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The Brand Likeability Effect: Can Firms Make Themselves More Likeable?
Abstract
In 2011, Lincoln Automobiles, part of the Ford Motor Company and named after President Lincoln, was voted as the most liked company in America. Lincoln’s customer satisfaction ratings were the highest they had been in the past 15 years. Although brand managers implicitly emphasise the importance of likeability in branding strategies, brand likeability is a concept that is little researched, particularly at the firm level. The question of ‘what is likeable?’ has not yet been answered thoroughly and few studies have to date examined what causes a firm or brand to be perceived as liked or disliked. This paper aims to provide an understanding of the theories and concepts that explain brand likeability. The comprehensive literature review identifies two dimensions: source stimuli and psychological evaluations. Additionally, the authors propose several outcomes of brand likeability, extending existing knowledge on brand love and attitude research, offering managers defining principles of the Brand Likeability Effect. The proposed implications for managers are in four phases; implementing these into the firm’s branding practices increases the likelihood that customers will perceive the firm as being more likeable.
Nguyen, B., Melewar, T. C., and Chen, J. (2013), “The Brand Likeability Effect: Can Firms Make Themselves More Likeable?”, Journal of General Management, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 25-50. [Link: http://www.braybrooke.co.uk/tabid/99/Default.aspx?articleId=1211]
... Research showed that brand likeability contributes to the overall brand personality concept (Aaker, 1997;Lee, 2013) and enhances more long-term consumer-brand relationships (Schmitt, 2013), which is considered as crucial in this interactive market (Nguyen, Wu, & Chen, 2017), and also research revealed that brand likeability is a cognitive process that includes important outcomes such as brand attachment (Park, MacInnis, Priester, Eisingerich, & Iacobucci, 2010). There is little differentiation among brand love, brand attitude, brand preferences, brand satisfaction and brand reputation that are declared by Nguyen, Melewar, and Chen (2013b). Brand love goes beyond the concept of brand likeability, as it is more emotionally signified and concerned with feelings, whereas likeability is more about perceptions, i.e. a process of attaining awareness. ...
... Preference, a concept which is more about preferring something, is thus different from liking something. So likeability is a precursor to brand preference (Nguyen et al., 2013b). Brand satisfaction is different in that it is a post-experience measure (Ekinci, Dawes, & Massey, 2008), which is a condition that is not necessary for brand likeability to occur. ...
... Reputation is a concept that is more about being famous or 'known' and as such is different from likeability. A bad reputation may be a proxy measure of disliked firms, and a good reputation may be a likeable firm due to the close association to perceptions of the firm's attractiveness (Nguyen et al., 2013b). Based on this, the following hypothesis is derived: ...
... Research showed that brand likeability contributes to the overall brand personality concept (Aaker, 1997;Lee, 2013) and enhances more long-term consumer-brand relationships (Schmitt, 2013), which is considered as crucial in this interactive market (Nguyen, Wu, & Chen, 2017), and also research revealed that brand likeability is a cognitive process that includes important outcomes such as brand attachment (Park, MacInnis, Priester, Eisingerich, & Iacobucci, 2010). There is little differentiation among brand love, brand attitude, brand preferences, brand satisfaction and brand reputation that are declared by Nguyen, Melewar, and Chen (2013b). Brand love goes beyond the concept of brand likeability, as it is more emotionally signified and concerned with feelings, whereas likeability is more about perceptions, i.e. a process of attaining awareness. ...
... Preference, a concept which is more about preferring something, is thus different from liking something. So likeability is a precursor to brand preference (Nguyen et al., 2013b). Brand satisfaction is different in that it is a post-experience measure (Ekinci, Dawes, & Massey, 2008), which is a condition that is not necessary for brand likeability to occur. ...
... Reputation is a concept that is more about being famous or 'known' and as such is different from likeability. A bad reputation may be a proxy measure of disliked firms, and a good reputation may be a likeable firm due to the close association to perceptions of the firm's attractiveness (Nguyen et al., 2013b). Based on this, the following hypothesis is derived: ...
Purpose
The main purpose of this study is to examine information directors in the area of communication activities related to innovation and marketing decisions in branding.
Design/methodology/approach
The study is quantitative and utilized structural equation modeling technique with the approach of minimum trivial squares for analyzing the data. In all, 130 questionnaires were distributed among information technology directors in Tehran and they form the statistical population for the research.
Findings
The results suggested that innovation in integrated marketing communications has positively significant effect. In addition, both the variables of innovation and integrated marketing communications positively and significantly affect the three components of brand equity (namely, brand image, the perceived quality and brand loyalty).
Originality/value
Despite the growing acknowledgment, the importance of innovation, integrated marketing communications and brand equity, however, there are few studies on the role and importance of information technology directors’ efforts on innovation, integrated marketing communications and brand equity.
... In our view, the process of generating a very committed relationship can be divided into three distinct phases: (1) likeability (LK) (Nguyen et al., 2013a;2013b), (2) BL (Batra et al., 2012;Carroll and Ahuvia, 2006), and (3) CE (Brodie et al., 2011;Hollebeek et al., 2014). After a comprehensive review of the published literature, we note that these three concepts represent similar notions with common characteristics, but they each describe a specific brand-consumer relationship based on the degree or level of intensity. ...
... For us, it is a precursor to affectbased constructs such as attachment and love. Nguyen et al. (2013a) define LK as "the degree of perceived appeal a customer has for a brand." This conceptualization is thus a multidimensional construct with both cognitive and affective components. ...
... Following Nguyen et al. (2013a), we identified the three dimensions of LK, i.e., the personification, psychological and functional dimensions. ...
Notions related to brand attachment have recently received significant attention in academic research under a variety of paradigms. This study gathers different concepts from a literature review and constructs a three-phase process that consists of likeability, love and engagement. Based on information derived from four focus groups, the results obtained from empirical analyses are contrasted with concrete concepts and linkages derived from the literature review. A pattern emerged from this discourse that differs from the results of previous research. First, consumers rarely expressed feelings of love/engagement. Second, consumers' relationships with brands were mainly utilitarian in nature; finally, expressions of deep affection typically referred to aspirational indicators of a dream lifestyle.
... Although closely related notions have been researched independently, the boundaries that define and differentiate them have not been contemplated. In our view, the process of generating a very committed relationship can be divided into three distinct phases: (1) likeability (LK) (Nguyen et al., 2013a; 2013b), (2) BL (Batra et al., 2012; Carroll and Ahuvia, 2006), and (3) CE (Brodie et al., 2011; Hollebeek et al., 2014). After a comprehensive review of the published literature, we note that these three concepts represent similar notions with common characteristics, but they each describe a specific brand-consumer relationship based on the degree or level of intensity. ...
... For us, it is a precursor to affectbased constructs such as attachment and love. Nguyen et al. (2013a) define LK as " the degree of perceived appeal a customer has for a brand. " This conceptualization is thus a multidimensional construct with both cognitive and affective components. ...
... In fact, the verb " like " is generally used and repeated by the subjects in all the group settings (52 times in GR3, 45 times in GR2, 37 in GR1, and 21 in TG). Following Nguyen et al. (2013a), we identified the three dimensions of LK, i.e., the personification, psychological and functional dimensions. The personification dimension mainly reflects comments that highlight brand attractiveness: (2013a), the psychological dimension also encompasses attachment and love. ...
