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Concepts of Happiness Across Time and Cultures
Abstract and Figures
We explored cultural and historical variations in concepts of happiness. First, we analyzed the definitions of happiness in dictionaries from 30 nations to understand cultural similarities and differences in happiness concepts. Second, we analyzed the definition of happiness in Webster's dictionaries from 1850 to the present day to understand historical changes in American English. Third, we coded the State of the Union addresses given by U.S. presidents from 1790 to 2010. Finally, we investigated the appearance of the phrases happy nation versus happy person in Google's Ngram Viewer from 1800 to 2008. Across cultures and time, happiness was most frequently defined as good luck and favorable external conditions. However, in American English, this definition was replaced by definitions focused on favorable internal feeling states. Our findings highlight the value of a historical perspective in the study of psychological concepts.
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... A lo largo de la historia y en todas partes del mundo, la gente ha buscado senQrse bien y vivir mejor. Lograr este objeQvo es importante debido a que el bienestar nos ayuda a adaptarnos, a tener sociedades más sanas, a progresar, a senQrnos realizados y a fortalecer los valores fundamentales para seguir adelante; lo que permite que la humanidad prospere y tengamos un mundo más justo y saQsfactorio (Oishi et al. 2013). ...
La búsqueda de la felicidad es algo que todos perseguimos y que se ha convertido en una meta significativa para los seres humanos. Actualmente, la Psicología Positiva nos permite entender mejor qué es lo que nos hace sentir bien, tanto emocionalmente como psicológicamente. El trabajo que aquí se presenta pretende brindar consejos prácticos basados en investigaciones científicas sobre cómo mantenernos felices y promover el bienestar en nuestra vida diaria. Reconocemos que no hay una fórmula universal debido a que existen diferencias entre personas, grupos y culturas; sin embargo, la investigación en esta área intenta brindar orientaciones generales para incluir estas diferencias y buscar maneras de incluir a todos y respetar nuestras diferentes experiencias. Al ofrecer estos consejos, no solo queremos mejorar nuestras vidas, sino también contribuir a que todos vivamos mejor en un mundo diverso y complejo.
... Happiness is an elusive term, often used interchangeably with the related, albeit not synonymous terms, "subjective wellbeing" (SWB), "life satisfaction" (LS), quality of life (QoL), flourishing, and thriving (Rojas and Veenhoven 2013;Oishi et al. 2013;Dodge et al. 2012). It is also complex and multidimensional: a review of the literature by Linton et al. (2016) found 99 self-reporting instruments for measuring wellbeing and no less than 196 dimensions thereof. ...
(1) Background and Objective: The debate on the stability and variability of subjective wellbeing (SWB) is decades old. However, despite the wealth of literature on this topic, there are relatively few studies that aim to explain the “why” and “how” of the dynamics of SWB. In this context, the objective of this exploratory study is to test the plausibility of a model of the cognitive component of SWB (CWB) inspired by the control theory. In this model, a measure of future life expectations (FLEs) serves as a target in the control loop regulating cognitive wellbeing (CWB), while general self-efficacy (GSE) and affective wellbeing (AWB) are mediators in the direct and feedback loops. (2) Method: To test this model, we collected data from a convenience sample of N-98 Romanian students in Computer Science using well-established questionnaires measuring CWB, GSE, AWB, and FLE. Mediation analyses and path modeling were conducted to evaluate the feedback-based model of the interplay between these variables. (3) Results: The findings confirm a significant relationship between FLE and CWB (β = 0.62, p < 0.001). GSE partially mediates the link between FLE and CWB (β = 0.139, p = 0.02), while AWB mediates the feedback from CWB to FLE (β = 0.297, p < 0.001). The model explains 42% of the variance of CWB. (4) Conclusions: Our study remains exploratory in nature, but preliminary data suggest that a model of SWB based on feedback control is worth attention as it might provide a better understanding of the dynamics of SWB.
... In studies that take this into account, participants were directly asked, "What is happiness?" or "What makes you happy?" (Oishi et al., 2013). Research showed that happiness is paired with success and excitement in American culture (Uchida & Ogihara, 2012) and calmness and harmony in East Asian culture (Joshanloo, 2014). ...
