No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Compositional variation of olive during ripening
Abstract
Compositional changes during olive fruit ripening were studied in two important olive varieties grown in Turkey. Amounts of total and individual sugars (glucose and fructose) in olive fruits were determined. Total oil, fatty acid composition and 14 minerals were detected in the cultivars of olive fruit during different ripening periods. The relationship between the oil accumulation and sugars in olive fruits has been evaluated. The oil accumulation increased during the period of ripening while the sugar accumulation decreased.
... Small concentration of lauric acid (2.40 %), strearic acid (6.22 %), myristic acid (0.70 %), palmitoleic acid (2.27 %) and arachidic acid (1.82 %) was also present in wild olive fruit's oil. Oleic acid and linoleic acid in wild olive oil was estimated to be higher compared to those of apple seeds (Pires et al., 2018), lower than those of olive cultivars reported by (Nergiz and Engez, 2000;Uylas ßer and Yildiz, 2013). This difference in fatty acid content is associated with stage of fruit ripening, varieties, agro-climatic conditions and harvesting season. ...
... Variation in the concentration of organic acids might be attributed to the different varieties of plants including vegetables and fruits, and agroclimatic condition of the selected site of experiment (Poyrazog˘lu et al., 2002). Nergiz & Engez, (2000) and Patumi, et al., (1990) reported the detection of different sugars (fructose and glucose) and (glucose, fructose and mannitol) by analyzing olive fruit on HPLC coupled with refractive index detector (RID). Likewise, Marsilio et al., (2001) analyzed olive fruit extract for presence of sugars as trimethylsilyl (TMS) on GC/GCMS. ...
... 417.02-46.37.50 and 6.6-345.00 mg/100 g, respectively (Nergiz & Engez, 2000). Cunha et al. (2001) reported the estimation of succinic, lactic and citric acids in Portuguese green table olive at a concentration of 0-25.8, 0-188.3 and 214.1-477.3 ...
The present study reports phenolic antioxidants and phytonutrients profiling in the wild olive fruits which are naturally grown in Soon valley of Pakistan. Phenolic antioxidant components were recovered from dried wild olive fruits using various extracting solvents. Among all extracting solvents tested, aqueous ethanol recovered the maximum amount of extractable antioxidant compounds from the fruits of wild olive. Crude concentrated extracts (CCEs) and phenolic rich fractions (PRFs) recovered from wild olive fruits using aqueous ethanol contained higher concentration of total phenolics and flavonoids along with higher biological potential. ICP-OES analysis disclosed the occurrence of twenty-five minerals, where potassium (17.96 g/kg) was the dominant macro element. The tested wild olive fruits juice was found to contain individual natural sugars including galactose (4.92g/100g dry weight), sucrose (2.75g/100g dry weight), glucose (0.73g/100g dry weight); and succinic acid (8.80 mg/100 g of dry matter) as major organic acid when analyzed on HPLC. Oleic acid (47.41%) was the major monounsaturated fatty acid in the oil extracted from tested fruits. The concentration of phenolic antioxidants and biological activities vary significantly (p < 0.05) among extracting systems used. A strong correlation was also recorded among total phenolic (TP), total flavonoids (TF) and biological attributes of tested wild olive fruits. The results of this study explored wild olive fruits as a propitious source of natural phenolic components and valuable nutrients which reveal its potential use in the development of functional food and nutra-pharmaceuticals.
... Avidan et al., (1997) investigated the oil yield of Domat and Memecik olive cultivars that ranged from 3 to18 %. Another study found that the oil yields of four olive cultivars increased with ripening, ranging from 12.51 to 37.98 % (Nergiz and Engez 2000). Similarly, it was observed ( Table 1) that the extract yield for both cultivars decreased as maturity progressed. ...
... Memecik and cv. Domat (Nergiz and Engez, 2000). ...
The current study proposes an optimized ethanolic extraction for the efficient recovery of high‐value components from Pakistani olives (cv. Arbequina) using response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural networking (ANN). The extracts were investigated for antioxidant properties and GC‐MS metabolite profiling. Four factors such as time, temperature, solvent concentration, and solute weight (g/100 mL) were utilized as independent variables for determining the response (% yield). The results obtained under optimum extraction conditions such as duration (25 min), temperature (45°C), solvent concentration (65%; ethanol: water v/v), and solute (7.50 g) indicated an extract yield of 40.96% from Arbiquina olives. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the RSM model showed significant p‐values and a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.9960, confirming model reliability. The multilayer perceptron architecture was used in ANN, and the results were fairly consistent with the experimental findings. Arbequina olive extract (AOE) demonstrated significant antioxidant ability in terms of total phenolics, total flavonoid concentration, and DPPH radical scavenging. The GC‐MS analysis of AOE revealed the presence of several bioactives, including oleic acid (36.22%), hydroxytyrosol (3.95%), tyrosol (3.32%), β‐sitosterol (2.10%), squalene (1.10%), sinapic acid (0.67%), α‐tocopherol (0.66%), vanillic acid (0.56%), 3,5‐di‐tert‐butylcatechol (0.31%), and quercetin.
... Avidan et al., (1997) investigated the oil yield of Domat and Memecik olive cultivars that ranged from 3 to18 %. Another study found that the oil yields of four olive cultivars increased with ripening, ranging from 12.51 to 37.98 % (Nergiz and Engez 2000). Similarly, it was observed ( Table 1) that the extract yield for both cultivars decreased as maturity progressed. ...
... Memecik and cv. Domat (Nergiz and Engez, 2000). ...
The present study evaluates the variations in the composition of targeted high-value components (phenolics, fatty acids, organic acids and natural sugars) and biological activities of olive fruits, collected at different maturity stages, from two locally developed cultivars BARI Zaitoon-1 (BZ1) and BARI Zaitoon-2 (BZ2). Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was employed to extract phenolic compounds. The oil yield was significantly increased during the maturation, while a decrease in bioactives extract yield was noted. The maximum oil yield (33.8 %) was recovered from BZ1 olives at the fully ripen stage, while the maximum extract yield (34.5 %) was given by BZ2 at the unripen stage. According to HPLC analysis, total phenolic acids, including sinapic, caffeic, gallic, chlorogenic and benzoic acids in BZ1 and BZ2 olives, were higher at semi-ripen and unripen stages, respectively. Myricetin was detected as the major flavonoid in both cultivars, but its concentration gradually decreased during fruit maturation. A good correlation of total phenolic contents (TPC) with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging and total flavonoid contents (TFC) with ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) was observed. Similarly, an increase in the contents of total sugars and organic acids was noticed corresponding to fruit maturity. Furthermore, the tested olives fruit extracts inhibited the growth of Gram-positive bacterial strains (B. subtilis and S. aureus) more effectively than Gram-negative strains (K. oxytoca, S. typhi, and E. coli). The GC–MS analysis of extracted olive oil revealed that oleic acid was the major fatty acid found at three maturity stages for both cultivars. The current research revealed considerable variations in the selected components profile and biological activities of the tested olive cultivars as a function of fruit maturity. Based on these findings, the uses of olives can be recommended for specific applications to maximize the functional food and nutraceutical benefits of this valuable fruit.
... Gemlik is the most widely cultivated olive variety in Turkey (Savran and Kaya, 2018) and Memecik is the most commonly cultivated olive variety in the Aegean region (Nergiz and Engez, 2000). Gemlik and Memecik have dual uses as table and oil olives with high oil contents. ...
... Gemlik fruits had the highest water contents up to RI values 4-5 and overripe fruits started to lose water (Çevik et al., 2013; Özdemir et al., 2011). Similarly, Memecik water content and flesh/seed ratio also decreased with increased maturity (Nergiz and Engez, 2000;Uğurlu and Özkan, 2011). ...
Olive (Olea europaea L.) is an important oil producing fruit species and it has been cultivated since ancient times. Turkey is rich in local olive varieties and it is necessary to determine their pomological parameters. The aim of the present study was to determine the pomological characteristics of five olive varieties (Çekişte, Memecik, Yamalak sarısı, Eşek zeytini, Gemlik) at five harvest periods (H1-H5) throughout the fruit development period. Olives were collected from an orchard in Aydın at monthly intervals between July and November 2019. During fruit development and ripening, 10 pomological variables (fruit width and length, seed width and length, fruit and seed weight, flesh weight, flesh/seed ratio, flesh firmness and fruit moisture content) were measured. All pomological variables exhibited significant differences between harvest periods and varieties. While fruit ripening indices of the varieties increased over time, level of change differed among the varieties. During fruit ripening of olive varieties, fruit length and width, fruit weight, seed length and width, fruit flesh weight and flesh/seed ratio increased significantly, while flesh firmness and fruit water contents decreased. Seed weight increased between H1-H3 periods, but it did not show a significant change at the later stages of fruit development. These results show that important physiological changes occur starting from the pit hardening of the olive varieties and continue throughout the fruit growth and ripening.
... The values found showed potassium as the most abundant mineral, followed by sodium, calcium and magnesium. As compared with the mineral element content of whole olive 123 fruits (Fernandez-Hernandez et al. 2010) or fruit pulp (Nergiz and Engez 2000), olive seeds are somewhat higher in these latter three elements but markedly lower in potassium concentration. Phosphorus content in olive seeds (% 745 mg/kg) was within the range observed in whole fruits from some Turkish olive varieties (605-1187 mg/kg) (Tanilgan et al. 2007). ...
... The concentration of Fe was found to be lower whereas those of Zn, Mn and Cu were higher than those found by Fernandez-Hernandez et al. (2010) in whole olive fruits. In general, B, Ba, Cr, Ni, Bi and Co have not been quantified in olives; however, the study by Nergiz and Engez (2000) reports Ba, Cr and Co in fruits from Turkish olive cultivars. ...
Olive seeds, a potential food by-product from both table olive and olive oil industries, were examined for their overall proximate composition, oil, protein, mineral and phenolic components. Proximate analysis indicates that olive seeds are an unusually rich source of total dietary fibre (≅ 47% dry weight basis, DWB), as well as lipids (≅ 30%) and proteins (≅ 17%). Oil composition shows high levels of oleic (≅ 62% of total fatty acids) and linoleic (≅ 24%) acids, moderate concentrations of tocopherols (≅ 460 mg/kg) and squalene (≅ 194 mg/kg), and relatively high amounts of several sterols and non-steroidal triterpenoids. Olive seed proteins are a rich source of essential amino acids (about 46% of the total AA content). Olive seeds also contain significant amounts of some essential macro-elements (K, Ca, Mg, Na, P) and micro-elements (Zn, Mn, Cu). Phenolic compounds are present at relatively high quantities (≅ 2.8 mg/g seed, DWB); the most abundant belong to the group of secoiridoid compounds (elenolic acid derivatives) including oleuropein and structurally related substances (demethyloleuropein and ligstroside), and nüzhenide derivatives. Based on the general nutritional profile and nutraceutical components, olive seeds have value-added potential as a source of edible oil, proteins or meal serving as feed supplements.
... A previous study about change in total oil and fatty acid composition of olive fruit with fruit ripening (Nergiz & Engez, 2000) reported that oil accumulation increases during ripening phase of olives, whereas sugar accumulation shows a decline with fruit ripening. The olive ripening stage is one of the most important factors associated with the quality evaluation of olive oil (Criado et al., 2007) (Youssef et al., 2007).; ...