Notions related to brand attachment have recently received significant attention in academic research under a variety of paradigms. This study gathers different concepts from a literature review and constructs a three-phase process that consists of likeability, love and engagement. Based on information derived from four focus groups, the results obtained from empirical analyses are contrasted with concrete concepts and linkages derived from the literature review. A pattern emerged from this discourse that differs from the results of previous research. First, consumers rarely expressed feelings of love/engagement. Second, consumers' relationships with brands were mainly utilitarian in nature; finally, expressions of deep affection typically referred to aspirational indicators of a dream lifestyle.
... Corporate reputation is important as it can be key to a firm's value creation (Money and Hillenbrand, 2006) and is a form of corporate social capital (Luoma-aho, 2013;Preston, 2004) that is based on the relationships a firm has with its customers (Terblanche, 2009). It is also associated with a number of important outcomes for firms, including brand likeability and goodwill from customers (Nguyen et al., 2013), employee turnover intentions (Helm, 2013), and employee commitment (Dögl and Holtbrügge, 2014). ...
... First, the possibility that the change in corporate reputation that occurs during a societal crisis will have a residual effect should prompt serious consideration by organizational leaders to increase their engagement in CSR during a societal crisis. While it is costly to do so, the benefits regarding potential customer and employee outcomes of a stronger corporate reputation are considerable (Dögl and Holtbrügge, 2014;Helm, 2013;Nguyen et al., 2013). Alternatively, if a firm's visible CSR response to a societal crisis does not meet its stakeholders' expectations, the firm's managers should consider engaging in a rebranding effort to rehabilitate its reputation (Amujo and Otubanjo, 2012;Pongsakornrungsilp et al., 2021). ...
While both an “insurance” and “penance” effect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been discussed within prior literature, it is unclear how a firm’s CSR engagement in response to a societal crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic impacts its short-term and long-term corporate reputation. Drawing from case examples of firms’ responses to the recent COVID-19 pandemic and from relevant aspects of crisis management theory, expectancy violations theory, and signaling theory, this paper presents a conceptual framework of corporate reputation change during and after a societal crisis that describes how the direction and speed of a firm’s visible CSR engagement during a societal crisis can change its corporate reputation. Specifically, this paper suggests that firms who exceed stakeholder expectations with lower pre-crisis levels of visible CSR engagement have greater opportunities for increasing their short-term corporate reputations while firms with higher pre-crisis levels of visible CSR engagement are at greater risk for experiencing a decline in their short-term corporate reputations. These changes in short-term corporate reputations are expected to diminish over time, though this depends upon whether firms return to their pre-crisis levels of visible CSR engagement. Finally, building on the case examples and conceptual framework presented, this manuscript concludes with practical guidelines for managers of firms preparing to navigate future societal crises and provides an alternative pathway for both qualitative and quantitative inquiry that has the potential to illuminate important insights for both organizational studies and firms.
... The psychology literature describes likeability as "the major currency in which social intercourse is transacted" (Zajonc, 1980, p. 153) and reports that likeability is associated with significant social and economic benefits (Zajonc, 1980). The management literature suggests that likeability is both a cognitive evaluation and an affective judgment with clear benefits associated with it (Nguyen, Melewar, & Chen, 2013). Marketing researchers have found that likeability promotes trust (Doney & Cannon, 1997), improves internal branding (Merrilees & Frazer, 2013), and company image (Nguyen et al., 2013). ...
... The management literature suggests that likeability is both a cognitive evaluation and an affective judgment with clear benefits associated with it (Nguyen, Melewar, & Chen, 2013). Marketing researchers have found that likeability promotes trust (Doney & Cannon, 1997), improves internal branding (Merrilees & Frazer, 2013), and company image (Nguyen et al., 2013). Research suggests that people do not want to work with someone they strongly dislike regardless of how competent the individual is. ...
This research examines whether it is important if salespeople like their manager. Little is known about the outcomes of manager likeability as perceived by the salesperson. This study introduces manager likeability and investigates its impact on salesperson performance. Drawing on interpersonal attraction and relational identification theory, we show that relational identification is the process by which manager likeability impacts performance. We demonstrate that in addition to driving performance via relational identification, manager likeability strengthens the effect identification has on salesperson performance. Additional analysis indicates that salesperson knowledge mediates the relationship between identification and performance. The study also has managerial implications for the recruiting, training, and development of sales managers.
... Certain qualitative designs were inappropriate. For example, the narrative design involved analysis of individuals' story in a social and cultural context (Nguyen, Melewar, & Chen, 2013). An ethnographic design was not suitable because it involves the description and interpretation of shared patterns of a culture-sharing group (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015;. ...
... The ethnographic research design was not suitable for this study because the objective of this study was not culture related. A narrative design involves telling a story of the life experiences of participants (Nguyen et al., 2013). The narrative design was not suitable because the focus of this study is not to tell a story but to examine a phenomenon and the way it has evolved using current information. ...
Firms in the service industry have experienced a 15-30% drop in customer satisfaction
ratings and an estimated $10 billion annually due to the unpredictable tendencies of one of the most significant and fastest growing consumer segments in the marketplace, Generation Y customers. The distinctive behavior of this sizeable generational cohort may be reshaping the business landscape of the 21st century regarding how consumers will relate to service providers in the future.
... Corporate image has two sides, namely, organizational and individual [107]. For stakeholders, the corporation's appeal and reputation develop several images from sources, including stakeholders' perceptions, attitudes and emotions [108][109][110]. Dowling [111] demonstrates that corporate image is the result of aligning organizations themselves with their stakeholders' perceptions through communication efforts [112]. ...
... Keller [89] defines image as perceptions about a company held in consumer memory. According to Nguyen and Leblanc [110], corporate image is related to business name, architecture, variety of products/services, tradition, ideology and to the impression of quality communicated by each person interacting with firm's stakeholders. The loyalty is determined by image [142,143]. ...
The purpose of this paper is to understand the importance of corporate reputation (CR) how main intangible asset of a company. This study investigates the role of CR on optical three group’s stakeholders: cooperants, workers and customers on loyalty in cooperative organizations. This study proposes a theoretical model tested using structural equation modeling. 1200 valid questionnaires were collected from a three group samples: cooperants; workers and customers of the biggest dairy union of cooperatives in Iberia. CR has a significant impact on loyalty in three group’s stakeholders on organizations cooperatives. Corporate reputation is revealed as an intangible asset, constituting, as the pillar of organizational development by providing ability to compete in the market and generate profits. This study is based on three cross-sectional data from a dairy company. This is a topic that, given the multiplicity of possible approaches, it is even less studied the theoretical level as regards the analysis of corporate reputation with applicability in the various organizational stakeholders. The results give new guidelines to redress the cooperatives traditional management, namely the management of intangible assets like reputation. This paper contributes to the competitiveness of a type of organization closed to the social structure of the rural population. This research with three types of stakeholders (cooperants, customers and workers) power shall be constituted as an important contribution to the literature, for what has been analyzed only works strand of customers (external) and/or employees (internal). The results bring the management challenges of the 21st century to the traditional principles underlying cooperatives management helping them to reinforce competitiveness. The intangibility is always a difficult area of research, in which old doors close and new doors open.