Studies on the happiness of adults and adolescents have been conducted in different cultures and associated with different contexts. However, a limited number of studies have directly examined the meaning that children attribute to happiness. Moreover, the happiness of a refugee group and children in the position of hosting them has yet to be addressed. Therefore, this study investigated the meaning attributed to happiness by Syrian refugees and Turkish children. 207 Syrian children (mean age = 9.73, SD = 0.83) and 204 Turkish children (mean age = 8.90, SD = 0.90) participated in the study. A sentence completion test was used in the study. The data were grouped using codes from previous literature and content analysis. The results showed that Turkish and refugee children reported common variables about happiness. However, while refugee children mostly identified happiness with meeting basic needs, Turkish children talked about a pleasant life. By examining refugee and host children’s perceptions of happiness, the study has reached some conclusions about how refugee crises affect people’s emotional and social well-being.
... The ancient Greek idea of happiness as "good luck and fortune" was included in the dictionary definitions of happiness in 24 different countries (Oishi et al., 2013). After reviewing the philosophical literature on happiness, three essential elements were found: the enjoyment of life, the achievement of goals and the satisfaction of basic needs. ...
Happiness, health and religiosity among university students from the United Arab Emirates
Ahmed M. Abdel-Khalek; Ahmad Mohammad Alzoubi; David Lester, & Salaheldin Farah Attallah Bakhiet
Abstract
Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this study is the same as those of the preceding 16 studies on happiness, health and religion, and they are as follows: to estimate the mean scores and the sex related differences in the study scales; to examine the associations between the study scales; to investigate the principal components; and to compare the present results with the previous findings.
Design/methodology/approach – A non-probability sample of university students in the United Arab Emirates was selected by the ‘‘snowball’’ sample method. To overcome the issue of people refusing to participate in the study, this method was used in the selection process due to the challenge of sampling students in all the universities across the nation, which makes it difficult to choose a probability sample. The approval of the Ethics Committee was obtained from Ajman University to apply the study tools, and then the students were given the choice through open announcement to participate in the study and circulate it to other students at Ajman University.
Findings – Results showed that men had significantly higher mean ratings on mental health, physical health and happiness than did women. All the Pearson correlations between the scales were significant for men. Except for the correlations between religiosity and both happiness and mental health, all correlations between the scales for women were significant. A principal components analysis extracted one component for men which was labeled ‘‘Well-being and religiosity’’, whereas two components were retained for the women which were labeled ‘‘Well-being’’ and ‘‘Religiosity and physical health’’. Comparing the present sample’s mean happiness score to that of prior students from 16 other countries revealed that it was higher and consistent with other scores from rich Arab nations with a high GDP per capita (such as Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Oman). In conclusion, happiness was found to be associated with mental and physical health in both men and women, as well as religiosity in men.
Research limitations/implications – Despite the strengths of the current investigation, i.e. the large sample size and the good to high reliability and validity properties of the scales, some limitations have to be acknowledged. First, the convenience and non-probability sample. Second, university students are a special segment of any country. Their age range is limited, and they probably have greater intelligence and more education compared to the general population. Therefore, a replication of the present study using a probability sample from the general population is needed.
Practical implications – SPSS (2009) was used for data analysis. Means, standard deviations, t-tests, d for effect size, Pearson product moment correlation coefficients and principal components analysis were used. For the principal component analysis, the Kaiser criterion (i.e. eigenvalue> 1.0) and the scree plot were used to define the number of components to be retained.
Originality/value – To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study about happiness in United Arab Emirates.
Keywords: Happiness, Health, Religiosity, University students, United Arab Emirates, West Asia Paper.
... В тех случаях, когда такая угроза носит макросоциальный характер, психологическое благополучие поддерживается через идентификацию с большими социальными группами, в том числе за счет усиления гражданской идентичности. Так, роль идентификации со страной возрастает в экономически неблагополучные периоды: анализ текстов показывает, что частота употребления словосочетания «счастливая нация» возрастала в периоды с низкими доходами американского населения, тогда как выражение «счастливый человек» -в периоды с высокими доходами [60]. Частота лексических маркеров групповой идентичности существенно возрастает в периоды военных конфликтов. ...
p style="text-align: justify;"> Objective. To study the socio-psychological mechanisms supporting the effect of linguistic positivity and its dynamics in crisis conditions.
