which we could analyze the costs of coastal
dune restoration. Finally, we carried out an analysis of the conservation benefits in
terms of ecosystem services, versus the costs of restoring beaches and coastal
dunes, to determine the best management option for our sandy coasts.
18.2 Ecosystem Services
Natural ecosystems provide a variety of direct and indirect services and intangible
benefits to humans and other living organisms (Costanza et al. 1997), and because
of their relevance to society, these ecosystem services, goods and their economic
value have become a focus of interest for scientists, policy makers, and stake-
holders over the last decade (Troy and Wilson 2006). The provision of ecosystem
services is directly related to the functionality of natural ecosystems upon which
ecological processes and ecosystem structures depend (de Groot et al. 2002). Thus,
the better preserved natural ecosystems are, the more ecosystem services they can
provide to society (Balvanera et al. 2001).
To gather information on the ecosystem services provided by the beach and
coastal dunes, we performed a literature search including the databases environ-
mental valuation reference inventory (EVRI), Envalue, and ecosystem services
database (ESD) (McComb et al. 2006) and applicable gray literature (government
statistics and graduate theses) (Shuang 2007; Mendoza-González 2009; Lithgow-
Serrano 2007). Based on these databases and the published literature we deter-
mined specific ecosystem services from the beach and coastal dunes. Using the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ecosystem services classification (supporting,
provisioning, regulatory, and cultural) the ecosystem services provided by the
beach and coastal dunes can be grouped as shown in Table 18.1.
Table 18.1 Summary of ecosystem services provided by coastal dunes to society (modified from
Everard et al. 2010)
Supporting Provisioning Regulatory Cultural/aesthetic
Soil formation Drinking water Storm/flood/erosion protection Recreation/tourism
Primary production Food Climate regulation Aesthetic value
Nutrient cycling Fiber and fuels Water storage Cultural heritage
Water cycling Genetic resources Pest/disease regulation Spiritual
Photosynthesis Medicine Pest control Art
Carbon storage Ornamental Water purification Social relations
Habitat/diversity Mineral extraction Pollination Education/science
18 The Coasts and Their Costs 291
The above-mentioned ecosystem services have not been studied in as much
detail as is needed. For instance, the literature on ecosystem services (ISI Web of
Science January 2012) displayed 3,070 publications that mention ecosystem
services in the title, abstract, or key words. Of these, 271 focus on the coast, and
this includes the beach, coastal dunes, and any other coastal ecosystem such as
wetlands, marshes and mangrove forests. Less than 30 studies referred to eco-
system services of coastal dunes and the beach.
We located a total of only 18 studies where ecosystem services from the beach
and coastal dunes have been analyzed and their economic value has been
calculated (Table 18.2). Most of them (11; 55 %) focus on the beach; 6 (30 %)
deal exclusively with coastal dunes and only 2 (10 %) with the beach and coastal
dunes as an integrated system. We found only one study (5 %) that took place in
wet slacks. In this set of studies, the ecosystem services that have been studied on
the beach and coastal dunes are: aesthetic/recreational/cultural (cultural); distur-
bance/prevention/protection (regulatory), and carbon sequestration (supporting;
Table 18.2). To our knowledge, no ecosystem services that deal with provisioning
have been studied, so far, for the beach and coastal dunes, probably because here,
some ecosystem services (aesthetic, protection) are more heavily exploited (and
apparently considered more relevant) than others (pollination, water cycle, nutrient
cycle, and others mentioned in Table 18.1). However, the above does not mean
that these are the only ecosystem services of coastal ecosystems, but that a handful
of them are of greater interest to humans than the others. In addition, it is inter-
esting to note that it is necessary to consider if losing these ecosystem services
after land use change (urbanization, for example, instead of tourism) is compen-
sated for by the value gain. Such a valuation is currently being performed.