... Demikian pula, Carroll et al. (2006) mengklasifikasikan hubungan konsumen dengan merek (brand) sebagai berikut: gairah merek (passion to a brand), loyalitas merek (attachment to a brand), atau pernyataan suka/cinta pada merek (love declaration to a brand). Brand love juga dikaitkan dengan berbagai komponen pembentuk kerangka merek (brand framework), seperti loyalitas pada merek, kepercayaan pada merek, citra pada merek dan komitmen pada merek (Nguyen et al., 2013) dan ikatan pada merek (Noël Albert & Valette-Florence, 2010). Brand loyalty khususnya merupakan konsekuensi penting dari brand love (Batra et al., 2012). ...
Studi ini mengeksplorasi dimensi brand love islami melalui pendekatan sufistik, bertujuan untuk memahami bagaimana prinsip-prinsip tasawuf dapat memperdalam hubungan antara konsumen dan merek syariah. Dalam kerangka sufistik, dimensi cinta seperti Hulla (persahabatan), Hawa (gairah), Ma’rifa (pengetahuan), Dzikra (kenangan), dan Ru’ya (visi) diadaptasi untuk membangun keterikatan emosional dan spiritual yang mendalam antara konsumen dan merek. Dengan mengintegrasikan prinsip-prinsip sufistik dalam pemasaran, merek syariah dapat menciptakan pengalaman yang tidak hanya memenuhi kebutuhan emosional tetapi juga resonan dengan nilai-nilai spiritual konsumen. Temuan dari studi ini menunjukkan bahwa pendekatan sufistik dapat memperkuat loyalitas dan kepuasan konsumen, memberikan wawasan baru tentang brand love dalam konteks Islam. Studi ini merekomendasikan penerapan dimensi sufistik dalam strategi pemasaran untuk membangun hubungan yang lebih berarti dan berkelanjutan antara merek dan konsumen.
... Paul (2018) further asserts that masstige marketing is a strategic management term for premiumbut attainablebrands' market penetration based on brand equity and prestige to create brand knowledge, likability, love, and attachment. Nguyen, Melewar, and Chen (2013) found a relationship between brand prestige and love through perceived likeability. According to Carroll and Ahuvia (2006), consumer brand love is bigger for brands seen as being hedonic or having symbolic benefits. ...
This study expands the conceptual model on the antecedents and consequences of masstige brands by analysing the similarities and differences in consumer perceptions between Generations Z and Y. Focusing on Chinese consumers, data were collected via a structured survey and analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) and bootstrapping to ensure methodological rigor. The results validate the conceptual framework, showing partial measurement invariance between the two generational cohorts, indicating that while both groups share similar perceptions of masstige brands, key differences exist in how they relate to brand loyalty. This study offers empirical validation of the model, addressing a gap in the literature by testing masstige brand constructs using the Masstige Mean Score Scale (MMSS). The findings contribute to masstige branding strategy by highlighting generational nuances and confirming that Generations Z and Y in China exhibit comparable but distinct engagement with masstige brands, providing insights for more targeted brand strategies.
... The third factor of the ELM concept is likeability. Personal likeability is considered a persuasion tactic and self-presentation scheme (Nguyen et al., 2013;Reysen, 2005) to persuade people (Lai & Liu, 2020), whereas aspects that are considered to increase likeability include physical attractiveness, similarity to oneself, praise, and association (Reysen, 2005). In persuasive communication, likeability refers to the communicant's liking or disliking of the communicator so that likeability can be seen as a perception of the communicator's position and advocacy (Chaiken & Eagly, 1983; R. E. . ...
The increasing The increasing number of victims caused by COVID-19 has prompted the Indonesian government to implement various strategies to handle and prevent the spread of the virus, one of which is enforcing health protocols. The public has responded to these health protocol recommendations with varying attitudes; some comply while others resist. Young people, in particular, are believed to have lower compliance levels and tend to disregard health behaviors, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) is a theoretical framework that focuses on how individuals process the persuasive messages they receive. Using the ELM approach, this study aims to identify how young people process the government's recommendations to adhere to health protocols during the COVID-19 pandemic. By surveying 174 young people in two regions that successfully reduced the spread of COVID-19 in Indonesia, this study found that young people tend to process health protocol messages through both central and peripheral routes simultaneously. This means that the messages are processed in a simpler and less critically. The results are expected to provide valuable input for the government in formulating policies or public health interventions aimed at increasing adherence to health protocols among young people.
... The issue of originality and authenticity also emerged prominently as an important value of the brand. This parallels the view of source credibility in consumer market research in that messaging from a credible entity significantly influences customer beliefs and actions (Nguyen, Melewar, & Chen, 2013). For most of these African B2B buyers, brands are a source of guaranteeing authenticity so as not to purchase fake products: ...
Despite growing interest in business-to-business branding, there is limited understanding of how B2B brands impact organizational buying decisions in fast-emerging African markets. To address this omission, this study attempts to investigate the role and significance of B2B supplier brands in emerging African economies. Using a qualitative inquiry, we conducted interviews with business-to-business buyers across various sectors of the Nigerian economy. Leveraging insights from these buyers, we offer a comparative analysis of the role of B2B buying practices in African and Western markets and provide a grounded model addressing the role of B2B brands in organizational buying behavior. Findings indicate that the direct role of brands in business-to-business buying is contingent on several factors, including the supplier’s branding strategy, the foreignness or localness of the brand, features of the brand as well as an evaluative process of purchase considerations. Our findings provide a deeper understanding into how brand value is perceived by Nigerian buyers, consequently setting the foundation for suppliers to better comprehend buyers in emerging African markets.
... Brand love as a construct has been linked with different branding concepts, such as brand loyalty, brand trust, brand likeability and brand commitment (Albert and Merunka 2013;Batra et al. 2012;Nguyen et al. 2013). In particular, brand loyalty has been considered as the main consequence of brand love (Batra et al. 2012). ...
By drawing on the theory of planned behaviour and attachment theory, the purpose of this study is to understand how religious beliefs influence Muslim consumers towards brand love, how Muslim consumers are influenced by their Sharia sources, whether Muslim consumers strictly follow the Sharia sources while behaving towards brand love and whether the brand love concept in Islam is different from brand love concept in the current literature. In order to gain a better understanding of the research phenomenon, a qualitative research method was used in this study. Five in-depth focus groups were conducted with Muslim consumers in Saudi Arabia. The researchers developed a conceptual framework based on the theory of planned behaviour and attachment theory that offers propositions regarding the key determinants (subjective norms, religious beliefs and perceived behaviour control) and consequence of purchase intention, as a newly proposed concept. This paper proposes that consumer’s beliefs support companies to have their brands loved, which will lead to positive word-of-mouth and purchase intention as a major consequence of brand love. Main implications for researchers and brand managers are highlighted.
... It is confirmed that corporations must focus on many elements (e.g. attractiveness, credibility, satisfaction) in order to answer this question (Nguyen, 2013). The like-feature on Facebook represents a way of expressing a positive attitude towards any kind of content on Facebook. ...
... Brand likeability is usually a core tool in companies' strategies as they lead ultimately to self-expressive benefits that are based on brand association/similarity (Aaker, 1991;Langner et al., 2014;Lassar et al., 1995). Brand likeability is determined by consumers' experiences and their psychological evaluation of the brand (Nguyen et al., 2013a). Likeability links with consumers' favorable attitudes toward a given brand image, whereby it has been shown that firms with good reputation are perceived as likeable (Nguyen et al., 2013b). ...