Background . In the context of increasing hard-to-control climatic, military, economic and technological threats, research aimed at identifying the psychological mechanisms underlying the willingness of individuals and groups to positively evaluate themselves, their group and the world is becoming increasingly important. One of the results of such mechanisms is the Pollyanna effect – the tendency of people to give preference to positive information, manifested in assessments of the present, memories of the past and expectations about the future, and reflected in the prevalence of positive words over negative in the vocabulary of the language.
Conclusions. Individual, interpersonal and group socio-psychological mechanisms of the linguistic positivity effect have been identified, among which the former are much better studied than the others. At the individual level, the Pollyanna effect is supported by patterns of perception of positive and negative information, emotion counter-regulation, coping mechanisms, and positive illusions that protect the positive identity of the individual. At the interpersonal level, these mechanisms are shared positive experiences, interpersonal attraction, and trust. At the group level – group identification, positive group emotions and mechanisms supporting positive evaluation of one's group: ingroup favoritism, perceptual refences, construction of collective memory and collective image of the future. The assumption that the contribution of group identity to the Pollyanna effect increases in crises associated with the experience of hard-to-control threat and collective trauma is stated. Promising directions of socio-psychological research in this area are outlined. The results of our empirical research indicate that group identity participates in the processes of emotional self-regulation and mobilization of psychological resources when experiencing an uncontrollable threat, reducing the level of individual and collective anxiety. Promising directions of socio-psychological research in this area are outlined.</p
... 삶의 만족도는 주관적 웰빙(subjective wellbeing)의 인지적 측면을 측정하는 요소 중 하나로 객관적 삶의 조건에 대한 개인들의 주관적인 만족 정도를 보여주는 지표이며 [1] 주관적 안녕감, 행복감, 삶의 질 등의 용어와 혼용되어 사용되기도 한다 [2]. 국제지표를 살펴본 통계에 따르면 OECD 국가의 평균 삶의 만족도 점수는 10점 만점 중 6.7점으로 나타나는데 핀란드(7.8점), ...
Research on culture and personality has greatly enhanced personality science by bringing attention to the bidirectional processes by which socio-cultural factors shape personality and individuals in turn shape their social environments to fit and express their personalities. This review showcases the unique perspectives and topical contributions of five different sets of experts, who examine these issues from different standpoints and answer different questions. Specifically, these contributions focus on (1) the usefulness of anthropology-based distributive models of culture, (2) how culture and personality make-up each other, (3) the cultural and ecological basis of wellbeing, (4) how individual personality expressions relate to culture, and (5) the multicultural mind and self. These advances put personality psychology at the center of important current social science debates about the dynamic interplay between macro-level factors and individual variables, and how individuals can best manage cultural diversity and globalization.