The economic values of ecosystem services that we found in the literature were
estimated in different years, in different countries, and with a variety of method-
ologies. This heterogeneity in how economic values were assessed made it nec-
essary to standardize them in order to be able to compare studies. Thus, the
economic values estimated for ecosystem services from different ecosystems were
adjusted to US$ currency using the consumer price index (CPI) and the purchasing
power parity (PPP) for 2010, obtained from US government statistics (US
Department of Labor). We thus adjusted the original values estimated in the 18
studies we used (Table 18.2), to US dollars (2010), using the following formula
(Envalue 2007):
ESV = Value=CPIðÞx 100
PPP x USA PPP
where:
Value is the value in the original year in the original currency
CPI is an index of inflation of the source data, with a base year in 2010
PPP is the PPP between the original currency and US$ in 2010
292 O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.
Table 18.2 Ecosystem services and their calculated economic value estimated in different countries. Valuation methods are: WTP= willingness to pay; HP
= hedonic pricing; CV =contingent valuation; TC = travel cost. All estimated costs are standardized to USD per ha per year in 2010
Ecosystem Ecosystem
service Reference Country GDP Per
capita /year
2010
GINI
Index/
year
Method Year of
study CPI PPP country
studied 2010 US(2010)
/ha/year
Beach Aesthetic and
Recreational Edwards and
Gable 1991 USA 47,198.50 45(2007) HP 2004 96.72 1 $55
Beach Aesthetic and
Recreational Kline and
Swallow
1998
USA 47,198.50 45(2007) TC 2004 96.72 1 $15,838
Beach Aesthetic and
Recreational Silberman et al.
1992 USA 47,198.50 45(2007) CV 2004 96.72 1 $8,653
Beach Aesthetic and
Recreational Taylor and Smith
2000 USA 47,198.50 45(2007) HP 2004 96.72 1 $303
Average $6,212
Beach Recreation Lindsay et al.
1992.USA 47,198.50 45(2007) WTP 1992 71.85 1 $43
Average $43
Dunes Recreation Mendoza-
González
et al. 2012
MEXICO 9,123.41 46.05
(2004) WTP 2011 103.2 7.951476 $12,192
Dunes Recreation Mendoza-
González
et al. 2012
CHILE 12,431.03 54.92
(2003) WTP 2011 103.2 403.1928 $8,388
Average $10,290
Beach Cultural and
Spiritual Taylor and Smith
2000 USA 47,198.50 45(2007) HP 2004 96.72 1 $10
Average $10
Wetslack Carbon
sequestration Jones et al. 2010 UK 36,143.94 34(2005) 2010 114.5 0.65151 $4
Average $4
Drydune Carbon
sequestration Jones et al. 2010 UK 36,143.94 34(2005) 2010 114.5 0.65151 $3
(continued)
18 The Coasts and Their Costs 293
Table 18.2 (continued)
Ecosystem Ecosystem
service Reference Country GDP Per
capita /year
2010
GINI
Index/
year
Method Year of
study CPI PPP country
studied 2010 US(2010)
/ha/year
Average $3
Beach Disturbance
prevention Pearsons and
Powell 2001 USA 47,198.50 45(2007) HP 2004 96.72 1 $8,709
Beach Disturbance
prevention Pompe and
Rinehart
1995
USA 47,198.50 45(2007) HP 2004 96.72 1 $14,117
Average $11,413
Dunes &
Shingles protection Jones et al. 2010 UK 36,143.94 34(2005) Avoided
costs 2010 114.5 0.65151 5272
Beach and
Dunes Protection/
Erosion Scottish Natural
Heritage
2000
UK 36,143.94 34(2005) Replacement
cost 2000 93.06 0.65151 19424
Average $12,348
Dunes Protection Mendoza-
González
et al. 2012
MEXICO 9,123.41 46.05
(2004) Replacement
cost 2011 103.2 7.951476 65743
Dunes protection Pye et al. 2007 UK 36,143.94 34(2005) 2007 104.7 0.65151 6661
Average $36,202
Beach, Dune &
Sand plains All Alves et al. 2009 Portugal 21,504.81 38.5(2007) Tranfer value 2000 85.55 0.633975 $27,812