Purpose
China is establishing a social credit rating system with the aim to score the trust level of citizens. The scores will be based on an integrated database that includes a vast range of information sources, rating aspects like professional conduct, corruption, type of products bought, peers’ own scores and tax evasion. While this form of gamification is expected to have dire consequences on brands and consumers alike, the literature in that particular area of interest remains non-existent. The paper aims to discuss these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
A conceptual framework is suggested that highlights early on the risks and implications on brands and companies operating in that particular upcoming landscape.
Findings
The gamification of trust that the social credit system focuses on presents potential risks on brand and consumer relationships. This in turn will affect brand sustainability vis-à-vis the expected drastic changes in the Chinese business landscape. This study suggests the strategies to follow which will be of high interest to companies, consumers, as well as to the Chinese authorities during and after implementation stage.
Originality/value
This paper is amongst the first to discuss the potential effects of the Chinese social credit rating system on brands. The conceptual framework fills a sizeable gap in the literature and pioneers the discussion on potential dilemmas brands will be faced with within this new business landscape.
... According to Chae and Ko (2016), relationship-building refers to "individuals' use of SNS to more easily connect with people and to better maintain their connections". According to Nguyen, Melewar, and Chen (2013), brand likeability is defined as "a brand strategy based on attractiveness, credibility, and expertise in order to create attachment and love by delivering beneficial outcomes for consumers and brands alike". ...
This paper examines the antecedents of branding co-creation that include social networking sites’(SNSs) participation motivations,customer participation, brand trust and brand loyalty in social media brand communities by applying the “Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm”. The survey method was used to gather data from 407 social media users. Data were analysed using structural equation modelling techniques. The findings reveal that SNSs’ participation motivations positively influence customer participation, which in turn significantly affects brand trust and brand loyalty. Consequently, both brand trust and brand loyalty positively influence branding co-creation in brand communities on social media. Furthermore, brand trust contributes as a mediator between customer participation and brand loyalty on social media brand communities. Although studies on relationships examined through the lens of the Stimulus- Organism-Response paradigm are popular, to the authors’ surprise there is scant literature examining the relationships between SNSs’ participation motivations, customer participation in social media brand communities, brand trust, brand loyalty and branding co-creation.
... One such concept is that of 'liking.' While having been discussed to some extent in other areas such as business to business (B2B; Nicholson, Compeau, & Sethi, 2001;Hawke & Heffernan, 2006;Abosag & Naudé, 2014;Dowell, Morrison, & Heffernan, 2015), management (Nguyen, Melewar, & Chen 2013) and advertising/branding (Keller, 1993;Ye & van Raaij, 2004), there has been limited mention of liking within the services literature, especially in different countries. This is surprising given that liking has been said to be a cooperative trait (Stone, 2007) which is something that, given the recent importance placed on co-creation of value in service exchanges (c.f., Vargo & Lusch, 2004), would appear to hold some promise as a way for service marketers to better engage in the management of relationships with customers in different cultures. ...
The marketing literature has provided a limited examination of the concept of liking, and even this has mainly occurred within business-to-business or advertising contexts. In this paper, the authors propose a model of the intervening role of liking in the customer-service provider relationship in two countries, China and Greece. The antecedents of liking include three key service constructs, namely customer education, customer participation, and service quality. The outputs of liking are proposed to be affective trust and affective commitment, which in turn influence (behavioral) loyalty. The research model is tested using samples from China (N = 277) and from Greece (N = 306). The model is largely supported in both samples. Therefore, the authors suggest that liking in financial services has an important role in the customer-service provider relationship. Implications for international businesses are discussed.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of Virtual Brand Personality (VBP) on
Being the customer’s friend is considered an advantageous position for a brand. To achieve this position, brand likeability, that is, the degree of perceived appeal a customer has for a brand, plays an important role. Research suggests that satisfaction and loyalty are outcomes of likeability. However, little is known about its influence on perceptions of objective brand attributes. The present study uncovers that brand likeability positively influences both product quality and price fairness. Moreover, likeability affects loyalty, both directly and mediated by the constructs of product quality, price fairness, and satisfaction. Thus, achieving likeability as a brand can be regarded as a key task of brand management. If a brand is perceived as likeable, the chances that customers will be willing to accept a price premium and overlook qualitative shortcomings of a product are higher.
Tüketicilerin markanın pazarlama ve iletişim faaliyetlerine yönelik verdikleri yanıtları etkileyen psikolojik faktör marka beğenilirliği olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bu noktada markalar, ürün yerleştirme uygulamaları ile tüketicilerde bir beğenilirlik sağlamak adına dizi karakterleriyle bireyler arasında kurulan para-sosyal ilişkiden faydalanmaktadır. Para-sosyal ilişki çerçevesinde bireyler dizi karakterini sanki gerçek bir arkadaşıymış gibi algılamaktadır. Bu ilişki derinleştikçe tüketiciler karakterleri bir rol model olarak görmekte ve markaya yönelik değerlendirmelerini yönlendirmektedir. Bu bağlamda araştırmada tüketicilerin dizi karakterleriyle geliştirdikleri para-sosyal ilişki ile marka beğenilirliği oluşumu arasındaki uyumun sorgulanması amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırmada yüz yüze anket tekniği ile Isparta ilinde amaçlı örneklem ile 422 katılımcıdan veri toplanmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında değişkenler arası uyumu belirlemek adına yapısal eşitlik modellemesinden faydalanılmıştır. Gerçekleştirilen analiz sonucunda araştırma çerçevesinde belirlenen model çıktılarının kabul edilebilir uyum ile mükemmel uyum arasında olduğu sonucuna erişilmiştir. Bu kapsamda elde edilen bulgulardan hareketle ürün yerleştirme kapsamında marka beğenilirliği açıklamada para-sosyal etkileşiminin yüksek etkiye sahip olduğu sonucuna erişilmiştir. Diğer bir ifadeyle ulaşılan örneklem çerçevesinde para-sosyal ilişkinin marka beğenilirliği oluşumunu güçlü düzeyde açıkladığı görülmektedir.
Bu çalışmada; bir televizyon reklamına yönelik beğeniyi oluşturan değişkenlerin belirlenmesi ve her bir değişkenin reklam beğenilirliği üzerine etkisini bir model aracılığı ile göstermek amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma, Tadım Markasının ‘Türkiye’nin En Büyük Sosyal Ağı’ reklamını izleyen farklı yaş gruplarına sahip 300 denekle gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma kapsamında geliştirilen modelde yer alan; demografik veriler, kişilik özellikleri, reklama yönelik tutum, markaya yönelik tutum ve yaratıcı strateji değişkenlerinin beğeni üzerine etkisi, hiyerarşik regresyon analizi ile test edilmiştir. Bu değişkenlerden sadece reklama yönelik tutum ile yaratıcı strateji değişkenlerinin beğeniyi açıklamada istatistiki olarak anlamlı olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Reklam beğenilirliğini belirleyen değişkenlerin bir model aracılığı ile incelendiği bu çalışmanın, alanda araştırma yapan akademisyenlere ve pazarlama uygulayıcılarına önemli bir katkı sağlamada öncü rol üstleneceği düşünülmektedir.