The present study aimed to explore fluctuations in fatty acids and phenolic profiles of olive oil extracted from fruits of Olea ferruginea Royle harvested at green raw and purple ripe stages from the district Zhob, Balochistan, Pakistan. First, fruit sampling was conducted on 26th June when green olives appeared on trees; second, purple ripe olives were picked on 26th August. Due to very small size and large pit size, oil is extracted without de-pitting the fruit. High-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) system was used for fatty acid and phenolic profiling of both oil samples. Results showed that fatty acid composition of oil extracted from raw green and ripe purple olives falls in the normal range set for purity criteria for olive oils and olive pomace oils by International Olive Council 2019 except for behenic, caprylic, capric and lauric in both oils and oleic acid and linoleic acid of oil extracted from raw green olives which do fall in standard ranges. Fatty acid composition of the olive oil showed that the oil is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (range 50.71% in oil of green olives and 58.77% in oil of ripe purple olives), polyunsaturated fatty acids (range 30.45% in oil of raw green olives and 19.32% in oil of ripe purple olives) and saturated fatty acids (range 15.27–18.58% in olive oil obtained from raw green and ripe purple olives). SFAs showed least variation with ripening stages. There was high concentration of total phenolics in oil obtained from green raw olives (33.41 mg kg−1) as compared to oil of ripe purple olives (18.49 mg kg−1). The present study revealed that alpha, beta, gamma and delta tocopherols showed a uniform trend along with ripening of olive fruit, i.e. there is a clear decline in total tocopherol content of olive oil obtained from ripe purple olives. Green raw olives showed high values of α-tocopherol (192.47 mg kg−1), β + γ-tocopherols (233.65 mg kg−1) and δ-tocopherol (1087.48 mg kg−1). The present work concludes that ripening of olive fruit affects chemical composition of olive oil.
... A previous study about change in total oil and fatty acid composition of olive fruit with fruit ripening (Nergiz & Engez, 2000) reported that oil accumulation increases during ripening phase of olives, whereas sugar accumulation shows a decline with fruit ripening. The olive ripening stage is one of the most important factors associated with the quality evaluation of olive oil (Criado et al., 2007) (Youssef et al., 2007).; ...
The present study aimed to explore fluctuations in fatty acids and phenolic profiles of olive oil extracted from fruits of Olea ferruginea Royle harvested at green raw and purple ripe stages from the district Zhob, Balochistan, Pakistan. First, fruit sampling was conducted on 26th June when green olives appeared on trees; second, purple ripe olives were picked on 26th August. Due to very small size and large pit size, oil is extracted without de-pitting the fruit. High-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) system was used for fatty acid and phenolic profiling of both oil samples. Results showed that fatty acid composition of oil extracted from raw green and ripe purple olives falls in the normal range set for purity criteria for olive oils and olive pomace oils by International Olive Council 2019 except for behenic, caprylic, capric and lauric in both oils and oleic acid and linoleic acid of oil extracted from raw green olives which do fall in standard ranges. Fatty acid composition of the olive oil showed that the oil is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (range 50.71% in oil of green olives and 58.77% in oil of ripe purple olives), polyunsaturated fatty acids (range 30.45% in oil of raw green olives and 19.32% in oil of ripe purple olives) and saturated fatty acids (range 15.27–18.58% in olive oil obtained from raw green and ripe purple olives). SFAs showed least variation with ripening stages. There was high concentration of total phenolics in oil obtained from green raw olives (33.41 mg kg⁻¹) as compared to oil of ripe purple olives (18.49 mg kg⁻¹⁾. The present study revealed that alpha, beta, gamma and delta tocopherols showed a uniform trend along with ripening of olive fruit, i.e. there is a clear decline in total tocopherol content of olive oil obtained from ripe purple olives. Green raw olives showed high values of α-tocopherol (192.47 mg kg⁻¹), β + γ-tocopherols (233.65 mg kg⁻¹) and δ-tocopherol (1087.48 mg kg⁻¹⁾. The present work concludes that ripening of olive fruit affects chemical composition of olive oil.
... There are limited studies on the effects of exogenous application of ethephon and plant growth regulators on oil quality attributes of olives. Generally, high olive oil quality is highly dependent on the olive cultivar, the environmental conditions during the growing season, cultural practices including water availability, temperature and oil extraction method (Nergiz, 2000;Ranalli et al., 2001;Kalua et al., 2005;Baccouri et al., 2008;Dag et al., 2011). Traditional harvest of olive fruits by hand is the common harvest method in Jordan. ...
This experiment was carried out to evaluate the effects of five different ethephon concentrations (0, 1000, 2000, 3000 and 4000ppm) on olive oil sensory attributes (quality) after one and two weeks of fruits harvesting. Olive fruits Harvested two weeks after 4000 ppm of ethephon application significantly increased free fatty acid and peroxide value of olive oil contents and decreased sensory attributes (fruitiness bitterness, and pungency), indicating a high impact on reducing oil quality. While olive fruits harvested one week after 4000 ppm ethephon application did not affect the olive oil quality traits. In conclusion, 4000ppm ethephon application led to efficient olive fruits harvest without affecting the olive oil quality, when olive fruits harvested after one week.
... The ripening process starts when the olive fruit reaches full size and begins to change colour, typically from green to red or black. Over time, the skin and flesh of the fruit soften, and its flavour and aroma become more pronounced [9]. These changes are accompanied by a series of biochemical reactions, including the synthesis and breakdown of pigments, fatty acids and volatile compounds [10]. ...
Digital images are commonly used to monitor processes that are based on colour changes due to their simplicity and easy capture. Colour information in these images can be analysed objectively and accurately using colour histograms. One such process is olive ripening, which is characterized by changes in chemical composition, sensory properties and can be followed by changes in physical appearance, mainly colour. The reference method
to quantify the ripeness of olives is the Maturity Index (MI), which is determined by trained experts assigning individual olives into a colour scale through visual inspection. Instead, this study proposes a methodology based on Chemometrics Assisted Colour Histogram-based Analytical Systems (CACHAS) to automatically assess the MI of olives based on R, G, and B colour histograms derived from digital images. The methodology was shown to be
easily transferable for routine analysis and capable of controlling the ripening of olives. The study also confirms the high potential of digital images to understand the ripening process of olives (and potentially other fruits) and to predict the MI with satisfactory accuracy, providing an objective and reproducible alternative to visual inspection of trained experts.
... Today, there are nearly a billion olive trees cultivated in the world, with more than 70% in the Mediterranean basin [3]. However, olives contain around 20% oil, 50% vegetable water, and 30% solids [4], regardless of the extraction process type used. The extraction of olive oils by a continuous two-phase system, generates by-products, solids (OMS), and especially liquid (OMW) very toxic for the environment. ...
... A comparative evaluation of the treatments showed that a high amount of oil percentage was achieved in treatments, which resulted in low crop load, i.e., by 158.8 mg L -1 B. These results signify a negative correlation between oil percentage and crop load and could be associated with reduced availability of nutrients resources affecting oil synthesis in high fruit load condition (Gucci et al., 2007). From this point of view, the mineral and carbohydrate content provides a useful clue about the synthesis of fatty acids (Nergiz and Engez, 2000). In the control trees with low crop load, the oil percentage did not improve significantly in comparison with boron-treated ones. ...
This study was carried out during 2020-2021 growing season on twelve years old olive trees at the orchard of Horticulture Department, College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, University of Sulaimani, Bakrajo, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of artificial pollination and boron spray application on yield and fruit quality of two olive cultivars "Sorani" and "Khodeiri" and to identify self-incompatibility index and determination of suitable pollinizers. Six selective pollinizers (Arbequina, Ashrasi, Hojiblanca, K18, Kaissy and Picual), in addition to open pollination, and lastly self-pollination as control, and two levels of boron (0 and 200 mg.L-1), as well as two main cultivars (Sorani and Khodeiri) were used. The experiment was laid out as a factorial experiment using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with six replicates and the means were compared according to Duncan's multiple range test (P≤ 0.05).
The results showed that Sorani and Khodeiri olive cultivars are partially self-incompatible, with self-incompatibility indices of (0.59 and 0.51), respectively. Sorani cultivar gave the highest percentage of final fruit set (1.96%), fruit weight (2.64 g), fruit size (2.51 cm3), fruit length (20.54 mm), fruit diameter (15.35 mm), olive flesh weight (1.78 g), olive pit length (15.73 mm), olive pit size (0.74 cm³), fruit dry matter (49.00%), total soluble solids (31.26%), oil content percentage (38.81%), the lowest oil acidity (0.46%), the lowest peroxide value (0.46 meq.kg-1 oil), leaf chlorophyll content (73.77 SPAD), contents of leaf soluble sugar (185.74 μg.g-1), phosphorus (0.49%). While, the highest contents of leaf total phenols (266.06 μg GAE.g-1), nitrogen (1.93%), calcium (0.52%), magnesium (0.44%) and boron concentration (6.62 mg.L-1) were obtained from Khodeiri cultivar.
Boron sprayed with 200 mg.L-1 achieved the highest values of all studied parameters. Results highlight the importance of olive cross-pollination for obtaining satisfactory final fruit set (2.21%) in comparison with self-pollination. Ashrasi pollinizer caused the superior values of initial fruit set (25.52%), olive pit diameter (9.39 mm), fruit dry matter (51.59%), total soluble solids (31.19%), leaf chlorophyll content (76.07 SPAD), leaf total phenols (265.70 μg GAE.g-1), phosphorus (0.53%), potassium (2.22%), magnesium (0.56%), boron (9.55 mg.L-1). At the same time, Arbequina pollinizer exhibited the highest values of fertility index (1.58), final fruit set (2.21%), the least value of oil acidity (0.42%), soluble sugar content (198.90 μg.g-1 DW) and nitrogen content (2.15%). Furthermore, Picual pollinizer resulted in the highest value of fruit size (2.67 cm3), olive flesh weight (1.85 g), olive leaf calcium content (0.65%) and the minimum peroxide value (4.73 meq.kg-1 oil). However, Hojiblanca pollinizer significantly resulted in the maximum values of fruit weight (2.72 g), fruit length (18.77 mm), fruit diameter (15.76 mm), olive pit weight (0.84 g), pit length (15.94 mm), pit size (0.79 cm³) and oil content (38.59%). In contrast, the highest value of self-incompatibility (0.60) was obtained from Kaissy pollinizer.
The combination of the two cultivars, Sorani and Khodeiri with 200 mg.L-1 boron increased the favourable measurements and decreased unfavourable characteristics. Arbequina, Ashrasi Hojiblanca and Picual were the best pollinizers for Sorani cultivar, but Khodeiri cultivar gave the best results with Arbequina, Ashrasi and Picual pollinizers. Also, the best outcomes were observed as 200 mg.L-1 boron interacted with Arbequina, Ashrasi, Hojiblanca and Picual pollinizers.