Average $27,812
Beach All USA 47,198.50 45(2007) WTP 2004 96.72 1 $17,642
Average $17,642
294 O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.
There are limited data available that estimate the economic values of ecosystem
services from the beach and coastal dunes, and those data do not cover many of the
possible ecosystem services in detail. We only found economic values for beach
and dune ecosystem services from Chile, Mexico, Portugal, the UK, and the USA,
although most of the data acquired came from the UK and the USA. When we
compare the list of ecosystem services that are recognized as being supplied by the
beach and coastal dunes (Table 18.1) with the list of ecosystem services that have
been studied in more detail and their economic values calculated, it becomes
evident that supporting ecosystem services are generally overlooked in the liter-
ature, and other provisioning and regulatory ecosystem services are also ignored.
The estimated economic values of ecosystem services such as recreational,
cultural, and aesthetic have been studied most, with a total of 8. In this case, most
of them have focused on the beach and only 2 were performed on coastal dunes.
It is interesting to note that the economic value of the ecosystem service of
protection against storms, hurricanes, and floods had a relatively low number of
estimates (a total of 6), even though it seems likely that it would be a very
important ecosystem service. Most of these studies have focused on coastal dunes
(4) and 2 on the beach. Finally, carbon sequestration is an ecosystem service that
has been studied occasionally in coastal dunes and slacks (Table 18.2).
In the economic estimates that we gathered, it is obvious that the economic
values of the costs of protection were high both for the beach and the coastal
dunes, although those for the dunes were higher. Slowly but surely, stakeholders
and the government are becoming more aware of the relevance of coastal pro-
tection and are willing to invest more in coastal dune restoration in order to gain
protection against natural hazards (storm, storm surges, flooding, erosion).
Aesthetic and recreational ecosystem services are also considered to be very
valuable to the beach (aesthetic and recreational) and the dunes (recreational).
In fact, Mendoza-González (2009) found that tourists were willing to pay for
higher hotel prices as long as they were closer to the beach (recreational) and had
access to the scenic beauty of the coast (hotel rooms looking at the ocean versus
not looking at the ocean; aesthetic value). Of course, further studies are necessary
to obtain a better understanding of the economic benefits that society receives from
the ecosystem services provided by the beach and coastal dunes.
18.3 The Costs of Restoration Efforts
Although the set of examples on restoration efforts presented in this book were
performed in several countries, the economic costs of such actions were not always
readily available. Usually, scientists are asked to monitor the effectiveness of
restoration actions and do not deal with the socioeconomic part of restoration.
In our case, we were only able to gather information from European countries and
for the USA. This is probably because the information from the funding agencies
(local and federal governments) is not always available to the public.
18 The Coasts and Their Costs 295
The activities involved in coastal dune restoration include a wide array of
actions, such as use of machinery, planting, fencing, elimination of exotics,
remobilization of stabilized dunes, geotubes, sod cutting, and even tree felling
(Table 18.3). The goals of these activities are not as diverse, and mostly include
protection of endangered or native species; restoring mobility and native flora;
recreation, protection, and aesthetic. Indeed, the costs involved in these actions are
equally variable. In the data we gathered, we noticed that removal of unwanted
vegetation by means of sod cutting, tree felling, and elimination of exotics was, no
doubt, amongst the most expensive coastal dune restoration actions. Likewise,
creating an artificial dune and planting it with native vegetation was a very
expensive activity in Denmark (US$77,393/ha), but it seems to have been suc-
cessful (Table 18.3) (Vestergaard, Chap. 4, this volume), with high annual
maintenance costs (US$2,229/ha; Table 18.3). Coastal dune re-mobilization is also
a difficult and expensive task and needs to be repeated every few years (Arens
et al., Chap. 7, this volume).
Although the information is still not readily available, and restoration actions
are scattered in different countries and take place with different intensities, mil-
lions of dollars are already being spent on this activity. For instance, in The
Netherlands, there have been more than 100 restoration projects over the last
20 years that, overall, have cost from 10 to 20 million Euros (Grootjans, personal
communication). In Spain, more than one million Euros were spent on recovering
the native maritime juniper woodlands in Andalusia in a project that lasted 5 years
(Muñoz-Reinoso et al., Chap. 9, this volume).