This chapter reviews
the major theories on self-concept
and brand personality
in the luxury consumption
context. The self-concept is the cognitive or thinking aspect of self, referring to learned beliefs, attitudes, and opinions that each person holds about his or her personal existence. Brand
personality is defined as a set of human characteristics associated with a brand, in which a brand may be considered as an active relationship partner rather than a passive exchange object. Linking these two concepts in the luxury
context, the chapter considers how person-specific, internal or external attributes, interact to form an individual’s self-concept and how the self links with the brand’s personality. Understanding consumers’ self-concept is particularly important for luxury products and brands due to its the wider implications for consumer psychology and behavior and marketing practice. Hence, theoretical and managerial implications are discussed arising from the self-concept
and brand personality (SCBP) framework.
Purpose
The present research develops and tests a consumer-based virtual brand personality (CBVBP) concept by examining its sub-dimensions in the context of online banking, thus extending existing brand personality research. In addition, it examines the relationship between consumer-based virtual brand personality with customer satisfaction and brand loyalty.
Design/methodology/approach
A survey method was employed and data were collected from 219 online banking users in Malaysia. A series of hypotheses were tested using both multiple and hierarchical regression analyses to determine the direct and mediating effects of CBVBP, customer satisfaction and brand loyalty.
Findings
The dimensions that comprise consumer-based virtual brand personality are found to include: excitement, sophistication and competence. These dimensions help online bankers to strategise, communicate and position their online banking sites better in order to compete against other online banking services. The study confirmed positive relationships between CBVBP, customer satisfaction and brand loyalty. Specifically, in the online banking context, customer satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between CBVBP and brand loyalty, extending our current understanding of online branding, consumer satisfaction and brand loyalty.
Originality/value
The major contribution of this study lies in the development of the consumer-based virtual brand personality concept and to study its direct and mediating effects with customer satisfaction and brand loyalty. The study emphasises the importance of measuring the virtual brand personality traits as part of an overall online banking brand strategy in the virtual environment in order to better understand how to position against competitors.
The article presents an overview of areas that advance branding theory and practice based on the authors’ recent work in brand management. These include branding in higher education, branding in Asia Pacific, brand ambidexterity, brand innovation on social media and brand likeability. Examples of implications are given and potential areas for further research are discussed.
Purpose
– This paper aims to demonstrate the need to explore the image formation process to develop a more holistic definition of corporate image. Diminishing trust in managers has created increasingly negative perceptions toward corporations. Stakeholders are constantly evaluating and scrutinizing corporations to determine their trustworthiness and authenticity. To develop their perceptions toward these corporations, stakeholders rely on the key role of corporate image. In the present study, the complex relationships between corporate image, corporate reputation, corporate communication and corporate personality are investigated. These concepts form a corporation’s image formation process.
Design/methodology/approach
– Radley Yelday (RY), the communications agency collaborating in this research, facilitated 15 interviews with their employees. Using a semi-structured interviewing method, discussions were guided toward the topic of corporate image among the respondents.
Findings
– Findings reveal the importance of corporate image under seven different dimensions: visual expression, positive feelings, environments expression, online appearance, staff/employees appearance, attitude and behavior and external communications (offline, online and effectiveness). Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed with suggestions for future researches.
Originality/value
– The authors develop a conceptual model that illustrates the corporate image formation process. The model includes seven dimensions – both with tangible and intangible aspects – forming corporate communication and corporate personality. These, in turn, translate into the corporate image. With time and experiences, corporate image creates a more consistent reputation, which consists of five different levels: awareness, familiarity, favorability, trust and advocacy. As demonstrated in this research, the seven key dimensions influencing this process are: visual expression, positive feelings, environment, online appearance, staff/employees appearance, attitude and behavior and external communications.
We develop a new measurement scale to assess consumers' brand likeability in firm-level brands. We present brand likeability as a multidimensional construct. In the context of service experience purchases, we find that increased likeability in brands results in: (1) greater amount of positive association; (2) increased interaction interest; (3) more personified quality; and (4) increased brand contentment. The four-dimensional multiple-item scale demonstrates good psychometric properties, showing strong evidence of reliability as well as convergent, discriminant and nomological validity. Our findings reveal that brand likeability is positively associated with satisfaction and positive word of mouth. The scale extends existing branding research, providing brand managers with a metric so that likeability can be managed strategically. It addresses the need for firms to act more likeably in an interaction-dominated economy. Focusing on likeability acts as a differentiator and encourages likeable brand personality traits. We present theoretical implications and future research directions on the holistic brand likeability concept.
The concepts of brand love and brand attachment have received great attention in branding and consumer behavior research lately. However, the focus of these studies has mainly been the understanding of brands from an affect-based perspective in terms of emotions rather than exploring the consumers' perceptions themselves. This study explores the consumers' perceptions of likeability as an outcome of a firms' branding strategy. Based on forty four in-depth interviews this study submits a conceptualization of brand likeability from the consumers' point-of-view. The concept of brand likeability constitutes three dimensions and 10 sub-dimensions, expanding our knowledge of the construct. The study posits a crucial link between increased positivity and appeal as key in the understanding of the brand likeability concept. Specifically, the exploration of the brands' personification constitutes attractiveness, integrity, and extraversion. The psychological factors which determine the likeability are identified as positive inferences, reference points, and attachment and love. The functional factors which help a brand induce likeability are identified as good services, increased communication, and convenience and smoothness. Lastly, the study finds that fairness is an attribute that affects all dimensions. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.
Nguyen, B., Melewar, T. C., and Chen, J. (2013), “A Framework of Brand Likeability: An Exploratory Study of Likeability in Firm-Level Brands”, Journal of Strategic Marketing, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 368-390. [Link: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0965254X.2013.790472#.Uilq0RaBK8U]
If service quality relates to retention of customers at the aggregate level, as other research has indicated, then evidence of its impact on customers’ behavioral responses should be detectable. The authors offer a conceptual model of the impact of service quality on particular behaviors that signal whether customers remain with or defect from a company. Results from a multicompany empirical study examining relationships from the model concerning customers’ behavioral intentions show strong evidence of their being influenced by service quality. The findings also reveal differences in the nature of the quality-intentions link across different dimensions of behavioral intentions. The authors’ discussion centers on ways the results and research approach of their study can be helpful to researchers and managers.
The study examines the impact of source likeability and source credibility on the effectiveness of print advertisements. A theoretical model that depicts the impacts of source characteristics on (1) ad attitude, (2) brand attitude, and (3) willingness to purchase is investigated using data collected through a quasi-experimental design. In addition to direct impacts, the moderating role of message processing motivation (involvement) and product category knowledge in the relationships of interest are investigated via multi-group analyses. findings indicate that the sequence of relationships between source characteristics, attitudinal responses and willingness to purchase may vary substantially across the four conditions characterised by high/low levels of processing motivation and product category knowledge.
Consumers engage in self-production when they play an active role in the creation of end products, such as preparing a meal or assembling a piece of furniture. In three experimental studies of self-production involving a branded input product, the authors show that consumers' active engagement in the value creation process (preparing a meal) positively biases their evaluations of an outcome (a dish) and an input product (a dinner kit). A positive evaluation bias for the input product occurs despite increased self-attribution due to self-production. In support of an associative self-anchoring explanation and the notion of self-generated validity, self-producing consumers bias their sensory perceptions (e. g., perceived level of saltiness and spiciness) so that they match a positive evaluation of the outcome. Mediation analyses show that perceived self-integration (perceived link between self and outcome) partly mediates the positive effect of self-production on outcome evaluation. The authors conclude that branded input products may benefit from the evaluation bias caused by self-production.