The interaction among the three factors showed that Sorani cultivar interacted with 200 mg.L-1 boron and Arbequina, Ashrasi, Hojiblanca and Picual pollinizers gave the best results. In contrast, the interaction of Khodeiri cultivar, 200 mg.L-1 boron and each Picual and Ashrasi pollinizers gave the best consequences in some studied parameters. Generally, Sorani cultivar was more responsive to 200 mg.L-1 boron and pollinizers than Khodeiri cultivar. Boron at 200 mg.L-1 was outstanding to improve growth and fruit characteristics of Sorani and Khodeiri cultivars. Additionally, Arbequina, Ashrasi, Hojiblanca and Picual were the best pollinizers for Sorani and Khodeiri cultivars.
... The pulp/stone ratio (P/S) was measured as the ratio between the fresh weight of the pulp and the weight of the stone [43]. The dry matter (DM) was calculated as a percentage of the ratio between the dry (75 • C for 48 h until constant weight) and fresh weight of the pulp [44]. ...
The goals of the current research were to assess the immediate impact of invasive wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) in olive orchards of southern Italy. Over a one-year study, in grubbed and ungrubbed areas, we measured the seasonal changes on the fast soil biological and chemical responses at depths of 0–15 cm and 15–40 cm, and several leaf and fruit characteristics. The impact factor, IFG, was used to quantify the effects of wild boar on individual soil parameters. Grubbing induced an increase in the soil moisture at both depths. Soil pH, organic matter, and C/N ratio were higher in grubbed soils at 0–15 cm and lower at 15–40 cm compared to ungrubbed soils. These trends were reflected in the higher microbial community biomass and the inhibition of fungal fraction in grubbed topsoil, while an opposite tendency at 15–40 cm was found. Microbial biomass had the highest IFG in topsoil (94%) and metabolic quotient (85%) at a 15–40 cm depth. Microbial stress condition and C loss were found in grubbed soil at both depths. Furthermore, these soils were also shown to be of lower quality than ungrubbed soils, especially at 0–15 cm (SQI = 0.40 vs. 0.50, respectively). A stronger negative impact of wild boar grubbing was observed in the Autumn/Winter and for fruit polyphenol content.
... When the studies of different researchers conducted on different olive varieties and types were examined, it was found that very different values were reported. It was determined in this study that the average seed width and height values were in parallel with the findings of many researchers (Nergiz and Engez 2000;Karadag et al. 2004;Gundogdu and Kaynas 2018). Seker et al. (2010) reported the seed width to be 8.81 mm and the seed length to be 17.96 mm in the 'Otur' variety. ...
Olive (Olea europaea L.) production is performed in approximately 40 countries around the world using varieties with quite different characteristics. Commercial varieties for table olives and olive oil production in each country have their important characteristics. Olive, which is a natural plant species of the Mediterranean basin, is grown intensively in areas where similar climatic conditions are dominant. In the present study, Turkish varieties in the olive collection garden of Gaziantep, which has a rough terrain and is located in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, were used as the study material. The study was conducted for 2 years (2016 and 2017) to determine the morphological and pomological (leaf, flower, fruit, and seed) characteristics and fatty acid compositions of 28 different Turkish olive varieties. It was determined that there are significant differences between olive varieties in terms of all the characteristics examined in the study. It was observed in general that the petioles of the varieties that had longer leaf lengths, and the number of flowers of the varieties that had longer pedicels were higher. ‘Celebi’, ‘Izmir Sofralik Olive’, and ‘Karamursel Su’ varieties yielded high fruit length and fruit width values, and the ‘Sari Ulak’ variety had the highest fruit index value. It was also found that the oil content of the varieties varied between 16.76% and 31.86%, and the oil content of ‘Kilis Yaglik’ and ‘Kalembezi’ varieties was over 30%. It was determined that palmitic acid, one of the saturated fatty acids, and oleic acid, one of the unsaturated fatty acids, had high ratios in the fatty acid composition, and the ‘Celebi’, ‘Kalembezi’, ‘Kancelebi’, ‘Karamursel Su’, ‘Kiraz’, ‘Nizip Yaglik’, ‘Samanli’, ‘Saurani’, ‘Tavsan Yuregi’, and ‘Yag Celebi’ varieties stood out with their oleic acid content of over 75%. Also, the ‘Erkence’ variety, which had the highest palmitic acid (15.16%) ratio, had the lowest oleic acid (61.32%) and the highest linoleic acid (15.71%) ratio.
... Additionally, fatty acids present in olive oil are palmitic (C16:0), palmitoleic (C16:1), stearic (C18:0), oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2), linolenic (C18:3), myristic (C14:0), arachidic (C20:0), gadoleiceicosanoid (C20:0), behenic (C22:0), lignoceric (C24:0), heptadecanoic (C17:0), and heptadecanoic (C17:1) acids were found within both the Turkish Food Codex and the International Olive Oil Council Trade Standards in both product application and control groups. Further, our results coincided with the related studies based on the olive oil content of 'Memecik' olive varieties in the literature (İlyasoglu and Özçelik 2011;Zengin 2006;Gürdeniz et al. 2008;Didar 2011;Nergiz and Engez 2000;Yavuz 2008). ...
This study aimed to determine the effects of kaolin-based particle film technology and glycine betaine, which is one of the osmoprotectants, on the yield and quality of olive fruit and olive oil. During this study, fruiting, and non-fruiting ‘Memecik’ olive trees were treated with 3% and 6% kaolin and 0.3% and 0.6% glycine betaine, in addition to control groups. Kaolin and glycine betaine applications at different doses were sprayed on trees at different intervals (twice or thrice) before flowering, at fruit set, and at the fruit enlargement stage. Accordingly, biochemical, physiological, yield, and quality parameters were analyzed after treatments to determine the effects of glycine betaine and kaolin applications on the yield and quality in olive fruit and olive oil. Among them, some important results were obtained, such as olive oil efficiency, which was greatly increased by both glycine betaine and kaolin, while cooler leaf surface temperature was recorded with kaolin application. Moreover, this study revealed that both kaolin and glycine betaine applications not only increased the production of olive fruit but also oil efficiency was remarkably boosted. Two 0.3% and 0.6% doses of glycine betaine increased the yield of non-fruiting trees up to 25 kg/tree, while kaolin application increased the yield of fruiting trees up to 10 kg/tree. A similar increasing trend in tree yield was observed in fruiting trees. Further, the fatty acid contents of olive oil met the quality standards, and glycine betaine and kaolin induced fruit size. When the results of the trials are considered as a whole, glycine betaine application seems to be at the forefront of the best results in terms of significant criteria. Considering application frequency and dose, two 0.3% doses of glycine betaine was seen to be the most appropriate dose (once before flowering and once after flowering in the fruit set period). The results of this work indicate that yield and quality of olive fruit and oil were improved with both kaolin and glycine betaine applications.
... As fresh olives can be easily spoiled due to high water activity until processing, they must undergo treatment in brines or be used for oil production. [1][2][3][4][5][6] In brine treatment, the main component is sodium chloride (NaCl) which is responsible for the preservative, flavoring, and delaying the action of unwanted microorganisms' development. Despite this, NaCl excess in the diet can cause cardiovascular and kidney diseases. ...
The simultaneous diffusion of inorganic components in the olive pulp in wet brine was modeled based on Fick’s generalized 2nd Law and simulated using the finite element method. The main and crossed diffusion coefficients, the film coefficient and the Biot number were determined, with the application of the simplex optimization method, through the minimization of the percentage errors. The errors between the simulated and experimental data were 5.35% for NaCl and 4.77% for KCl and the adjusted main diffusion coefficients were 0.4358 × 10-12 m2 s-1 for NaCl and 0.5408 × 10-12 m2 s-1 for KCl. The system developed to simulate diffusion allows the control and modulation of the salts content that diffuses through the olive pulp.
... Similar to the results of our study, Gundogdu & Seker (2012) reported that in their study on Arbequina, Ascolana, Gordales, Hojiblanca, Manzanilla de Carmona, Manzanilla de dos Hermanas, Negral, and Verdial cultivars, all cultivars were almost immature (green-yellow) in August and took mature (purple-violet color) in November. Many studies are showing that the oil content of olive fruit increases as maturity progresses (Barone et al., 1994;Nergiz & Engez, 2000;Salvador et al., 2001;Shibasaki, 2005;Al-Maaitah et al., 2009). Colakoglu (1986) also stated that the highest oil level is reached when there is no green fruit on the tree. ...
... In addition, compared with Manzanilla cultivar, Adana Topagi shows the highest level of alcohols around 61.34% in which the major compound was (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol at 54.35%, which is known to give banana note [58], as for three Dalmatian indigenous cultivars [55]. The major aromatic compounds in olives are E-2-hexenal (green leaf), (Z)-3-hexenol (green leaf, green banana), and hexanal (green leaf, apple) [62][63][64][65]. Luna et al. [66], Sánchez et al. [67], demonstrated that Manzanilla cultivar presented a mean content of alcohols. ...
Olives are an essential ingredient in Turkish food culture. Turkey has grown to become one of the top five producers of olives and olive oils in the world. Olive trees in general are found in the coastal parts of the country. The fruits of six traditional cultivars of olive (Gemlik, Domat, Memecik, Ayvalik, Cilli, and Adana Topagi), grown in Adana, were characterized based on their fruit skin color, the amount of chlorophylls, fatty acids, antioxidant activity, and total phenolic compounds, as well as volatile compounds. The international cultivar Manzanilla, grown in the same orchards as the traditional cultivars, was also included in the study to make a comparison. Compared to the Manzanilla cultivar, Memecik showed the highest amount of total phenolic content and antioxidant activity with the highest level of lightness, blueness/yellowness, and color intensity. Ayvalik presented the highest level of greenness/redness. Although the highest fruit lightness and darkness were found in the Cilli cultivar, with the highest amount of chlorophyll a (2.63 mgL−1), there was more chlorophyll b in Adana Topagi fruits (3.34 mgL−1). The highest percentage of fatty acids was found in the Gemlik cultivar of 66.81%, among which oleic acid was the major component. The total aldehydes ranged between 33.43% and 50.60%. Compared to Manzanilla and the traditional cultivars, the Domat cultivar had the highest amount of hexanal of 44.42%. Adana Topagi had the highest amount of alcohols (61.34%) and acids (1.31%). Memecik registered the highest amount of ketones (17.86%) and terpenes (20.34%). Among all cultivars, Manzanilla displayed the highest amount of esters (2.30%). In this study, traditional cultivars were found to be the richest in health-promoting chemicals. Furthermore, a significant variability among the cultivars was revealed, implying that metabolic fingerprinting approaches could be used to differentiate cultivars once more research into the effects of the growing conditions and environmental factors on the chemical profiles of each cultivar is carried out.
... The fruit color has taken a color from green to black with phenology. Nergiz and Engez (2000) found that the weight of olive fruits increased with maturity. When compared with these results, it is seen that the fruit color change is compatible with the maturity index values. ...
The ecological factors limiting cultivation of olive, which is an important and strategic product of our country, are climate and topographic conditions. In this study, it is aimed to reveal the effects of the climatic and topographical conditions of the Erkence olive cultivar, which grows in Selçuk region, one of the important regions of the Aegean region, on the phenology of the Erkence olive, using GIS (Geographical Information System). For this purpose, maps containing the climatic and topographic characteristics of 6 local regions selected from Seferihisar region were created by using GIS method. Phenological observations, pomological measurements, soil and leaf analysis results were compared in order to determine the climatic and topographic effect. When all the results were compared, it was found that each local region has its own characteristics and its effects on olive on a local region basis were statistically significant (p<0.05). The factors limiting and supporting olive cultivation are integrated with geographical conditions. The climatic and topographic conditions of a region vary on the basis of region, local region and village. Even within the same region, different climatic and topographic processes may occur. This affects the yield and quality of olive. This study once again emphasized the importance of assessing the geographic factors present on a small local basis when evaluating olive and olive oil processes.