It is also interesting to notice that funding for restoration actions almost always
comes from local and federal governments, and usually restoration is performed in
national parks, nature reserves, and on public beaches (Table 18.3). An exception
to this were the activities that were carried out in Galveston, Texas (USA), where
private owners and stakeholders paid for beach and coastal dune restoration as an
investment in the protection of their properties against the recurring impacts of
hurricanes. In this case, the owners felt that the original dune and swale structure
had protected their homes from incurring much greater expense during Hurricane
Ike. Moreover, residents said that the reconstructed dunes also enhanced the
aesthetic value of their property and buffered them from public intrusion onto their
property (Feagin, Chap. 6, this volume; Table 18.3).
Besides the government and stakeholders being interested in paying for coastal
dune restoration programs, the public, in general, seems to be gradually becoming
more and more interested in these actions (Table 18.3). For instance, volunteer
work for either planting dune vegetation (Grootjans et al., Chap. 15, this volume)
or removing invasive species (Pickart, Chap. 10, this volume) has played a key
role in achieving the goals of restoration in the Netherlands and the USA
respectively. Additionally, in Israel, Lehrer et al. (Chap. 17, this volume) found
that the public was willing to pay US$10.06 (38 NIS) a year for the containment
efforts of invasive species and US$10.63 (40.12 NIS) for its elimination from a
national park. Certainly, as the society becomes more involved in the conservation
or restoration of natural ecosystems in general (not only the beach and coastal
296 O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.
Table 3 Example of the costs of restoration projects performed in different countries
Action/
mechanism
Goals of
restoration
actions
Country Area/
volume
restored
Year Reference Funding
Agency
CPI PPP
country
studied
2010
$US(2010) Units
Removing pine
trees
Protect native
Maritime
Juniper
Woodlands in
Andalusia
Spain 50 ha 2002-
2006
Muñoz-
Reinoso
et al.
Government 103.517792 0.719016464 1,545,628 USD/
ha
Creating artificial
dune; planting
native
vegetation
Recreation and
protection
Denmark 500 ha 1978 Vestergaard Government 33.5947391 7.959994283 77,393 USD/
ha
Elimination of
exotics
Restore mobility
and diversity
of native flora
USA 327 ha 1998 Pickart Government/
volunteers
83.46917 1 65,293 USD/
ha
Sod cutting Restore mobility
and diversity
of native flora
Netherlands 6 ha last 20
years
Grootjans
et al.
Government 107.939317 0.838259729 29,414 USD/
ha
Restoration
(grazing, sod
cutting,
rewetting, re-
mobilization)
Restore mobility
and diversity
of native flora
Netherlands 100 ha 1993 Grootjans
et al.
Government 75.9065759 0.838259729 12,053 USD/
ha
Yearly
maintenance
costs of created
dune
Recreation and
protection
Denmark 500 ha 1986 Vestergaard Government 62.7957965 7.959994283 2,229 USD/
ha
Re-mobilization/,
monitoring
Restore mobility
and diversity
of native flora
New
Zealand
150m
shoreline
2011 Hesp and
Hilton
Government 115.252411 1 1,123 USD/
m
(continued)
18 The Coasts and Their Costs 297
Table 3 (continued)
Action/
mechanism
Goals of
restoration
actions
Country Area/
volume
restored
Year Reference Funding
Agency
CPI PPP
country
studied
2010
$US(2010) Units
Fencing Plant diversity Italy 7,000 m2 2007 Acosta
et al.