When designing their products, companies try to employ shapes that are both emotionally appealing and compatible with the brand's image. One way to accomplish these aims is to anthropomorphize a product's appearance. The current research investigates how people decode emotional "facial" expressions from product shapes and how this affects liking of the design, using three studies in the domain of cars and one in the domain of cellular phones. In accordance with theories on the perception of human faces, the first study shows that perception of friendliness is limited to the grille (mouth), while aggressiveness can be communicated with both grille and headlights (eyes). The next study examines the best-liked combination of these two emotional expressions and finds that consumers prefer the combination of an upturned (friendly) grille with slanted (aggressive) headlights. The authors further explain this finding on a process level by showing that this combination triggers a positive affective state of both high pleasure and arousal. The third study validates the results with automobile sales data, and a fourth study extends the findings to another product category.
Cited By (since 1996):48, Export Date: 19 March 2014, Source: Scopus
The authors examine whether reputation concerns affect how manufacturers structure their sales organization. Using reputation theory, they examine whether reputation-related perceptions and beliefs affect whether a manufacturer that currently uses an outside selling organization {i.e., a rep) intends to vertically integrate the selling function or switch to a new rep. In particular, they propose that a manufacturer's intentions to replace its current manufacturers' rep with a company sales force or a different rep is a function of its perceptions of the reputation of itself and the rep and its beliefs about how high-reputation manufacturers in the industry typically organize their selling function. Survey data support the plausibility of these reputation-based arguments as factors that influence sales organization structure decisions. These results provide some important extensions to reputation theory. The authors discuss the study's implications for both managerial behavior and the literature on channels and organizational governance.
Measures of corporate reputation currently in widespread use suffer from fundamental methodological and conceptual weaknesses. This paper begins with a brief overview of the reputation construct and its expected dimensionality. It then examines some of the major indices in use and documents their principle weakesses. A new instrument is proposed - the 'reputation quotient' - to measure corporate reputations and establish its empirical validity and reliability through focus groups and pilot studies. It concludes that the reputation quotient is a robust measure of corporate reputations that considerable improves the state of the art in reptuation measurement.
If service quality relates to retention of customers at the aggregate level, as other research has indicated, then evidence of its impact on customers' behavioral responses should be detectable. The authors offer a conceptual model of the impact of service quality on particular behaviors that signal whether customers remain with or defect from a company. Results from a multicompany empirical study examining relationships from the model concerning customers' behavioral intentions show strong evidence of their being influenced by service quality. The findings also reveal differences in the nature of the quality-intentions link across different dimensions of behavioral intentions. The authors' discussion centers on ways the results and research approach of their study can be helpful to researchers and managers.
The authors report a repeated measures field study that captures complaining customers’ perceptions of their overall satisfaction with the firm, likelihood of word-of-mouth recommendations, and repurchase intent during a 20-month span that includes two service failures and recovery attempts. The findings suggest that though satisfactory recoveries can produce a “recovery paradox” after one failure, they do not trigger such paradoxical increases after two failures. Furthermore, “double deviations” can occur following two consecutive unsatisfactory recoveries or following an unsatisfactory recovery in response to a second failure. The findings indicate that customers reporting an unsatisfactory recovery followed by a satisfactory recovery reported significantly higher ratings at the second postrecovery period than did customers reporting the opposite recovery sequence. The outcome of the second recovery also demonstrated a significant influence on customer ratings (positively if the recovery was satisfactory, negatively if the recovery was unsatisfactory), regardless of whether the customer found the first recovery satisfactory or unsatisfactory. In addition, although the increased change in recovery expectations and failure severity ratings from the first failure to the second is more dramatic for customers who previously reported a satisfactory recovery, the increase in attributions of blame toward the firm is more pronounced for customers who previously reported an unsatisfactory recovery. Last, the results show that recovery efforts are attenuated when two similar failures occur and when two failures happen in close time proximity.
This research, investigating retailer-consumer relationships, has three distinct intended contributions: (1) It shows that different relationship marketing tactics have a differential impact on consumer perceptions of a retailer's relationship investment; (2) it demonstrates that perceived relationship investment affects relationship quality, ultimately leading to behavioral loyalty; and (3) it reveals that the effect of perceived relationship investment on relationship quality is contingent on a consumer's product category involvement and proneness to engage in retail relationships. The authors empirically cross-validate the underlying conceptual model by studying six consumer samples in a three-country, transatlantic, comparative survey that investigates two industries.
Three experiments show that the source of price change informatior-whether human or nonhuman-moderates the effect of price change on perceptions of price fairness. Both inferences of the marketer's motive and stimulus-induced affect mediate the effects of the source and price change. Opportunity and motivation to process also affect the relative influence of inferred motive and affect. This research demonstrates antecedent roles of both price source and affect.
Two studies examined the effects of similarity on friendship formation. In the first, 30 pairs of randomly assigned college roommates completed a questionnaire measuring personality and satisfaction. Judges rated subjects' physical attractiveness from photographs. Similarity in personality and attractiveness both resulted in greater satisfaction with roommate relationships. However, the effect of similarity in attractiveness was significant only for the more attractive member of each pair. In the second study, 67 freshmen rated their own and their roommates' attractiveness and personality characteristics. The more attractive subjects perceived themselves, relative to their roommates, the more they reported that their roommates interfered with their social lives and the less they reported that their roommates helped them to meet people, suggesting that the degree of similarity in attractiveness may be a more important determinant of satisfaction when one's fiend is less attractive than oneself
Using two studies, the author examines the influence of the inferred motive for a firm's price increase on perceptions of price unfairness. Prior to the research presented here, the only established causal antecedent of perceived price unfairness was increased relative profit. In Study 1, the author extends the existing research by demonstrating that the inferred motive, as well as inferred relative profit, provides causal explanation of perceived price unfairness. When participants inferred that the firm had a negative motive for a price increase, the increase was perceived as significantly less fair than the same increase when participants inferred that the firm had a positive motive. In addition, the author shows in Study 2 that the firm's reputation can influence the inferred motive, thereby altering perceptions of price unfairness. Specifically, participants sometimes gave a firm with a good reputation the benefit of the doubt when inferring motive. If the “good” firm did not profit from the price increase, participants inferred significantly more positive motives than if it did profit. The firm with a poor reputation did not receive this benefit; inferred motive was equally negative regardless of whether the firm profited from the price increase. Together, these studies provide evidence that consumer inferences of the motive for a price increase influence the perceived fairness of the increase. Furthermore, reputation is shown to moderate the effect of inferred relative profit on inferred motive. Finally, analyses show that perceived unfairness leads to lower shopping intentions and demonstrate that perceived unfairness mediates the effects of inferred motive and relative price on consumers’ shopping intentions.