... The oil content kept increasing with the increase of fruit maturity, and after reaching the maximum at M7, the oil content decreased slightly. These behaviors have also been reported by Nergiz et al. 41,42 in two olive cultivars, Memecik for both table olive and oil production and Domat for green table olive in the Aegean region of Turkey. As early as 1994, Sanchez had explained this trend 43 . ...
This work aims to study the influence of olive fruit maturity on physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity which determine the quality of virgin olive oils (VOO). According to the results, the values of all parameters were within the range specified by the Codex Alimentarius (2017). With the increase of fruit maturity, the oil content continued to increase until reached the maximum value (20.05%) in the 7th maturity (M7). K232, K270 and peroxide value (PV) decreased with the increase of maturity, while ΔK increased linearly with the increase of maturity. Free fatty acidity (FFA) first decreased and then increased, until reached the maximum value of (0.52 ± 0.03) % in M7. The total polyphenols (TP) and total flavonoids (TF) that characterized the antioxidant properties of olive oil increased with the increase of fruit maturity, which indicated that the oxidative stability (OS) of VOO of ‘Cornicabra’ increased with the increase of fruit maturity. The oleic acid (C18:1) content remained above 70 % and reached the maximum of (76.68 ± 0.17) % at M7. The values of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) / polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and oleic acid (C18:1) / linoleic acid (C18:2) showed a decreasing trend with the maturity stage. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the quality of FFA, PV, K232, K270, TP, TF and OS were higher at the 5th maturity (M5), the quality of fatty acid were higher at M7. It can be seen from the analysis that the olive fruit maturity was an important parameter to characterize and distinguish olive oil.
graphical abstract Fullsize Image
... e rates of decrease varied from 5.8% for the green olives and 12.8% for the purple olives and 21.5% at full maturity. According to [43,44], olive water content is greatly influenced by the precipitation and temperature levels. ...
This work aims at evidencing the quality and chemical composition of extra virgin olive oils according to stages of maturity and in relation to the geographical location of olives. Three different olive cultivars (Moroccan Picholine, Languedoc Picholine, and Frantoio), grown in two different locations in Morocco (Errachidia and Marrakech), were studied during the two crop years (2016 and 2017) at three stages of maturity (green, purple, and black). This work has been carried out by analyzing several parameters, such as the quality characteristics (acidity and peroxide value), the chemical composition (total phenol content and fatty acid composition) of the oils, and also the fruit characteristics of the olives (maturity index, fruit water content, and oil content). The results obtained in this study indicate that as maturity advanced, there was a slight rise in oil content and acidity, while there was a decrease in fruit water content and peroxide value in both locations during the two crop years. The fatty acid composition of extra virgin olive oil showed a significant increase of linoleic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and a decrease of oleic acid, palmitic acid, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and MUFA/PUFA ratio as the maturation process progressed. A significant gradual decrease was noted in total phenol content and bitterness intensity from the green stage to the black. Moreover, olive oil composition differed clearly between the two sites. Therefore, the olive cultivar, harvesting date, and geographic location influence the olive oil characteristics.
... The process to obtain table olives from fresh olives increases the Cl and Na contents. For instance, Na content of olive pulp and peel varies from around 10-40 ppm of fresh olive [27] to 5700-16,600 ppm for table olives (value variable depending on origin and treatment) [20]. Spanish standard [28] prevents from the thermal use of fuels derived from ...
With the aim to prevent possible power plant malfunction due to the feedstock properties and suggest possible ash applications, feedstock samples and bottom and fly ash samples collected along more than a year in a 16 MW suspension-fired boiler power plant, fed mainly with pulverized exhausted olive cake (orujillo), were studied. A detailed characterization of fly and bottom ash has been done, as well as a seasonal evolution study. Altogether in order to find any trend on the ash composition changes and to study the relationship between ash (both fly and bottom fractions) and, on the one hand, the feedstock composition, and on the other hand, the troublesome deposit formation. A relationship between deposit growth and higher Cl and Na content in the feedstock has been noticed, showing the need for some control on these feedstock’s components. The high Cl and Na content is attributed to external contamination. Furthermore, the high Al content in the feedstock and the strong relationship between Al, Fe and Si (indicating a common origin) suggest some biomass soil contamination. However, no relationship was observed between troublesome deposit formation and the hypothesized biomass soil contamination.
Graphic Abstract
... The viscosity of the processed olive paste depends on the raw material and is influenced not only by its concentration but also by the solid particle size, stiffness, composition, and elastic properties (Di Renzo & Colelli, 1997). These parameters can vary considerably according to olive variety, pedo-climatic conditions, ripening index (Migliorini et al., 2011;Nergiz & Engez, 2000), and the processing technology adopted upstream of the ultrasound treatment device (Leone et al., 2015;Sadkaoui et al., 2017). As olive pastes entering the sonication can vary considerably in rheology, it can be very difficult to control US treatment in industrial oil mills during processing. ...
Recent research has demonstrated how ultrasound can benefit the industrial processing of olive paste before oil extraction. However, the absence of a device for controlling pressure inside the sonication cell is a major hindrance to its application. To address this problem, a pneumatic device with a programmable logic controller was implemented to automatically adjust pressure in the sonication cell according to a preset value: its functionality was tested in industrial oil extraction. An experiment was conducted to compare device performance when applied to olive batches with different solid/liquid ratios and differing rheology. The control system adjusted the flow section of the valve at the outlet of the sonication cell and the mass flow rate of the feed pump in order to maintain the pressure preset by the operator. Results indicate that the pressure was 3.0 ± 0.2 bar, 3.5 ± 0.2 bar, and 4.0 ± 0.2 bar when the set point was 3.0 bar, 3.5 bar, and 4.0 bar, respectively: there was thus no significant difference between controlled and set values. This indicates that the device is able to control pressure inside the sonication cell with a maximum deviation of 0.2 bar. In this case, the sonication intensity was stabilized at 135 W/cm ² , 150 W/cm ² , and 165 W/cm ² at 3.0 bar, 3.5 bar, and 4.0 bar, respectively. This study presents an advancement in ultrasound applications for industrial olive oil extraction: optimal pressure control in the sonication cell.
... The process to obtain table olives from fresh olives increases the Cl and Na contents. For instance, Na content of olive pulp and peel varies from around 10-40 ppm of fresh olive[27] to 5700-16600 ppm for table olives (value variable depending on origin and treatment)[20]. Spanish standard [28] prevents from the thermal use of fuels derived from table olives. ...
With the aim to prevent possible power plant malfunction due to the feedstock properties and suggest possible ash applications, feedstock samples and bottom and fly ash samples collected along more than a year in a 16 MW suspension-fired boiler power plant, fed mainly with pulverized exhausted olive cake (orujillo), were studied. A detailed characterization of fly and bottom ash has been done, as well as a seasonal evolution study. Altogether in order to find any trend on the ash composition changes and to study the relationship between ash (both fly and bottom fractions) and, on the one hand, the feedstock composition, and on the other hand, the troublesome deposit formation. A relationship between deposit growth and higher Cl and Na content in the feedstock has been noticed, showing the need for some control on these feedstock’s components. The high Cl and Na content is attributed to external contamination. Furthermore, the high Al content in the feedstock and the strong relationship between Al, Fe and Si (indicating a common origin) suggest some biomass soil contamination. However, no relationship was observed between troublesome deposit formation and the hypothesized biomass soil contamination.
... Meyve gelişimi sırasında meyve bünyesinde biyokimyasal, fiziksel ve fizyolojik değişimler olmakta ve zeytinlerin sofralık ve yağlık kalitesi üzerine doğrudan etki yapmaktadır. Meyvenin sofralık ve zeytinyağı kalitesi üzerine çeşit özelliği, kültürel işlemler (sulama, gübreleme, budama, hasat vb.), iklim koşulları önemli etkiler yaparken, meyvenin olgunluk durumu da kaliteye doğrudan etki yapan önemli bir kriterdir (Nergiz and Engez, 2000;Beltran et al., 2004;Shibasaki, 2005). Zeytin ve zeytinyağında tüketiciye kaliteli ürün sunabilmenin ilk aşamasını amaca uygun dönemde ve yöntemle yapılan hasat ve hasat sonrası uygulamalar oluşturmaktadır. ...
Özet: Türkiye zeytin üretimi için uygun coğrafi koşullara sahip olması nedeniyle zeytin ve zeytinyağı üretiminde önemli bir potansiyele sahiptir. Tüm zeytin üreticisi ülkelerde olduğu gibi, Türkiye'de de zeytin hasadı üretim maliyetleri içerisinde büyük bir paya sahiptir. Üreticiler zeytin hasadını kademeli olarak yapmadıkları için zeytin üretiminde miktar kayıpları ile sofralık zeytin ve zeytinyağı üretiminde de kalite kayıpları ortaya çıkmaktadır. Dip zeytin toplanmasının zor ve maliyetinin yüksek olması nedeniyle genellikle üreticiler tarafından tercih edilmemektedir. Türkiye'nin zeytin ve zeytinyağı üretim ve ticaretindeki potansiyeli dikkate alındığında, ürün kayıpları konusundaki mevcut sorunların çözüme kavuşturulması ve özellikle de kayıpların azaltılması önemlidir. Ayrıca, toplanmayan dip zeytinler hastalık ve zararlılara konukçuluk yaptığı ve bir sonraki üretim dönemini olumsuz etkilediği için zeytin ve zeytinyağı üretiminin artarak devam etmesi açısından olumsuz olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Kalitesi düşük olsa bile rafinajlık zeytinyağı elde edilebilmesi nedeniyle ekonomik açıdan ve bir sonraki sezonun üretimini olumsuz etkilemesi nedeniyle de teknik açıdan dip zeytinlerin toplanması önerilmektedir.
Abstract: Turkey has a favorable geographical conditions because it has a significant potential for the olive and olive oil production. Like all olive producing countries, olive harvesting costs has a large share in the total production costs in Turkey. Since farmers do not harvest olives gradually, there are quantity losses in olive production and quality losses in the production of table olives and olive oil. Due to the difficulty and high cost of collecting deep olives, it is generally not preferred by the farmers. When considering the potential of Turkey in the olive and olive oil production and trade, solving the existing problems on product losses and is particularly important reducing the losses. In addition, uncollected bottom olives are considered negatively in terms of increasing olive and olive oil production since they host diseases and pests and negatively affect the next production period. Since olive oil can be obtained even if its quality is low, it is recommended to collect bottom olives economically. Again, it is technically important to collect the bottom olives as the next season negatively affects the production.
... This trend is also dependent on varietal characters, as a response to environmental factors, as evidenced by [70]. No great differences were observed in the other samples, with trends similar to those observed by Nergiz and Engez [71]. The effect of the growing environment on fatty acid composition was particularly marked in saturated acid amounts (C16:0 and C17:0) of previously cited productions (October and December): at site A, a higher amount was observed. ...