Government 103.928931 0.811506578 962 USD/
ha
Vegetation Aesthetic USA 2,373 m 2007 Feagin Stakeholders/
Government
106.170642 1 275 USD/
m
Geotubes Storm protection USA 2,373 m 1999 Feagin Stakeholders/
Government
85.2954982 1 247 USD/
m
Sand movement/
vegetation
Storm protection USA 2,373 m
shoreline
2009 Feagin Stakeholders/
Government
109.854662 1 99 USD/
m
Consultant fee,
heavy
machinery,
planting,
fencing,
Restore mobility
and diversity
of native flora
New
Zealand
150m
shoreline
2000 Hesp and
Hilton
Government 88.4352555 1 58 USD/
m
Re-mobilization Restore mobility
and diversity
of native flora
Netherlands 3,000 m3 2010 Arens et al. Government 107.939317 0.838259729 9 USD/
m3
Planting Aesthetic USA 17,830 m3 1999 Feagin Stakeholders/
Government
85.2954982 1 2 USD/
m3
298 O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.
dunes) these activities will become more effective. To achieve this, environmental
education becomes a keystone.
18.4 Future Perspectives
The beach and coastal dunes provide society with a wide array of ecosystem
services, including supporting, provisioning, regulatory and cultural/aesthetic
(Table 18.1). Protection, recreation, and aesthetic are the ones most frequently
studied and their economic values have been calculated, while many other
ecosystem services remain largely overlooked (Tables 18.1, 18.2) (Everard et al.
2010). Needless to say, it is obvious that many of the goals of restoration actions
are also aimed at recovering ecosystem services such as storm protection, recre-
ation, and aesthetic (Table 18.3). An additional goal of restoration that is not
directly related to publically recognized ecosystem services is recovering the
natural dynamics of the beach and coastal dunes. That is, many restoration projects
developed on coastal dunes have been aimed at restoring the mobility and diversity
of native flora. Vegetation removal may seem counter-intuitive to what is expected
by restoration, but, in the case of coastal dunes and beaches, recovering their
natural dynamics is a very important goal (Martínez et al., Chap. 20, this volume).
Upon recovering the natural functionality of these ecosystems, it will be possible
to recover ecosystem services.
Our findings show that the economic value of ecosystem services provided by
coastal dunes is quite high. That is, the economic benefits that society receives
because of the natural functioning of the beach and coastal dunes are very high,
especially protection, recreation, and aesthetic. The porous structure and substrate
mobility of coastal dunes and beaches absorbs and dissipates wave energy, which
helps to protect the coasts and inland infrastructure with minimal human inter-
vention necessary (as long as natural dynamics are allowed to operate) (Everard
et al. 2010). Through this capacity of absorbing and dissipating wave energy, the
costs of hard engineering solutions are reduced. In addition to the above, a
dynamic beach and coastal dune stores sand and provides new sediments that re-
enter the marine sediment transport system, which can later nourish beaches after
erosion events. Finally, as the natural dynamics of coastal dunes is maintained,
native species will be able to survive and grow, and the scenic beauty of the beach/
dune system is maintained. In brief, in well-preserved coastal dunes and beaches,
the potential benefits to society are maximized, since ecosystem services are
maintained under optimal conditions.
The paradox is that, because of the strong interest in these ecosystems, coasts
are often over-exploited in order to obtain short-term benefits from recreation and
their natural beauty. But, as we exploit these ecosystem services, we degrade them:
the landscape is not as beautiful; beaches are flat and deserted; a coast with urban
infrastructure is not capable of offering protection. That is, our short-term actions
and interests negatively affect the ecosystem services that we value the most.
18 The Coasts and Their Costs 299
A logical consequence is that the funds required for restoration actions are large,
and will probably increase as the human impact on the coasts increases.
Why are we moving toward this dead-end situation? Two explanations can be
set out to interpret this difficult situation and suggest possible ways out: ecosystem
services are not considered in decision-making processes, and some ecosystem
services are over-exploited, resulting in their loss or degradation together with
other ecosystem services that are also very relevant to society, although they may
not be directly appreciated.