Seven price-related constructs—five consistent with a perception of price in its “negative role” and two consistent with a perception of price in its “positive role”— are used as independent variables to predict marketplace responses/behaviors in five domains: price search, generic product purchases, price recall, sale responsiveness, and coupon redemption. The price-related constructs explain a significant amount of variance in all five domains, providing evidence of predictive validity. Results of a higher order factor analysis are also reported, which provide some support for the positive-negative perception of price taxonomy.
Equity theory was applied to retail exchange situations to test hypotheses about subjects’ perceptions of inequity and behaviors they would perform. Subjects in Group 1 made evaluative ratings of 16 hypothetical situations in which two sources of inequity, high price and poor service, were introduced, along with varying levels of shopping frequency and item cost. Subjects perceived high price inequity situations as less fair than low ones, and high service inequity situations as less fair than low ones when price inequity was low. When price inequity was high, subjects perceived high shopping frequency situations less fair than low ones. Subjects in Group 2 chose the behavior they would be most likely to perform in each situation. When inequity was present, most subjects chose leaving the store, although several chose complaining about price or service when shopping frequency was also high.
The authors examine whether reputation concerns affect how manufacturers structure their sales organization. Using reputation theory, they examine whether reputation-related perceptions and beliefs affect whether a manufacturer that currently uses an outside selling organization (i.e., a “rep”) intends to vertically integrate the selling function or switch to a new rep. In particular, they propose that a manufacturer's intentions to replace its current manufacturers’ rep with a company sales force or a different rep is a function of its perceptions of the reputation of itself and the rep and its beliefs about how high-reputation manufacturers in the industry typically organize their selling function. Survey data support the plausibility of these reputation-based arguments as factors that influence sales organization structure decisions. These results provide some important extensions to reputation theory. The authors discuss the study's implications for both managerial behavior and the literature on channels and organizational governance.
Marketing universals are defined as consumer behaviors within a segment and toward a particular product category that are invariant across cultures. Using several definitions of culture and three different criteria for universality, the authors evaluate whether the use of brand, price, retailer reputation, and physical product appearance as signals of quality are marketing universals for consumer electronics products. Using a sample representing 38 nationalities, they find that there are few differences in the use of quality signals across cultures for a high priority segment of consumers. They draw conclusions for the adaptation versus standardization debate and argue that certain behaviors are likely to be universal, whereas others are not. Understanding such differences is essential to designing international marketing strategies.
Relationship marketing—establishing, developing, and maintaining successful relational exchanges—constitutes a major shift in marketing theory and practice. After conceptualizing relationship marketing and discussing its ten forms, the authors (1) theorize that successful relationship marketing requires relationship commitment and trust, (2) model relationship commitment and trust as key mediating variables, (3) test this key mediating variable model using data from automobile tire retailers, and (4) compare their model with a rival that does not allow relationship commitment and trust to function as mediating variables. Given the favorable test results for the key mediating variable model, suggestions for further explicating and testing it are offered.
The development and selection of research designs too often reflects thinking which is technique-oriented. This article looks at advertising research from another viewpoint.
It starts with the questions: What is advertising supposed to do? What are its functions? The authors then show the implications of these questions in relation to measurements of the effectiveness of proposed advertisements.
This article explores the effects of time and relationship strength on the evolution of customer revenge and avoidance in online public complaining contexts. First, the authors examine whether online complainers hold a grudge-in terms of revenge and avoidance desires-over time. They find that time affects the two desires differently: Although revenge decreases over time, avoidance increases over time, indicating that customers indeed hold a grudge. Second, the authors examine the moderation effect of a strong relationship on how customers hold this grudge. They find that firms' best customers have the longest unfavorable reactions (i.e., a longitudinal lovebecomes-hate effect). Specifically, over time, the revenge of strong-relationship customers decreases more slowly and their avoidance increases more rapidly than that of weak-relationship customers. Third, the authors explore a solution to attenuate this damaging effect-namely, the firm offering an apology and compensation after the online complaint. Overall, they find that strong-relationship customers are more amenable to any level of recovery attempt. The authors test the first two issues with a longitudinal survey and the third issue with a follow-up experiment.
This review demonstrates that the physical attractiveness stereotype established by studies of person perception is not as strong or general as suggested by the often-used summary phrase what is beautiful is good. Although subjects in these studies ascribed more favorable personality traits and more successful life outcomes to attractive than unattractive targets, the average magnitude of this beauty-is-good effect was moderate, and the strength of the effect varied considerably from study to study. Consistent with our implicit personality theory framework, a substantial portion of this variation was explained by the specific content of the inferences that subjects were asked to make: The differences in subjects' perception of attractive and unattractive targets were largest for indexes of social competence; intermediate for potency, adjustment, and intellectual competence; and near zero for integrity and concern for others. The strength of the physical attractiveness stereotype also varied as a function of other attributes of the studies, including the presence of individuating information.
The process of exchange is almost continual in human interactions, and appears to have characteristics peculiar to itself, and to generate affect, motivation, and behavior that cannot be predicted unless exchange processes are understood. This chapter describes two major concepts relating to the perception of justice and injustice; the concept of relative deprivation and the complementary concept of relative gratification. All dissatisfaction and low morale are related to a person's suffering injustice in social exchanges. However, a significant portion of cases can be usefully explained by invoking injustice as an explanatory concept. In the theory of inequity, both the antecedents and consequences of perceived injustice have been stated in terms that permit quite specific predictions to be made about the behavior of persons entering social exchanges. Relative deprivation and distributive justice, as theoretical concepts, specify some of the conditions that arouse perceptions of injustice and complementarily, the conditions that lead men to feel that their relations with others are just. The need for much additional research notwithstanding, the theoretical analyses that have been made of injustice in social exchanges should result not only in a better general understanding of the phenomenon, but should lead to a degree of social control not previously possible. The experience of injustice need not be an accepted fact of life.
Equity theory was applied to retail exchange situations to test hypotheses about subjects' perceptions of inequity and behaviors they would perform. Subjects in Group 1 made evaluative ratings of 16 hypothetical situations in which two sources of inequity, high price and poor service, were introduced, along with varying levels of shopping frequency and item cost. Subjects perceived high price inequity situations as less fair than low ones, and high service inequity situations as less fair than low ones when price inequity was low. When price inequity was high, subjects perceived high shopping frequency situations less fair than low ones. Subjects in Group 2 chose the behavior they would be most likely to perform in each situation. When inequity was present, most subjects chose leaving the store, although several chose complaining about price or service when shopping frequency was also high.
Marketing universals are defined as consumer behaviors within a segment and toward a particular product category that are invariant across cultures. Using several definitions of culture and three different criteria for universality, the authors evaluate whether the use of brand, price, retailer reputation, and physical product appearance as signals of quality are marketing universals for consumer electronics products. Using a sample representing 38 nationalities, they find that there are few differences in the use of quality signals across cultures for a high priority segment of consumers. They draw conclusions for the adaptation versus standardization debate and argue that certain behaviors are likely to be universal, whereas others are not. Understanding such differences is essential to designing international marketing strategies.