Trees of the olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivar Carolea grown in Calabria (Italy) in three sites with different main climate traits (temperatures, rainfall, Growth Degree Days seasonal variations) were studied for three years to see the ripening time course and quality of the oils. The optimal harvesting time for obtaining the best-quality olive oils was defined for each site. The effect on quality indexes of three harvesting periods was also considered, linking this to the observed various thermal regimes. The different climates largely affected the growth and the development of fruits and the quality of obtained oils. Lower temperatures and higher rainfall slow down fruit growth and development and delay ripening. Olive oils of good quality (free acidity, fatty acid composition, antioxidant components and oxidative stability were obtained in the site with lower temperatures and higher rainfall when fruits were still yellow-green ripe and had a detachment index between 1.9 and 1.5. Climate change, evidenced by rising temperatures, led to the movement of olive groves from the high-temperature coastal plain to the intern foothills.
... Toplam şeker miktarının zeytin çeşitleri arasında değişkenlik gösterdiği görülmektedir. Olgunlaşmanın da toplam şeker miktarını azaltıcı yönde bir etkisi olduğu yapılan çalışmalarda belirtilmiştir [47]. Farklı çalışmalar incelendiğinde, Suja ve ark. ...
Çalışmada organik ve konvansiyonel olarak yetiştirilen Memecik çeşidi zeytinlerin fiziksel, kimyasal ve pomolojik analizleri yapılarak ürünler arasındaki farklılıklarının incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Pomolojik özelliklerden dane ağırlığı, dane boyu ve meyvenin et oranı organik yeşil zeytinlerde konvansiyonel yeşil zeytinlere kıyasla daha düşük bulunarak istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark elde edilmiştir (p<0.05). Dane enleri ve et/çekirdek oranları arasında ise anlamlı bir fark tespit edilmemiştir. Kimyasal analiz sonuçları incelendiğinde, organik zeytinlerde toplam kurumadde ve pH değerlerinin konvansiyonellere göre önemli derecede düşük (p<0.05), titrasyon asitliği ve oleuropein değerlerinin ise önemli derecede yüksek (p<0.05) olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Toplam şeker, protein, yağ, kül ve toplam fenolik içerikleri kurumadde bazında incelendiğinde organik zeytinlerde daha yüksek değerler elde edilmiştir (p<0.05). Zeytinlerin renk değerleri kıyaslandığında, organik zeytinlerde L* ve b*/a* değerleri, konvansiyonel zeytinlerde ise a* ve a*/b* değerleri önemli derecede yüksek (p<0.05) bulunurken, b* değerleri arasında anlamlı bir fark tespit edilmemiştir. H° değerlerinin organik zeytinlerde anlamlı derecede yüksek (p<0.05) bulunurken, C değerleri arasında fark tespit edilmemiştir. Elde edilen ∆E değeri ile organik ve konvansiyonel zeytinler arasında renk farkı olduğu tespit edilmiştir (p<0.05).
... In general, boron (B) concentrations observed were higher than those reported for other olive cultivars including 'Amfissis', 'Chondrolia Chalkidikis' and 'Picholine' (Chatzissavvidis, Therios, & Antonopoulou, 2004;Tekaya et al., 2014). Magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) contents were also higher than those reported for other cultivars (Nergiz & Engez, 2000;Fernández-Poyatos, Ruiz-Medina, & Llorent-Martínez, 2019). In contrast, manganese (Mn) concentrations recorded were lower than those in other cultivars grown in Spain (Fernández-Hernández et al., 2010), while those of iron (Fe) were roughly as in earlier reports (Llorent-Martínez, Fernández-de Córdova, Ortega-Barrales, & Ruiz-Medina, 2014). ...
The production of olive (Olea europaea L.) is very important economically in many areas of the world, and particularly in countries around the Mediterranean basin. Ripening-associated modifications in cell wall composition and structure of fruits play an important role in attributes like firmness or susceptibility to infestations, rots and mechanical damage, but limited information on these aspects is currently available for olive. In this work, cell wall metabolism was studied in fruits from nine olive cultivars (‘Arbequina’, ‘Argudell’, ‘Empeltre’, ‘Farga’, ‘Manzanilla’, ‘Marfil’, ‘Morrut’, ‘Picual’ and ‘Sevillenca’) picked at three maturity stages (green, turning and ripe). Yields of alcohol-insoluble residue (AIR) recovered from fruits, as well as calcium content in fruit pericarp, decreased along ripening. Cultivar-specific diversity was observed in time-course change patterns of enzyme activity, particularly for those acting on arabinosyl- and galactosyl-rich pectin side chains. Even so, fruit firmness levels were associated to higher pectin methylesterase (PME) activity and calcium contents. In turn, fruit firmness correlated inversely with ascorbate content and with α-L-arabinofuranosidase (AFase) and β-galactosidase (β-Gal) activities, resulting in preferential loss of neutral sugars from cell wall polymers.
... Et çekirdek oranı için daneler yatay olarak ikiye kesilip çekirdekler çıkarılarak tartılmıştır. Çekirdek kütlesi değeri toplam daneden çıkarılarak, dane eti kütlesi bulunmuş ve değerler göreceli oran olarak ifade edilmiştir (Nergiz ve Engez, 2000). ...
Örtü bitkisi ve organik malç, verimin sürdürülebilir olarak arttırılmasında, zeytin ve zeytinyağı kalitesinin arttırılmasında ve üretimde girdi kullanımının çevreye olan olumsuz etkilerinin sınırlandırılmasında önemli katkılar sağlayabilmektedir. Bu bilgiler ışığında Atatürk Bahçe Kültürleri Merkez Araştırma Enstitüsünde organik malç (saman) uygulanan, örtü bitkisi (fiğ+yulaf) ekilen, doğal vejetasyonun korunduğu ve doğal vejetasyonun düzenli aralıklar ile işlenerek temiz tutulduğu 4 uygulamanın organik zeytin üretiminde, verim ve kalite üzerine olan etkileri değerlendirilmiş, üretimde sürdürülebilirliğe katkısı olacak, üreticilere tavsiye edilebilecek yetiştirme yöntemlerinin belirlenmesi hedeflenmiştir. Araştırmada kullanılan toprak yönetimi metotlarının araştırma periyodunda zeytin verim ve kalitesi üzerine istatistiki düzeyde önemli etkileri belirlenmemiştir. Toprak analizlerinde örtü bitkilerinin bazı olumlu etkileri son örneklemelerde elde edilmeye başlamış olsa da toprak yönetim sistemleri arasındaki önemli farklıklar henüz belirgin bir şekilde oluşmamıştır. Üreticiler tarafından tercih edilen yöntemlerden biri olan toprağın işlenerek temizlenmesinin diğer yöntemlerle karşılaştırıldığında verim ve kalite açısından olumlu herhangi bir etkisi görülmemiştir. 3 yıllık ortalamalara bakıldığında örtü bitkilerinin kullanıldığı parsellerden en yüksek gelir elde edildiği görülmüştür. Malç uygulamalarından gelir yönünden yüksek değerler alınmış olsa da günümüzde saman maliyetlerinin yüksek olmasından ötürü öne çıkan bir uygulama olmamıştır. Doğal vejetasyonun korunduğu parsellerde giderlerin sınırlı olması bu uygulamayı öne çıkarmış ve özellikle denemenin iki ve üçüncü yılında yaşanan düşük verimlere bağlı olarak daha belirgin hale gelmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlara bağlı olarak ek bir maliyet ve çevresel olarak olumsuz etkileri olan yoğun toprak işleme yerine örtü bitkilerinin zeytin ile rekabet oluşturmayacağı durumlarda bahçelerde kullanılması mümkün olabilecektir. Araştırmanın sürdürülmesi durumunda toprak üzerinde uygulamaların etkilerinin belirginleşeceği ve bunun sonucunda zeytin verim ve kalitesi üzerindeki etkilerin fark edilir düzeylere ulaşacağı öngörülebilir.
... In relation to the type cultivar, the olive trees are grown in the same area, so they have been exposed to the same soil and climatic conditions, and extraction conditions were the same for all cultivars. However, in the same crop season mineral contents differences in olive oil were observed, which could be explained by the genotype.The genotype can influence growth rate directly, or indirectly through its influence on nutrient utilization efficiency (Chatzistathis et al., 2012); for example, according to Nergiz & Engez (2000), cultivar properties influence the iron levels in olive fruit. Seasonal differences could be explained by environmental and agronomic factors; the presence of discharging waste from industrial and domestic sources into the Soummam River, which is not far from the study area, appears to have effect on Cu, Fe and Zn concentrations. ...
Aim of study: To evaluate the effect of cultivar and year of harvest on the content of mineral elements of Algerian extra virgin olive oils.
Area of study: Technical Institute of Arboriculture of Fruits and Vine (TIAFV), Bejaia, Algeria.
Material and methods: The mineral contents of extra virgin olive oils from ten cultivars during two consecutive campaigns 2014/2015 and 2015/2016 were determined using atomic absorption spectrometry and absorption in a graphite furnace after microwave-assisted acid digestion. Principal component analysis was applied to correlate the mineral content with cultivar type and year of harvest.
Main results: Mean concentrations for Fe, Zn, Cu, Na, K, Mg, As and Co in samples were observed in the range of 1.640-13.213, 1.546-32.866, 1.375-3.337, 19.666-104.720, 4.573-117.133, 0.120-2.560, 0.006-0.146 and 0.002-0.051 μg g-1, respectively. The first three principal components retained 76.25% of the variance. The determinants of the effect of cultivar type and year of harvest were Fe and Na; Mg, Co and As, respectively.
Research highlights: The study showed that mineral composition of the olive oils was mainly determined by the cultivar and the year of harvest.
... Fatty acids. Its profile can vary not only depending on the variety and degree of maturity in which the olives are harvested, but also on environmental factors such as latitude and climate [46,47]. The hydroSOS oil, resulting from trees subjected to water stress, will have the highest score in this section if they show an increase in oleic acid above 5% and a decrease in linoleic acids of more than 10% [48]. ...
Water, especially in arid and semiarid regions, is increasingly a disputed commodity among different productive sectors; the pressure for a more sustainable use of water in agriculture will grow. The main strategy to cope with water scarcity is the use of improved, innovative, and precise deficit irrigation management practices which are able to minimize the impact on fruit yield and quality. The aim of this paper was to develop a certification index or hydroSOS quality index for extra virgin olive oil and processed table olives. The hydrosSOS fruits and vegetables are those cultivated under regulated deficit irrigation (RDI). Different indicators in three quality areas ((i) fatty acids, (ii) phenolic compounds, and (iii) sensory attributes) were identified as showing characteristic or typical responses under RDI conditions. Marks or scores were assigned to each one of these indicators to calculate the proposed index. It can be concluded that an extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) or processed table olives are hydroSOStainable foods, if they meet 2 conditions: (i) fulfill the conditions established in the hydroSOS “irrigation” index, and (ii) fulfill the requirements of the hydroSOS “quality” index. HydroSOS quality index will be specific to each crop and variety and will depend on functional and sensory factors.