18.4.1 Ecosystem Services are not Considered in the Decision-
Making Processes
Most of the ecosystem services provided by the beach and coastal dunes are not
considered in the decision-making process. The result of this incomplete assess-
ment of the use of natural resources is that coastal ecosystems are being frag-
mented and degraded, on the basis of short-term financial gain rather than their
long-term value to society (de Groot 2006). A consequence of this myopic vision
is that ecosystem services (even those considered most valuable) are spoiled and
even lost. This problem is derived from the fact that ecosystem services are
assigned little or no value in the cost–benefit analysis of development projects,
because of the absence of market mechanisms. That is, many ecosystem services
that the beach and coastal dunes provide to society are usually overlooked, even
though the importance of these systems is increasingly being acknowledged.
Nevertheless, the societal value of natural ecosystems (specifically the beach and
coastal dunes) is often underappreciated (Everard et al. 2010).
One potential solution to the currently inadequate decision-making process is to
recognize the societal value of the beach and coastal dunes, including the full
range of benefits that they confer to society besides recreational, aesthetic, and
protective (see Table 18.1). The estimates of the economic value of these eco-
system services constitute a useful tool that can help with a better-informed pro-
cess, because marginal costs can also be considered. For instance, before making
the decision to destroy coastal dunes and build an urban infrastructure on top of
them (houses, hotels, roads), it would be useful to consider the ecological, social,
and economic costs of losing the protection from a dynamic beach and its mobile
dunes. In this case we would use the ecosystem service value calculated for coastal
protection and incorporate it in the cost–benefit analyses of development projects.
Here, it is worth highlighting that calculating the economic costs of ecosystem
services does not mean that nature and its dynamics are for sale. These calculations
are only intended to be used as a tool to aid the decision-making processes.
300 O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.
18.4.2 Over-Exploitation of a Few Ecosystem Services
at the Expense of Others
Often, one or a few ecosystem services provided by natural ecosystems are over-
exploited and then the provision of other ecosystem services is reduced. This is
known as a trade-off across ecosystem services (Rodríguez et al. 2006). These
trade-offs can arise as a result of explicit management choices, but can also occur
without any awareness that a trade-off is taking place. Trade-offs between eco-
system services can occur both across space (when one ecosystem service is used
in one location, another is depleted somewhere else) (Pérez-Maqueo et al., sub-
mitted for publication) and over time (when the exploitation of one ecosystem
service negatively affects another ecosystem service in the future) (Mendoza-
González et al. 2012). Finally, some groups of ecosystem services are more fre-
quently chosen over others. For instance, Rodriguez et al. (2006) found that
provisioning and regulating services are frequently preferred over supporting and
cultural services.
In the case of the beach and coastal dunes, direct explicit choices are made in
which the recreational, aesthetic, and protective functions are generally exploited,
at the expense of many other ecosystem services. That is, regulatory (storm pro-
tection) and cultural (recreational, aesthetic) services are the most frequently used
ecosystem services in the beach and coastal dunes. These trade-offs occur in space
and time. Spatially, when for instance the scenic beauty of the coast is chosen, then
urban infrastructure is developed and the potential for protection is lost along with
all the ecosystem services listed in Table 18.1. Urbanized coasts can become
‘deserts’’ with no natural plants or animals, and with a flat topography; these
systems are non-functional and offer zero ecosystem services, except for aesthetics
and recreation, although in a degraded system, even these are diminished. When
the beach and coastal dunes are damaged or lost, ecosystem services for the future
are also lost. Obviously, this is not the best possible scenario for the future. Ideally,
biodiversity and dynamism should be preserved, which in turn would help
maintain ecosystem services (Balvanera et al. 2001). Successful management
policies need to consider ecosystem service trade-offs on different spatial and
temporal scales (Rodríguez et al. 2006) and should aim to minimize the effects of
trade-offs.
18.5 Conclusions
Beaches and coastal dunes provide many ecosystem services to society of which a
few are excessively over-exploited. Such over-exploitation results in a degraded
and even lost natural ecosystem and, consequently, valuable ecosystem services
are also lost as well. In consequence, restoration efforts are becoming increasingly
necessary at increasingly high costs.
18 The Coasts and Their Costs 301
A better alternative is to preserve these (and any other) natural ecosystems and
use the many ecosystem services in a more rational manner, instead of over-
exploiting a few of them. By preserving natural ecosystems, they remain dynamic
and functional, and ecosystem services are preserved too (Balvanera et al. 2001).