This research reexamines the equivocal relationship between top management team (TMT) diversity and firm performance. Combining upper echelons theory with insights from institutional theory, we establish a new, timely dimension of TMT diversity—nationality diversity—and develop an integrated multilevel framework explaining how its performance implications vary across contextual settings. We find that nationality diversity is positively related to performance; and this effect is stronger in (a) longer tenured teams, (b) highly internationalized firms, and (c) munificent environments. More generally, our research demonstrates that the consequences of TMT diversity depend on the (1) specific attributes of diversity being considered and (2) firm and industry conditions under which strategic decisions take place. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Brand personality (BP) in the postmodern marketplace encompasses a variety of anthropomorphized attributes associated with a brand, reflecting on a wide spectrum of social, cultural, and psychological associations capturing various aspects in everyday life stories of consumers. Most prior research onBP, however, has employed a psychology‐based approach, and has not yet fully demonstrated the concept's market‐driven scope in the contemporary brand schema. To bridge the gap between the practitioner and scholar, this study employed a consumption symbolism approach to develop a multicomponent structure ofBP. A qualitative study was conducted with 36 brands of six product/service categories (fashion/luxury, beverage, automotive, personal computer, cosmetics, and retailer) within a specific context (South Korea). The results yielded a prototype of multicomponent BP structure consisting of one psychological component (traits) and three sociocultural components (narratives of socioeconomic/life scene/physical variability). The findings of the study broaden the current understanding of BP by suggesting a multidisciplinary perspective embracing its sociocultural aspects, and by empirically demonstrating the prototype reflecting on a wide spectrum of consumer narratives.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to distinguish experiences from practices and relate this distinction to current developments in value research within service‐dominant (S‐D) logic and the broader service domain.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper provides a conceptual overview of how experiences and practices have been characterized in the literature to date, how they differ from each other, and if and where they intersect. Following this, the epistemological and methodological differences between practices and experiences are illustrated using narrated experiences and practical observations of car‐washing.
Findings
While practices are primarily routinized patterns of behaviour, experiences focus more on individuals' value determinations in different contexts. Thus, different types of methodology are needed to observe customers' behaviour in value‐creating practices and interpret customers' sense making of value experiences.
Research limitations/implications
Both phenomenological value experiences and value co‐creation practices contribute to value research: while practices are the shared possession of the collective, internal and individual differentiation is included in practices. Practices may change or evolve over time, possibly resulting in improved value outcomes or experiences. Opportunities and challenges should be considered by value researchers including the temporal nature of practices and experiences, evidence about value, and the intersubjectivity of social relations.
Practical implications
To better facilitate individual experiences and collective practices, service providers need to understand both experiences and practices in order to co‐create value with individuals and their networks.
Originality/value
This study is the first systematic attempt in service research to present an analysis of the distinction between experiences and practices, and to analyze the relevance of this distinction for value research.
Previous research on corporate community involvement (CCI) initiatives indicates that such behaviour is critical for building neighbourhood relationships and extending corporate influence in the community, but there is little theoretical work that provides a clear picture of managing the nature of the initiatives from different stakeholder management approaches. Drawing from theoretical insights of stakeholder theory and the concept of social capital, this article proposes nine strategic directions for CCI initiatives, and concludes by discussing the management implications of the proposed strategic directions. Our proposed approaches have the potential to improve current understanding and practice of corporations and their CCI initiatives.
Franchising and branding are almost interchangeable as concepts, yet a dearth of academic branding research in the franchising sector prevails. The aim of the study is to understand why franchisees vary in attitude toward the franchisor brand. A further aim is to give guidance to franchisors on how they can achieve greater franchisee brand buy-in. A conceptual model provides a foundation to the study. The main dependent variable is the level of positive attitudes of the franchisee toward the franchisor brand. The independent variables draw upon the internal branding literature and include brand commitment and culture. Transformational leadership moderates the model. The results show that brand commitment and marketing support for the brand are the two main influences on getting franchisee support for the franchisor brand. However, transformational leaders have a different pattern of getting franchisee buy-in, with greater reliance on culture and facilitating brand commitment.
This research reexamines the equivocal relationship between top management team (TMT) diversity and firm performance. Combining upper echelons theory with insights from institutional theory, we establish a new, timely dimension of TMT diversity—nationality diversity—and develop an integrated multilevel framework explaining how its performance implications vary across contextual settings. We find that nationality diversity is positively related to performance; and this effect is stronger in (a) longer tenured teams, (b) highly internationalized firms, and (c) munificent environments. More generally, our research demonstrates that the consequences of TMT diversity depend on the (1) specific attributes of diversity being considered and (2) firm and industry conditions under which strategic decisions take place.
Predicting aggregate consumer spending is vitally important to marketing planning, yet traditional economic theory holds that predicting changes in aggregate consumer spending is not possible. Previous attempts to predict consumer spending growth using standard macroeconomic predictor variables have met with little success. The authors show that the lagged change in customer satisfaction, which contributes to future demand, has a significant impact on spending growth. However, this impact is moderated by increases in consumers' debt service ratio, a key budget constraint that affects consumers' ability to spend. Using an asymmetric growth model, more than 23% of the variation in the one-quarter-ahead spending growth is explained, which represents a notable improvement over prior specifications.
In light of a growing interest in the use of social media marketing (SMM) among luxury fashion brands, this study set out to identify attributes of SMM activities and examine the relationships among those perceived activities, value equity, relationship equity, brand equity, customer equity, and purchase intention through a structural equation model. Five constructs of perceived SSM activities of luxury fashion brands are entertainment, interaction, trendiness, customization, and word of mouth. Their effects on value equity, relationship equity, and brand equity are significantly positive. For the relationship between customer equity drivers and customer equity, brand equity has significant negative effect on customer equity while value equity and relationship equity show no significant effect. As for purchase intention, value equity and relationship equity had significant positive effects, while relationship equity had no significant influence. Finally, the relationship between purchase intention and customer equity has significance. The findings of this study can enable luxury brands to forecast the future purchasing behavior of their customers more accurately and provide a guide to managing their assets and marketing activities as well.
The distribution of rewards and resources is a universal phenomenon that occurs in social systems of all sizes, from small groups to whole societies (Parsons, 1951; Parsons, Shils, & Olds, 1951). All groups, organizations, and societies deal with the question of allocating rewards, punishments, and resources. The manner in which a social system deals with these issues has great impact on its effectiveness and on the satisfaction of its members. For these reasons, it is not surprising that social scientists from many disciplines—political scientists, economists, sociologists, and psychologists—have been concerned with the problem of allocation (e.g., Jones & Kaufman, 1974; Leventhal, 1976a; Pondy, 1970).
In a new test of the process of forgetting, the authors found that subjects, at the time of exposure, discounted material from “untrustworthy” sources. In time, however, the subjects tended to disassociate the content and the source with the result that the original scepticism faded and the “untrustworthy” material was accepted. Lies, in fact, seemed to be remembered better than truths.
Two studies of mixed-sex interactive groups (N = 173) investigated the self-categorization theory hypothesis that positive attitude (liking) among group members is depersonalized in terms of the group prototype. Subjects ranked fellow members in terms of liking under conditions accentuating or diminishing group membership salience and rated the group's cohesiveness, described the group prototype, ranked fellow members and themselves on prototypically, and rated the subjective clarity of the prototype. In Study 2 they also ranked members in terms of interpersonal similarity to self. The results generally supported the hypotheses. Group liking was independent from interpersonal liking and was positively associated with perceptions of self and others that were depersonalized in terms of the group prototype and with perceptions of elevated group cohesiveness and a clear group prototype. Interpersonal attraction was unrelated or negatively related to these variables but was more strongly associate with perceptions of interpersonal similarity.