... These results signify a negative correlation between oil percentage and crop load and could be associated with reduced availability of nutrients resources affecting oil synthesis in high fruit load condition (Gucci et al., 2007). From this point of view, the mineral and carbohydrate content provides a useful clue about the synthesis of fatty acids (Nergiz and Engez, 2000). In the control trees, with low crop load, the oil percentage did not improve significantly in comparison with boron-treated ones. ...
A wide range of Boron-containing compounds is available in the world market, with different formulations and efficiencies. Among these compounds, nano-chelated products are becoming popular, although there is only limited information on their efficiency. Thus, this study considers the effects of boron nano-chelated fertilizer and boric acid foliar sprays on fruit and oil yield in olive cv. ‘Zard’. Their quality attributes were studied during the growing seasons of 2017 and 2018. Fertilizers were used at the concentration of 105 (B1) and 158.8 (B2) mg boric acid, 200 (nano-B1) and 300 (nano-B2) mg nano-chelated boron, corresponding to 180 mg (B1 and nano-B1) and 270 mg (B2 and nano-B2) pure boron per liter. Spraying with water was considered as the control (B0). Fruit characteristics were affected mainly by nano treatments and fruit yield efficiency increased by the use of nano-B2. In spite of the heavy fruit weight and yield, the nano-B2 caused a lower amount of oil accumulation in fruits. A high oil percentage was achieved by the treatment of boron (B2) which resulted in a low crop load. Traits such as oil yield, free fatty acids, antioxidant activity and total phenol content were improved by the application of nano-B2 fertilizer. Fatty acid composition was affected by B1 foliar application. Generally, the data obtained from this study showed that nano-B2 could provide beneficial effects on the growth, fruit and oil yield rather than on oil percentage. The main fatty acid composition was influenced more by boric acid treatments.
... I dati ottenuti nel presente lavoro suggeriscono come la cultivar Bambina raggiunges-se già a metà ottobre, ossia in corrispondenza del primo campionamento, il quantitativo massimo possibile di olio, precocemente rispetto a quanto riportato per altre varietà [23], sebbene sia noto come anche le condizioni pedoclimatiche influenzino questi andamenti [22]. Il contenuto in solidi solubili totali, che variava da circa il 17% al 20% su peso fresco, presentava un andamento parabolico, con una leggera diminuzione al secondo campionamento seguita da un successivo aumento, similmente a quanto riportato da altri autori [24]. ...
Despite the great number of minor and local olive cultivars, oil extraction at industrial level is carried out mainly using few major varieties. Biodiversity is one of the strength point of olive oil sector to characterize, distinguish, and valorise olive oil productions. In this study, we report the maturation pattern of the drupes and characterize the virgin olive oil obtained from Bambina cultivar, a local variety from Gravina di Puglia, in province of Bari. The name of the cultivar, which means "child", should arise from the ancient use of its oil, appreciate by child because only slightly bitter and pungent. Nonetheless, it is characterized by high total phenolic content. The obtained results support the traditional and local knowledge and gave one first scientific explanation of it. Indeed, despite the significant content of phenols (about 400 mg kg-1) oleochantal, main responsible of pungent taste, represents about 1% of the total phenols. On the contrary, great amount of flavonoids has been detected. Remarkable is also the content of other lipophilic antioxidants, tocopherols and carotenoids.
... I dati ottenuti nel presente lavoro suggeriscono come la cultivar Bambina raggiunges-se già a metà ottobre, ossia in corrispondenza del primo campionamento, il quantitativo massimo possibile di olio, precocemente rispetto a quanto riportato per altre varietà [23], sebbene sia noto come anche le condizioni pedoclimatiche influenzino questi andamenti [22]. Il contenuto in solidi solubili totali, che variava da circa il 17% al 20% su peso fresco, presentava un andamento parabolico, con una leggera diminuzione al secondo campionamento seguita da un successivo aumento, similmente a quanto riportato da altri autori [24]. ...
The present work was aimed at evaluating the effect of the addition of monoacylglycerols (MAG) with different fatty acid composition, thus obtained from different vegetable oils such as olive (OO), soybean (SO), and palm (PO). The MAG were added in the purified olive oil at different concentrations (5, 15, and 30 mg/g) and consequently the oxidative process was monitored. For this purpose, the purified oil added with MAG was subjected to oven test for 28 days, during which multiparametric analysis of oxidation was carried out: peroxide value, spectrophotometric constants (K270, K232), oxidized triacylglycerol, and triacylglycerol oligopolymers. Our results showed that both OO and SO MAG significantly slowed the oxidative processes after 15 days, in a dose-dependent manner. For PO MAG, on the other hand, although the dose dependent effect was less evident, an antioxidant effect was observed that was greater than that observed for the other MAG, which was already detectable in the early stages of oven test.
... Variability in acid composition has been correlated to the temperature sum of the period from fruit setting to fruit maturation by regulating fatty acid desaturases [67]. In fact, it has been reported that the contents of oleic acid decreased during ripening, while that of linoleic acid increased due to the transformation of oleic acid into linoleic acid by the oleate desaturase activity, which is active during triacylglycerol biosynthesis [68]. ...
Yield and quality of fruits are multifaceted traits involving various plant and fruit processes that, for a given genetic makeup, depend on environmental factors and agronomic practices. Crop yield has to meet the demand of a growing population , but crop quality is a challenging issue affected by consumer's behavior and increasingly associated with food security. The projected climate scenario for South Mediterranean Europe predicts lower precipitation and higher temperatures that will negatively affect agricultural activity. A warmer and drier climate is expected to cause changes in crop yield and its quality. Higher temperatures affect photosyn-thesis, causing alterations in sugars, organic acids, flavonoid contents, firmness, and antioxidant activity. Reduced soil water availability will impact on the capacity of plants to accumulate biomass and when conjugated with warmer weather, it can trigger disorders like fruit sunburn further depressing crop yields. New cultivation techniques are necessary to produce sufficient food supplies to meet the basic nutrient requirements of the growing human population and support the agriculture economy. We focus on the production of olives and wine grapes, two of the most cultivated fruit crops of Southern Europe, which is certainly strongly affected by changing weather conditions. We review the recent developments on agronomic practices to counter or minimize the projected environmental changes, and we will report on our own experiences.
... MV was over 80% of TS, which confirmed the organic load of OMW [17,[63][64][65]. TOC and Sugar were found to be highly correlated [66,67]. TKN and proteins were largely related to SS and sugars, which is in accordance with previous reports [10]. ...
This work examined the influence of crop season, extraction system and production site on the composition of fresh olive mill wastewater collected from northern Morocco. ANOVA analysis showed that most of traits were largely affected by extraction system (≥ 60% of total variance). Comparison among extraction systems showed significant differences for all traits, except for chlorides. Three phase centrifugation system (C3) displayed the highest value of total phenols, while all the remaining traits were higher in two phase centrifugation system (C2). Concerning crop seasons, we noticed a general decrease in values of total solids, chemical oxygen demand, chlorides, C/N ratio and total aerobic mesophilic flora, from 2014 to 2016 season; in contrast, an increase in suspended solids, total kjeldahl nitrogen and proteins was detected. OMW with highest total phenols content and then more acidic were collected during 2015 season. Between production sites, Bni Frassen produced OMW with the highest values for salt and total phenols, but the lowest ones were obtained for microbiological traits. OMW from Taza were rich in total kjeldahl nitrogen and proteins. An increase in organic load indicators was observed in Bouchfaa. Principal component analysis (PCA) explained about 82% of total variability: 58, 16 and 8% for principal component 1 (PC1), PC2 and PC3, respectively. Extraction system fitted the variability of PC1. PC2 was mainly explained by production sites, while PC3 separated crop seasons. Correlation studies showed significant relationships especially among the traits expressing organic load, while microbiological counts were largely associated to total phenols and pH.
... Ayrıca meyvenin sofralık özelliği ile zeytinyağı kalitesi üzerine etkisi zeytinin yetiştirildiği yerin coğrafi konumu, uygulanan tarımsal faaliyetler (sulama, gübreleme, budama, derim vb.) ve zeytinin çeşidine bağlı olarak da değişim göstermektedir (Bravo, 1991;, Lavee ve Wodner, 1991. Meyvenin olgunluk durumunun kaliteye doğrudan etki yapan önemli bir kriter olması nedeniyle, değişik araştırıcılar farklı ekolojik koşullarda bu özelliklerin belirlenmesi üzerine bir çok çalışma yapmıştır (Nergiz ve Engez, 2000;Beltran ve ark., 2004;Shibasaki, 2005 ...
Bu çalışma, ‘Ayvalık’ zeytin çeşidinin farklı olgunluk dönemlerinde yağ asidi bileşenlerinin
değişimlerini belirlemek amacıyla 2012 yılında Çanakkale ili Ayvacık ilçesine ait zeytin
bahçelerinde yürütülmüştür. Bu amaçla yöreyi temsil edecek 9 ayrı bahçeden 3 olgunluk (yeşil, alacalı ve siyah olum) aşamasını da kapsayacak şekilde ve 2 haftalık aralıklarla toplam 5 dönemde meyveler hasat edilmiştir. Ağaçlardan meyvelerin ilk hasadı Ekim ayının ilk haftası başlatılmış ve 2 haftalık aralıklarla devam ederek 1 Aralık tarihinde sona ermiştir. Zeytin ağaçlarından hasat edilen meyveler, analizlerin en kısa sürede gerçekleştirilmesi için Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Bahçe Bitkileri Bölümü laboratuvarlarına getirilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler toplanarak Çanakkale ilinin zeytinyağı yağ asidi bileşenleri bakımından genel bir profili oluşturulmuştur. Buna göre sırasıyla oleik asit (C18:1), palmitik asit (C16:0), linoleik asit (C18:2), stearik asit (C18:0), palmitoleik asit (C16:1), linolenik asit (C18:3) ve araşidik asit (C20:0) yağ asitleri tespit edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte doymuş yağ asidi, tekli doymamış yağ asidi ve çoklu doymamış yağ asidi bileşenleri de tespit edilerek olgunluk indeksleriyle aralarındaki ilişkiler irdelenmiştir. Sonuç olarak zeytin meyvelerinde olgunluk ilerledikçe renklenme ve kararma ile birlikte birçok farklı biyokimyasal olayında gerçekleştiği görülmüştür. Zeytinin olgunluk durumuna göre zeytinyağında bulunan yağ asitleri bileşenlerinin değişkenlik gösterdiği belirlenmiştir. Doymuş, tekli doymamış ve çoklu doymamış yağ asidi bileşenleri kapsamında sırasıyla palmitik asit, oleik asit ve linoleik asit bileşenlerinin zeytinyağının majör yağ asidi bileşenleri olduğu ve yaklaşık %92 ile %94’lük oranını oluşturduğu saptanmıştır. Bununla beraber özellikle doymuş yağ asidi bileşenlerinin azaldığı buna karşın doymamış yağ asidi bileşenlerinin arttığı tespit edilmiştir. Çalışma sonunda yağ asitleri bileşenlerinin dağılımı ise Uluslararası Zeytinyağı Konseyinin belirlediği sınır değerlerde olduğu ve olgunluk süresince özellikle oksidatif stabiliteyi etkileyen oleik asit bakımından stabil kaldığı ve yaklaşık %72 oranında bulunduğu belirlenmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: ‘Ayvalık’ Zeytin Çeşidi, Çanakkale, Yağ Asidi Metil Esterleri, Olgunluk İndeksi, Olea europaea L.