The philosophical template of eudaimonia is of ancient Greek heritage and has to do with completeness, fulfillment, and excellence; a non-reductionistic conceptualization of the perfect life that can be summarized as “a complete state of being and doing well” (Sumner, Welfare, happiness, and ethics. Clarendon Press, 1996, p. 69). Many theories of philosophical eudaimonism exist, but the Aristotelian version is the most celebrated. He defined eudaimonia normatively, as rational activity in accordance with virtue. This idea has been described as “man-as-he-could-be-if-he-realized-his-essential-nature” (MacIntyre, After virtue, University of Notre Dame Press, 2007, p. 52). The Aristotelian notion of human nature is not easily translated to modern science, but the concept of organismic living might be a good place to start. An important element in organismic thinking is that all living organisms have an inborn tendency to activate and regulate their behavior toward some goal—to actualize their nature as autonomous, self-organizing systems. Organismic living is also highly interactionist, with sophisticated collaborations occurring within and between units. Humanistic and clinical psychologists in the mid-twentieth century were inspired by the notion of organismic living and used the concept to develop theories of self-actualization and fully functioning individuals. These theories were not explicitly described as eudaimonic, but they stimulated what we may label the first generation of eudaimonic wellbeing (EWB) theories in psychology. The most influential among the early EWB theories were developed by Waterman, Ryff, and Deci and Ryan. Waterman’s theory of personal expressiveness is inspired by humanistic psychology and the philosopher David Norton and his ethical individualism. Norton’s controversial interpretation of eudaimonism suggests that we all have a moral responsibility to discover “the daimon” within ourselves and to live in accordance with it. Waterman also follows Norton in identifying eudaimonia as the feeling that accompanies efforts of self-realization and the development of one’s true potential. These feelings are referred to by Waterman as expressive and are contrasted with hedonic enjoyment. The idea that eudaimonia can be defined as a feeling is questioned. Ryff’s psychological wellbeing theory (PWB) comprises six dimensions: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. The theory is often taken to be eudaimonic, but only personal growth and purpose in life are explicitly identified as carriers of eudaimonic meaning. The chapter criticizes Ryff’s theory for being underspecified and for downplaying the importance of affective and evaluative indicators of wellbeing. Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory (SDT) suggests that the fulfillment of our basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relations will lead to increased wellbeing. According to SDT, eudaimonia is intimately linked with the concept of being fully functioning. However, the concept of full functioning appears idealized and difficult to study empirically. Moreover, it is unclear whether SDT considers psychological need fulfillment to be a kind of wellbeing or a predictor of wellbeing. Theories of EWB, other than those of Waterman, Ryff, and Deci and Ryan, offer a plethora of eudaimonic dimensions and indicators, but two broad and overarching dimensions have been identified: (1) growth/self-realization/self-actualization/development of potentials/full functioning/maturity and (2) meaning/purpose/long-term perspective/caring. The concept of personal growth is historically rooted in the idea Germans refer to as “Bildung,” a personal transformation enabled through certain experiences that includes the formation of intellectual, personal, and moral capacities. Meaning or purpose in life cannot be directly related to Aristotelian eudaimonism but is relevant for EWB as a means of fulfilling one’s values. For example, Viktor Frankl’s notion of a “will to meaning” is a kind of self-transcendence that seems compatible with the eudaimonic idea of fulfillment. Many theories of EWB have been proposed, but little conceptual agreement has been reached. One reason is that concepts typically involved in eudaimonic models are difficult to test empirically. Several popular approaches are grounded in an idealized, a priori conceptualization of eudaimonia on the one hand and a set of self-report scales with unclear relations to the concepts on the other. Thus, the empirical part of eudaimonic research does not speak well with the theoretical part. The combination of rampant fauna of untestable concepts and a cottage industry of theory-drained scale production makes it unlikely that a conceptual consensus about eudaimonic wellbeing will be reached anytime soon.
This research investigates the depiction of the Big Five personality traits in geniuses using a dataset comprising millions of English-language books published from 1800 to 2019. This analysis uncovers significant historical shifts in the traits attributed to geniuses, particularly a persistent emphasis on openness and a decrease in mentions of extraversion. Word frequency analysis shows that geniuses are often described as more extraverted, open, and neurotic, but less agreeable and conscientious compared to the general population, challenging traditional stereotypes of high intellectual and creative abilities and shedding light on the “mad genius” stereotype. This study illuminates the changing perceptions of genius, highlighting how these transformations mirror broader cultural and historical shifts.
Happiness is being in an emotional state that can reflect a high level of mental and emotional well-being. We examined and explored the factors influencing happiness such as culture, socioeconomic status (SES) and religious coping. It also identified the foremost and major factors influencing happiness. In this study the cultural indicators are (early marriage, gender roles and inequality), socioeconomic status (parent's income, education, occupation and social status), and religious coping (passive, active, benevolent and practice). A systematic literature review on the relationship between culture, socioeconomic status and religious coping with happiness among female students (Muslim and Christian) was conducted. A total number of 52 articles from various disciplines have been explored. The factors found were divided into those that belong to happiness predicted by culture, socioeconomic status and religious coping; factors related to culture, socioeconomic status and religious coping related to happiness; mediating effect of religious coping on the relationship of happiness related to culture, socioeconomic status and religious coping; and happiness model based on culture, socioeconomic status and religious coping factors. Culture, socioeconomic status and religious coping were found to predict and be related to happiness. Hopefully, this study's findings will benefit females in centres for continuing education and counsellors, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria).