This would be a win–win situation yielding important economic benefits,
improved human well-being, and better-preserved natural ecosystems. Because of
the crucial role that sandy beaches and coastal dunes play in human society
(recreational, aesthetic and protective) plus the multiple beneficial services that
they provide to society and, on top of the inherent reasons for protection, our focus
on these ecosystem services need to be prioritized and far more recognized than at
present if we want to continue to receive the benefits from them. In brief, before
investing in restoration (which is not always 100 % successful, but is usually very
expensive) natural ecosystems should be preserved in their own integrity, and also
because of the many benefits to our society.
Acknowledgments We are very grateful to all the authors of the chapters in this book who
kindly provided us with information of the economic costs of the restoration efforts in which they
have participated: Patrick Hesp, Mike Hilton, Alicia Acosta, Andrea Pickart, Bas Arens, Ab
Grootjans, Peter Vestergaard, Rusty Feagin, and José Carlos Muñoz Reinoso.
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This new edition - now with Nancy Jackson as a co-author - continues the themes of the first edition: the need to restore the biodiversity, ecosystem health, and ecosystem services provided by coastal landforms and habitats, especially in the light of climate change. The second edition reports on progress made on practices identified in the first edition, presents additional case studies, and addresses new and emerging issues. It analyzes the tradeoffs involved in restoring beaches and dunes - especially on developed coasts - the most effective approaches to use, and how stakeholders can play an active role. The concept of restoration is broad, and includes physical, ecological, economic, social, and ethical principles and ideals. The book will be valuable for coastal scientists, engineers, planners, and managers, as well as shorefront residents. It will also serve as a useful supplementary reference textbook in courses dealing with issues of coastal management and ecology.
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Our beautiful blue Planet-Earth nurture several kinds of ecosystem. study of ecology will be useful for conservation and management. Sand dune is less studied when compared to coral, mangrove, lagoon and estuary. Survey of sand dunes in Cuddalore Tamil Nadu, revealed that, a total of 14 dunes were found in this area. large dunes with 150 meters length and 5 meters height were found. Few dunes in this area are with small temples and houses near Pudukuppam and Samiyarpettai coastal villages. Recent industrialisation in this area destroyed few dunes which needs special attention for conservation of this natural ecosystem. Flora and Fauna and the types of dunes were discussed in this book. Restoration of dune plants, dissemmination of the importance of the sand dunes to the public were also made. Therefore, this book will be useful for the students, teachers and naturalists as well as the Coastal Regulation Zone Authority.
Article
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An increasing amount of information is being collected on the ecological and socio-economic value of goods and services provided by natural and semi-natural ecosystems. However, much of this information appears scattered throughout a disciplinary academic literature, unpublished government agency reports, and across the World Wide Web. In addition, data on ecosystem goods and services often appears at incompatible scales of analysis and is classified differently by different authors. In order to make comparative ecological economic analysis possible, a standardized framework for the comprehensive assessment of ecosystem functions, goods and services is needed. In response to this challenge, this paper presents a conceptual framework and typology for describing, classifying and valuing ecosystem functions, goods and services in a clear and consistent manner. In the following analysis, a classification is given for the fullest possible range of 23 ecosystem functions that provide a much larger number of goods and services. In the second part of the paper, a checklist and matrix is provided, linking these ecosystem functions to the main ecological, socio–cultural and economic valuation methods.
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Foredunes and coastal dune systems have been variously altered or destroyed by industrial and urban development over past centuries in many countries. Dune systems have also been deliberately planted with, or been invaded by, various species of alien plants altering the ecology and functioning of those dunes. In this chapter, the physical and vegetative restoration of two foredunes following significant alteration by human agencies, and the elimination of invasive marram grass within a transgressive dunefield are described for three sites in New Zealand. Foredunes were successively rebuilt to a more natural form, re-vegetated with native species, and functioned in a more natural fashion than previously, although weed invasion subsequently took place. The removal of marram in the larger transgressive dune system was mostly successful, but only after multiple efforts, and with continued monitoring and work required to restrict further invasion.