This study was carried out in the olive orchards of Ayvacık, Çanakkale province in 2012, in order to determine the changes of fatty acid components in different maturity periods of the ‘Ayvalık’ olive cultivar. For this purpose, fruits were harvested from 9 different orchards to represent the region in 3 maturity stages (green, mottled and black) through 2-week intervals in 5 periods. The first harvest of fruits from trees was started in the first week of October and ended in 1st December. The fruits harvested from olive trees were transferred to the laboratories of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture for the analysis to be performed as soon as possible. The obtained data were collected and a general profile of the olive oil fatty acid
components of Çanakkale province was formed. Accordingly, oleic acid (C18:1), palmitic acid (C16:0), linoleic acid (C18:2), stearic acid (C18:0), palmitoleic acid (C16:1), linolenic acid (C18:3) and arachidic acid (C20:0) fatty acids were determined. In addition, saturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid components were also determined and their relationships with maturity indexes were examined. Consequently, as the maturity of fruits progressed, it was seen that there were many different biochemical events with coloration and darkening. According to the maturity of olives, it was determined that the components of fatty acids in olive oil were varied. Among the saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid components, palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid components were found to be major fatty acid components of olive oil, that constitute the ratio of 92% to 94%, respectively. However, it was found that, in particular, the saturated fatty acid components reduced, whereas the unsaturated fatty acid components were increased. At the end of the study, it was determined that the distribution of the components of fatty acids was at the limit values determined by the International Olive Oil Council and remained stable during the maturity period, especially in terms of oleic acid affecting oxidative stability and was found to be approximately 72%.
Keywords: ‘Ayvalık’ Olive Cultivar, Çanakkale, Fatty Acid Methyl Esters, Maturity Index, Olea
europaea L.
... Ayrıca meyvenin sofralık özelliği ile zeytinyağı kalitesi üzerine etkisi zeytinin yetiştirildiği yerin coğrafi konumu, uygulanan tarımsal faaliyetler (sulama, gübreleme, budama, derim vb.) ve zeytinin çeşidine bağlı olarak da değişim göstermektedir (Bravo, 1991;, Lavee ve Wodner, 1991. Meyvenin olgunluk durumunun kaliteye doğrudan etki yapan önemli bir kriter olması nedeniyle, değişik araştırıcılar farklı ekolojik koşullarda bu özelliklerin belirlenmesi üzerine bir çok çalışma yapmıştır (Nergiz ve Engez, 2000;Beltran ve ark., 2004;Shibasaki, 2005 ...
Zeytin ağacı iklim özellikleri bakımından seçicilik gösteren bir türdür. Türkiye’de sahip olduğu ekolojik koşullar nedeniyle Dünya’da zeytin tarımı yapan önemli ülkeler arasında yer almaktadır. Çanakkale ili ve çevresi de ülkemizin zeytin ve zeytinyağı üreten önemli yöreleri arasında yer almaktadır. Bu yörenin önemli geçim kaynaklarından biri olan Ayvalık çeşidin meyvesinden elde edilen zeytinyağının klimatolojik faktörlerin elverişliliği ile dünyanın hiçbir yerinde bulunmayan kalitede zeytinyağı üretim potansiyeline sahip olduğu yapılan birçok çalışmada saptanmıştır. Zeytinin olgunlaşması ve zeytinyağı kalite özelliklerinin oluşması aylarca devam eden bir sürede gerçekleşmektedir. Bulunduğu yerin coğrafi konumu, uygulanan tarımsal faaliyetler ve zeytinin çeşidi, olgunlaşma süresini etkileyen önemli faktörlerdir. Bu çalışma, Çanakkale‘de zeytininin yoğun olarak yetiştiriciliğinin yapıldığı Çanakkale ili Geyikli Yöresi’nde Ayvalık çeşidi zeytinlerinin yöresel özelliklerinin saptanması amacıyla yapılmıştır. Bu araştırma Ayvalık zeytin çeşidinin yoğun olarak yetiştiriciliğinin yapıldığı Çanakkale ili Ezine ilçesi geyikli yöresindeki zeytin bahçelerindeki ağaçlar üzerinde yürütülmüştür. Bu amaçla denemenin yürütüldüğü zeytin bahçelerinden farklı olgunluk dönemlerinde (yeşil olum, alacalı olum ve siyah olum) zeytin örnekleri alınmıştır. Bu örneklerde Meyve eni (mm), meyve boyu (mm), çekirdek eni, çekirdek boyu (mm), 100 meyve ağırlığı (g), et oranı (%), Meyvelerdeki nem oranı (%), Olgunluk indeksi, toplam klorofil ve toplam karotenoid içerikleri (μg/ml) saptanmıştır. Çalışma sonunda, Ezine geyikli yöresinin zeytin yetiştiriciliği açısından son derece elverişli bir yer olduğu görülmüştür. Ancak aynı çeşidin farklı yerlerde yetiştirilmesi durumunda olgunluk süresince zeytin meyvelerinin gelişimleri belli bir aşamaya kadar benzerlik gösterdiği, daha sonraki aşamalarda ise farklılıklar gösterdiği saptanmıştır. Olgunluk ilerledikçe meyvelerin ve çekirdeklerin irilikleri artmışlardır. Özellikle Alacalı olum dönemlerinde (O.İ.>3) klorofil miktarlarında önemli bir azalma olmakla olmuş, meyvenin ekzokarp kısmının tamamının renklendiği siyah olum dönemlerinde (O.İ.>4) ise karotenoid miktarında önemli bir artış meydana gelmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Çanakkale, Ayvalık Zeytin Çeşidi, Olgunluk, Coğrafi İşaret
Olive tree is a species that shows selectivity in terms of climate characteristics. Turkey has been placed among the major countries in the world for olive cultivation due to the highly favourable ecological conditions. Çanakkale province and its close districts are among the important regions of producing olive and olive oil in Turkey. The olive oil obtained from the fruits of the Ayvalık cultivar, which is one of the important genotypes of the region, has been found in many studies that have the potential to produce high quality olive oil in the world which is not found anywhere due to favorable climatological factors. The olive oil obtained from the fruit of the Ayvalık cultivar, which is one of the important livelihoods of this region. It has been found in many studies that it has the potential to produce olive oil which has no quality in any part of the world. Olives ripening and the
occurrence of the quality of olive oil occurs in a period of long time. The geographical location of the place, the agricultural activities applied and the type of olives are important factors affecting the ripening time. This study was carried out in order to determine the local characteristics of the olives of Ayvalık cultivars in Geyikli region of Çanakkale province. For this purpose, olive samples were taken from the olive groves where the experiment was carried out in different maturity periods (green, mottled and black olives). In these examples Fruit width (mm), fruit size (mm), fruit seeds width, length (mm), 100 fruit weight (g), meat ratio (%), moisture content in fruits (%), maturity index, total chlorophyll and total carotenoid contents (μg / ml) were determined. At the end of the study, it was observed that Ezine geyikli region was an extremely favorable place
for olive cultivation. However, in the case of cultivation of the same cultivars in different places, it was found that the olive fruits had similarity to a certain stage during maturity and showed differences in the later stages. As the maturity progressed, the size of the fruits and seeds increased. In particular, there was a significant reduction in chlorophyll content in the mottled period (M.I.> 3) and a significant increase in the amount of carotenoid occurred during the black exposure periods (M:I.> 4) where the entire exocarp of the fruit was colored.
Keywords: Çanakkale, Ayvalık Olive Cultivar, Olgunluk, Geographical Sign
... Linoleic acid level increased with storage. According to the previous reports [44][45][46] linoleic acid of different varieties (Nabali, Chetoui, Memecik, Domat, Gemlik) increased with the post harvest maturation. ...
Because of the limited number and size of the oil extraction opportunities, olives are generally piled and stored at ambient temperatures for weeks before processing. Under these conditions biochemical changes could result a negative affect on the olive quality. The changes in the olive result poor stability in olive oil because of the oxidation and decomposition of bioactive compounds such as phenolic substances. Indeed, it is known that polyphenols are a large family of compounds found in plant tissues, which show strong antioxidant activity. The healthy characteristic of the phenolic compounds is associated to their radical scavenging activities. In this study, Gemlik olives cultivated from Osmaniye area were stored for 25 days at 5 °C under three different conditions (20 kPa CO2 atmosphere, 20 kPa N2 atmosphere and air). Olive oil was extracted following of 0, 5, 15 and 25 days of olive fruits storage. Qualtiy markers (free fatty acidity, peroxide value, K270 and K232) together with the phenolic compounds and fatty acid compositions of oils were determined. The physical properties of olives (flesh/pit ratio, average weight and fruit firmness) were well-preserved under CO2 and N2 atmospheres. The phenolics (tyrosol, syringic acid, vanilin, p-coumaric acid, oleuropein, cinnamic acid and luteolin) and fatty acids (palmitic, palmiteloic, heptadecanoic, heptadecenoic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidic, behenic, docosadienoic and lignoceric acids) composition were generally unchanged during storage. Oleuropein, the bitter principle of olives disapperead faster in the oils obtained through storage under N2 than other storage conditions.
Objective: This study was conducted to determine the effects of harvest time and method on fruit and oil characteristics of ‘Ayvalık Yağlık’, a major olive cultivar in Turkey. Material and Methods: Early, optimum and late harvests were made by hitting with a wood stick (control), pneumatic beater, and branch shaker in a conventional olive grove located in Edremit district of Balıkesir province in western Turkey. Harvested olive fruits were stored at 18-20°C for 3 days, and physical, biochemical attributes, free acidity, and fatty acid composition, and mechanical damage caused by tested harvest methods were evaluated. Results: Mechanical damage index and free fatty acidity were lower in olive fruits harvested by branch shakers compared to those dropped down by stick. Fruit weight, maturity index, oil content and linoleic acid content increased with the progress of harvest date, while color, moisture content, free fatty acids, total phenolics, and palmitic, stearic, and linolenic acid ratio decreased at the last harvest date. Conclusion: The results showed that significant changes in some physical and chemical properties of the olive fruit occur with the progression of maturity, and using branch shakers and harvesting on the 2nd and 3rd harvest dates are recommended for Ayvalık variety under the experimental site conditions.