Two studies tested the hypothesis that self-rated unhappy individuals would be more sensitive to social comparison information than would happy ones. Study 1 showed that whereas unhappy students’ affect and self-assessments were heavily affected by a peer who solved anagrams either faster or slower, happy students’ responses were affected by the presence of a slower peer only. These between-group differences proved to be largely independent of 2 factors associated with happiness, i.e., self-esteem and optimism. Study 2 showed that whereas the unhappy group's responses to feedback about their own teaching performance were heavily influenced by a peer who performed even better or even worse, happy students’ responses again were moderated only by information about inferior peer performance. Implications for our appreciation of the link between cognitive processes and “hedonic” consequences are discussed.
The influence of increasing individualism in U.S. culture on personality development was investigated with an index recently developed by H. Gough (1991) that traces changes in individualism from 1950 to 1985. Seventy-seven women followed from 1958 to 1989 (assessed at ages 21, 27, 43, and 52) showed increases on the index of individualism that paralleled changes in large cross-sectional samples over the same period. Increases on the individualism index were associated with increases in self-focus (narcissism) and decreases in norm adherence. Increases over the long middle period (1963–1964 to 1981), when the largest change occurred, were predicted by college-age measures of ego strength and adjustment and showed a positive relation to psychosocial and physical health at age 43. Increases in individualism may have helped women respond to radical changes in women's roles during the late 1960s and 1970s.
The question of what constitutes the good life has been pondered for millennia. Yet only in the last decades has the study of well-being become a scientific endeavor. This book is based on the idea that we can empirically study quality of life and make cross-society comparisons of subjective well-being (SWB).
A potential problem in studying SWB across societies is that of cultural relativism: if societies have different values, the members of those societies will use different criteria in evaluating the success of their society. By examining, however, such aspects of SWB as whether people believe they are living correctly, whether they enjoy their lives, and whether others important to them believe they are living well, SWB can represent the degree to which people in a society are achieving the values they hold dear.
The contributors analyze SWB in relation to money, age, gender, democracy, and other factors. Among the interesting findings is that although wealthy nations are on average happier than poor ones, people do not get happier as a wealthy nation grows wealthier.
Bradford Books imprint
This comprehensive reference guide reviews the literature concerning the impact of the automobile on American social, economic, and political history. Covering the complete history of the automobile to date, twelve chapters of bibliographic essays describe the important works in a series of related topics and provide broad thematic contexts. This work includes general histories of the automobile, the industry it spawned and labor-management relations, as well as biographies of famous automotive personalities. Focusing on books concerned with various social aspects, chapters discuss such issues as the car's influence on family life, youth, women, the elderly, minorities, literature, and leisure and recreation. Berger has also included works that investigate the government's role in aiding and regulating the automobile, with sections on roads and highways, safety, and pollution. The guide concludes with an overview of reference works and periodicals in the field and a description of selected research collections.
The Automobile in American History and Culture provides a resource with which to examine the entire field and its structure. Popular culture scholars and enthusiasts involved in automotive research will appreciate the extensive scope of this reference. Cross-referenced throughout, it will serve as a valuable research tool.
In this article, we provide an overview of what various philosophers throughout the ages have claimed about the nature of happiness, and we discuss to what extent psychological science has been able to substantiate or refute their claims. We first address concerns raised by philosophers regarding the possibility, desirability, and justifiability of happiness and then turn to the perennial question of how to be happy. Integrating insights from great thinkers of the past with empirical findings from modern behavioral sciences, we review the conditions and causes of happiness. We conclude our discussion with some thoughts about the future of happiness studies. © 2008, Association for Psychological Science. All rights reserved.