Book
Coastal zones are becoming increasingly topical (and politically sensitive) as they face relentless pressures from urban expansion, recreational development and sea level rise due to climate change. This timely book provides a comprehensive introduction to the formation, dynamics, maintenance and perpetuation of coastal sand dune systems. It describes the interactions between living organisms and the physical processes of geomorphology, with particular emphasis on conservation and management issues due to this habitat's increasingly endangered status. A global range of examples enhance the book's international appeal, which also includes coverage of the latest methods/techniques and experimental approaches with suggestions for student-based field studies and projects. This accessible text is suitable for both senior undergraduate and graduate students taking courses in coastal zone management, marine biology, plant ecology, restoration ecology and conservation biology, as well as the many professional ecologists and conservation biologists requiring a concise but authoritative overview of the topic. The book will also be of relevance and use to coastal managers, planners and naturalists.
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This chapter reviews the ecology and conservation problems of the coastal juniper woodland of the maritime juniper in Andalusia (South Spain), shows the restoration efforts of the Regional Government with regard to their conservation, and focuses on the results of a clearing experiment of a pine plantation carried out in Enebrales de Punta Umbría Natural Landscape (Huelva, southwest Spain). One of the main purposes of the project was to reduce the negative effects of pine trees on maritime junipers and to restore the environmental conditions favoring the regeneration of coastal plant communities. The aim of the field experiment was to analyze the effects of three levels of clearing on the physical environment, the junipers’ performance, and the coastal plant community.
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This study uses the hedonic pricing technique to examine the contribution of beach quality, as measured by beach width, to property values in two South Carolina coastal towns. Using two separate models, we estimate the values of wider beaches to vacant lots and single family homes, both with and without water frontage. For oceanfront property, increasing the beach width from 79 to 80 feet, increases the value of developed and undeveloped lots by 558and558 and 754, respectively. An increase in beach width from 79 to 80 feet, increases the value of developed and undeveloped lots, located a 1/2 mile from the beach by 254and254 and 165, respectively. The willingness to pay for wider beaches is an indication of the size of the storm protection and recreational values produced by wider beaches.
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This chapter presents the findings of a stated preference study conducted in Israel to examine the benefit to the public of containment or eradication of the invasive species, Acacia saligna, at the Nizzanim LTER Coastal Sand Dune Nature Reserve. The research used a contingent valuation methodology survey in order to estimate the value to the public of preserving the biodiversity of the park. Both visitors and nonvisitors to the park were surveyed. The results reveal a substantial willingness to pay (WTP) by the public for containment and eradication of the spread of the invading species, which is out-competing native species at the park. The study found that the annual mean WTP for containment of the invasive species was US8.50andforeliminationoftheinvasivespecies,US 8.50 and for elimination of the invasive species, US 8.92. Using regression analysis, the study showed that among the predictors of WTP were income and membership in an environmental organization.
Article
In many parts of the world where shorelines are eroding, hurricanes or other storms destroy foredunes every few years. Moreover, in highly urbanized locations, there may be so little habitat space available that a dune ecosystem is unable to sustain itself. So why do people restore dunes in these contexts, only to see their hard work subsequently destroyed by the next hurricane? People restore them, even if only for their short-term benefits, because: they effectively demarcate the public beach from private property, protecting homeowners’ properties from wandering tourists; they are aesthetically-pleasing, providing a sense of nature and wildness to homeowners and tourists alike; they protect housing and infrastructure from the impacts of future storms. These three incentives drive large sand-moving and re-vegetation projects, even though they are ultimately futile against the forces of nature. Using three foredune restoration projects on Galveston Island, Texas as examples, these incentives and the storms that instigated or subsequently destroyed the projects are examined. This is not a cynical story—rather, it shows that small pockets of the natural world can co-exist within a largely urban matrix, simply because it is in people’s financial interest to maintain them.