ZET Bu çalışma, farklı yükseklik ve farklı hasat zamanlarının meyve ve zeytinyağı kalitesine etkisini araştırmak amacıyla Manisa-Ahmetli bölgesinde, Ayvalık (Edremit) zeytin çeşidi üzerinde yürütülmüştür. Araştırma bahçeleri dağ ve ova (kır-taban) bölgelerinden seçilmiştir. Meyve örnekleri hasat sezonunda, 10 Ekim, 13 Kasım, 23 Kasım ve 5 Aralık tarihleri olmak üzere dört farklı olgunluk aşamalarında (yeşil olum, renk dönümü ve siyah dönem) zeytin meyveleri ağacın tüm çevresinden 400-500 g olacak şekilde homojen olarak elle toplanmıştır. Hasat edilen meyve örneklerinde; olgunluk indeksi, renk (CIE L*, a*, b*), meyve ağırlığı, et/çekirdek oranı, nem miktarı ve yağ oranı belirlenmiştir. Elde edilen yağ örneklerinde ise, serbest yağ asidi ve yağ aside komposizyonu analizleri yapılmıştır. Zeytin meyvelerinde meyve iriliği ve et/çekirdek oranı, üçüncü ve dördüncü hasat zamanında daha yüksek değerlere ulaşmıştır. Hasat zamanı ilerledikçe, meyvenin olgunluk indeksi ve yağ miktarında bir artış, nem miktarında azalış ve rengin yeşilden siyaha döndüğü gözlenmiştir. Serbest yağ asidi olgunluk ilerledikçe hafif bir artış göstermiş, % 1'in çok altında değerler vermiştir. Zeytinin en önemli yağ asidi olan oleik asit olgunlaşma ile değişmemiştir. Hasat zamanın ilerlemesiyle palmitoleik ve linoleik asit artarken, palmitik ve linolenik asit azalmıştır. Bu bölgede Ayvalık zeytin çeşidinin yağlık değerlendirme için Aralık ayında hasat edilmesinin uygun olacağı sonucuna varılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Zeytin, zeytinyağı, olgunlaşma, meyve ağırlığı, yağ asidi kompozisyonu ABSTRACT This research is carried out in Manisa-Ahmetli region in Turkey to determine the effects of different altitude and different harvest times on fruit and olive oil quality of Ayvalık olive variety. Fruit were sampled four times at intervals during harvest time starting from October 10, November 13, November 23, December 5. Maturity index, color (CIE L*, a*, b*), fruit weight, flesh/pit ratio, moisture content and oil content are analyzed in fruit samples. Free fatty acids and fatty acid composition are determined in olive oil samples. Fruit weight and flesh/pit ratio, important quality parameters increased at the third and fourth harvest time. When the harvest time advanced, fruit maturity index and oil content increased, moisture content decreased and color turned from green to black. Free fatty acid content slightly increased when fruit ripening advanced. The percentage of oleic acid, the major fatty acid of olive oil, did not change throughout the harvest period. The content of palmitoleic and linoleic acids increased when harvest time advanced while palmitic and and linolenic decreased towards the later stages of harvest period. The recommended harvest time is in December for oil processing for Ayvalık olive variety in this area.
Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is a typical product of the Mediterranean region. The relationships between plants and soil type allow to improve the choice of crops that more satisfy the human need. The composition of EVOO may be influenced by both plant physiological characteristics (i.e., culti-var, stage of maturity and integrity of the fruit, and the oil production technology) and soil specific physical, chemical and biological properties. The aim of this work was to assess the relationships between soil properties, plant functional leaf traits, and oil quality in different Italian Olea europaea L. cultivars (Pisciottana, Ravece, Ortice, Frantoio and Moraiolo). Soil analyses indicated Ravece as the cultivar with the highest cationic exchange capacity and water holding capacity. Soil under Pisciottana showed the highest organic matter content differently from of soil covered by Ortice cultivar. These soil characteristics affect functional leaf traits. In particular, Pisciottana and Frantoio trees have leaves with comparable values of specific leaf area, higher than other cultivars, but a different pattern of C/N: the highest and the lowest values respectively. As concerns olive oil properties , Pisciottana showed a reduced amount of total polyphenols (TPC) and the strongest antioxidant activity. On the contrary Moraiolo oil was characterized by high TCP and low free acidity and per-oxide content than the other cultivars. Similar properties were observed in Ortice oil. Data showed that soil, leaf traits and oil quality are closely related: in Pisciottana stand, a slower organic matter turnover determines more allocation of carbon in plant mechanical tissues favouring the production of oils rich in antioxidant compounds. On the otherwise a soil less abundant in nutrients, such as Frantoio and Moraiolo, seems to induce the production of low-quality standard oil. In conclusion the better oil quality seems to be associated to the stressful conditions for plants in terms of resources important for the plant growth.
Characterization of olive fruits according to their heavy metal composition was carried out with a chemometric approach. The concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni and Co in the olive samples were determined by high-resolution continuum source atomic absorption spectrometer (HR-CS AAS). Heavy metal contamination in twenty-three olive samples collected from different regions (industrialized and non-industrialized) of Hatay province in Turkey was evaluated. Analytical performance and reliability of the method were checked by validation parameters. The results demonstrated that the mean content of heavy metals in the olive samples were ranged between 0.046 and 17.229 mg kg⁻¹. The analytical data was examined by principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) for the classification studies. The olive samples were classified into three groups reflecting the groups of unpolluted, industrial polluted and non-industrial polluted stations. This model can be a useful tool for the olive industry to emphasize product quality and naturalness.
Fruit is the seed-bearing structure in angiosperms formed from the ovary after flowering. However, the term is restricted to the ripened ovaries that are sweet and either succulent or pulpy. Fruits play an important role in the life cycle of the plant in the dispersal of seeds. Fruits are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, fiber, antioxidants, and a range of phytochemicals. Fruits ripen rapidly and are highly perishable due to which they are sometimes difficult to collect and transport. Therefore, apart from consumed as fresh, fruits are also frozen, canned, or dried. The shelf life of fruits can be extended by use of cooling processes like refrigeration or by the removal of oxygen from their storage or packaging containers. Fruits can be eaten raw or processed into different items like juice, jams, and jellies apart from being preserved by dehydration, canning, fermentation, and pickling.
The evolution of olive oil technology is related to research raised to deepen the understanding of biological and biophysical phenomena during the machining process olives, thus allowing the introduction of sensors able to monitoring the parameters and the process according to the characteristics of olives themselves. Current research has identified manufacturing protocols that can enable the achievement levels of product quality required by the market, mainly by reducing the time between collection and processing of olives and raising the technological level of extraction lines. In this context, the present chapter aims to describe the results of a three-years project developed by the PIN-University of Florence (Italy) in collaboration with the Tuscan Regional Agricultural Development, the Florence Commerce Chamber "Laboratorio Chimico Merceologico-Azienda Speciale CCIAA di Firenze" and the SME "TEM" (Toscana Enologica Mori). The chapter will describe the development of an innovative olive oil extraction process, characterized by a series of automatic controls (sensors, Machine Vision systems, etc.) of several agronomical and technological parameters during the extraction phases. This system allows several settings of the extraction process in order to dynamically modify the quality properties of the olive oil extracted. The oil mill is supported by computers and electronics systems (Machine Vision, sensors and Artificial Neural Network based software) that consents (1) the acquisition of data from the raw material, the extracted oil and the process parameters and (2) the development of a series of algorithms able to estimate the olive oil quality before the extraction process has started and to simulate the process. After some experimental campaigns conducted during the harvesting period of years 2005-2008, the devised approach identified the interrelationships between acquired data and quantitative characteristics of the product extracted. Based on the findings of the analysis of experimental data, software has then been implemented and validated. The validation comprises an iterative process that will impose changes to the software, general procedures, the possible amendment of the basic mathematics of the system, the estimate of the error, the statistical analysis of data and the development of new graphical user interfaces. The results of the devised system have been conducted according in force to European Union Rules standards and have been compared with the ones suggested by the literature.
The evolution during ripening of the principal components from olive, Hojiblanca var., was studied. The similarities and differences with other varieties were established.Se estudia la evolución de los componentes fundamentales de aceitunas de la variedad Hojiblanca, durante su maduración, en dos campañas sucesivas. Se establecen semejanzas y diferencias con otras variedades.
The amounts of glucose, fructose and mannitol, the main sugars in olive fruits, were determined in ‘Kadesh’, ‘Uovo di Piccione’ and ‘Manzanillo’ which have 8, 15 and 20% oil, respectively, at full black maturation. The sugars were separated by high-pressure liquid chromatography and characterized by ultraviolet detection after derivatization with nitrobenzoate. The total amount of sugar in ‘Kadesh’ was more than double that in the two other cultivars. A parallel rise in oil and sugar levels was noticed at the beginning of the fruit ripening period of ‘Kadesh’, while the sugar level of the other cultivars decreased during most of that period. Glucose was the predominant sugar in all cultivars, followed by fructose and mannitol. The relative amounts of mannitol were only 2% in ‘Kadesh’ and 10% in ‘Manzanillo’ and ‘Uovo de Piccione’. It is suggested that mannitol levels and oil accumulation are related.
Component changes in olive (Hojiblanca var.) during ripening Standard methods for the analysis of the oils, fats and derivatives
- R Guillen
- B J Fernandez
- A Hevedia
Guillen, R., Fernandez, B. J., & Hevedia, A. (1993). Component changes in olive (Hojiblanca var.) during ripening. Grasas y Aceties, 44(3), 201±203. IUPAC (1979). Standard methods for the analysis of the oils, fats and derivatives (6th ed.). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
Introduction to ICP±MS
- Anon
Anon. (1989a). Introduction to ICP±MS. Instruction manual (p. 5).
ICP S±5000 sequential plasma spectrometer TuÈrk Standardarõ TS(774) Sofralõk Zeytin Standardõ
- Hewlett Packard
- Anon
Hewlett Packard. Anon. (1989b). ICP S±5000 sequential plasma spectrometer. Shimadzu Corporation. Anon. (1992). TuÈrk Standardarõ TS(774) Sofralõk Zeytin Standardõ. Ankara: TuÈ rk Standartlarõ EnstituÈ suÈ.
Component changes in olive (Hojiblanca var.) during ripening
- R Guillen
- B J Fernandez
- A Hevedia
Guillen, R., Fernandez, B. J., & Hevedia, A. (1993). Component
changes in olive (Hojiblanca var.) during ripening. Grasas y Aceties,
44(3), 201±203.
Identi®cation and seasonal changes of glucose, fructose and mannitol in relation to oil accumulation during development in Olea europaea (L) Scientica Horticulturae
- M Wodner
- S Lavee
- E Epstain
Wodner, M., Lavee, S., & Epstain, E. (1987). Identi®cation and seasonal changes of glucose, fructose and mannitol in relation to oil
accumulation during development in Olea europaea (L). Scientica
Horticulturae, 36, 45±54.
- C Nergiz
- Y Engez
C. Nergiz, Y. Engez / Food Chemistry 69 (2000) 55±59
Subtropik iklim meyveleri (zeytin). I . zmir: Ege uÈ niversitesi Ziraat FakuÈ ltresi yayõnlarõ no
- K Mendilciogae Lu
MendilciogAE lu, K. (1990). Subtropik iklim meyveleri (zeytin). I
. zmir: Ege
uÈ niversitesi Ziraat FakuÈ ltresi yayõnlarõ no. 12.
TuÈrk Standardarõ TS(774) Sofralõk Zeytin Standardõ
- Anon
Anon. (1992). TuÈrk Standardarõ TS(774) Sofralõk Zeytin Standardõ.
Ankara: TuÈ rk Standartlarõ EnstituÈ suÈ.
ICP S-5000 sequential plasma spectrometer
- Anon
İzmir: Ege üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültresi yayınları no
- K Mendilcioğlu
Component changes in olive (Hojiblanca var.) during ripening
- Guillen
Introduction to ICP-MS. Instruction manual (p. 5)
- Anon