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Rethinking the Extraverted Sales Ideal: The Ambivert Advantage
Abstract
Despite the widespread assumption that extraverts are the most productive salespeople, research has shown weak and conflicting relationships between extraversion and sales performance. In light of these puzzling results, I propose that the relationship between extraversion and sales performance is not linear but curvilinear: Ambiverts achieve greater sales productivity than extraverts or introverts do. Because they naturally engage in a flexible pattern of talking and listening, ambiverts are likely to express sufficient assertiveness and enthusiasm to persuade and close a sale but are more inclined to listen to customers' interests and less vulnerable to appearing too excited or overconfident. A study of 340 outbound-call-center representatives supported the predicted inverted-U-shaped relationship between extraversion and sales revenue. This research presents a fresh perspective on the personality traits that facilitate successful influence and offers novel insights for people in choosing jobs and for organizations in hiring and training employees.
... Despite the preponderance of literature across disciplines that underscores the advantages and positive nature of extraversion (and thereby the negative nature of introversion), there is nascent research in management and psychology that takes a different perspective and questions the unequivocal "extraversion advantages at work" ( Wilmot, Wanberg, Kammeyer-Mueller, & Ones, 2019 ) and the "extraverted sales ideal" ( Grant, 2013 ). By highlighting the disadvantages of extraversion and emphasizing the advantages of introversion, the popular press has also argued for the advantages associated with introversion (e.g., Ancowitz, 2010 ;Cain, 2012 ;Pollard & Lewis, 2018 ). ...
... Extraverted salespeople's "preference for the stimulation of social interaction" ( Loveland, Lounsbury, Park, & Jackson, 2015 , p. 234) may result in more extensive dealings with others, which afford them more significant opportunities to gain access to and utilize the resources of others. Furthermore, since extraverted individuals are more outgoing, assertive, energetic, and social ( Goldberg, 1990 ), they may be more convincing in persuading others to provide them with resources and more apt to persevere when facing resistance ( Grant, 2013 ;Pink, 2012 ). ...
... First, as Grant (2013) notes, since introverted salespeople are less likely to be perceived as being excessively excited and confident ( Ames & Flynn, 2007 ), their communication with sales team members is less likely to be perceived as overt attempts to influence ( Campbell & Kirmani,20 0 0 ). Relatedly, since introverts are likely to be perceived as less aggressive and opportunistic, other retail sales team members may be less likely to view them as threats. ...
... Salespeople who are moderately extraverted may achieve higher sales performance than sellers whose extraversion measures higher (Grant, 2013;Ledinger & Fabian, 2020). This hypothesis may partially explain these inconsistencies across studies. ...
... Considering this outcome, it is reasonable to question why the present study's findings do not align with prior research. Perhaps it is time to update "the widespread assumption" and "conventional wisdom" (Grant, 2013(Grant, , p. 1024) that extraversion predicts sales performance and conscientiousness is a universal predictor of performance across all jobs and industries (John, 2021). These beliefs are pervasive and entrenched in the literature of personality and industrial-organizational psychology (Tett & Fisher, 2021;Zell & Lesick, 2022). ...
... Although many studies support this premise, others, including the present study, do not. As such, this study's findings suggest a mindset shift is justified from "the widespread assumption" and "conventional wisdom" (Grant, 2013(Grant, , p. 1024 to the possibility that there may be no relationships at all or that the relationships may be superseded by other variables that are more influential in predicting sales performance. As such, the retail travel industry should avoid discussing personality as a potential factor in travel agent sales. ...
The purpose of this quantitative correlational-predictive study was to examine if, and to what extent, there was a relationship among Conscientiousness and Extraversion, as measured by the Big Five Inventory, and the Annual Sales of travel agents in the United States. Trait theory, viewed from the perspective of the Five-Factor Model, served as the study’s theoretical foundation. The convenience sample of 246 self-employed, leisure-oriented travel agents were recruited from the memberships of two leading retail travel industry organizations in the United States. Multiple linear regression was used to explore whether Conscientiousness and Extraversion, both collectively and individually, predict the Annual Sales of travel agents in the United States. Data collected from an anonymous online survey were analyzed and failed to satisfy the assumptions for linearity and normally distributed residuals. The overall regression model was not statistically significant, and the results indicated that F(2, 243) = 0.388, p > 0.05. The correlation coefficient (R = 0.056) and the coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.003) indicated no relationship between Conscientiousness and Extraversion and Annual Sales. Individually, Conscientiousness (p = 0.480) and Extraversion (p = 0.705) did not have a statistically significant effect on Annual Sales. The study’s post-hoc power analysis was 0.999.
... Post pandemic, office requirements are re-calibrated, now emphasizing hybridity and flexibility in accommodating the adjusted ways of working (Greenhalgh et al., 2021). Researching the effects of this emerged work concept will benefit policymaking in terms of insights into employee performance (van der Lippe & Lippényl, 2019), relations amongst co-workers (Bentley et al, 2013), collaboration patterns (Knights & McCabe, 2003), employee workload (Felstead & Henseke, 2017), and employee well-being (Grant et al., 2013). Especially relevant concepts as of the inexistence of a one-size-fits-all policy regarding hybrid working. ...
... Nowadays, this often-addressed personality type is considered as being assertive, bold, dominant, social prowess, outgoing and the focal point of attention (Ashton & Lee, 2009;Wilt & Revelle, 2017). Although it is favoured in research, the extraverted personality only represents the population partly (Grant, 2013). Cain Further, introverts appear quiet, low-key, and thoughtful. ...
... The vignettes were designed based upon the concepts of theRadonić et al. (2021) questionnaire to ensure validity. The chosen concepts for vignette questions were work focus, task efficiency, work-life balance, and work stress(Grant et al., 2013; Felstead & Henseke, 2017; Inegedion et al., 2020;Radonić et al., 2021;van der Lippe & Lippényl, 2019). ...
The work environment has undergone significant change in recent years. Individuals and organisations have experienced the benefits of fully remote working, causing many people to shift to partly working from home as a definite. This major change in the execution of work caused ambiguity in organisational policymaking. Unfortunately, academic literature on hybrid working about the organisational phenomenon is not accessible or present due to this research's momentum. Yet it is evident to say that hybrid working is here to stay and will have an enormous effect on organisations in the following years. Therefore, this study focused on analysing the perceived impact of hybrid working on affective commitment. This relationship was further explored by concentrating on the moderation effect of high amounts of introverted employees in the organisation. Statements from the original Meyer and Allen self-administered questionnaire were used to measure individual levels of affective commitment. To address personality traits, the original Big Five Inventory extraversion scale of John et al. (1991) was used. Hybrid working was measured by using a validated scale on flexible work and a self-developed vignette scale. The findings of the present study supported the relationship between hybrid working relating to affective commitment. However, the study found no supporting evidence for the impact of voluntary choice or introversion on this relationship. Control variables inserted were age, gender, seniority, work situation, working years at the organisation, and the average percentage of hybrid work per employee. The findings of the present study solely promoted an understanding of hybrid working relating to affective commitment.
... More recent research shows that the relation between extraversion and job performance is not linear but curvilinear (inverted U-shaped) to the extent that too much extraversion becomes a contraindication. Indeed, subjects in the middle of the introversionextroversion continuum -ambiverts-achieve better sales performances, based on the idea that "too much of a good thing is a bad thing" (Grant, 2013;Wihler et al., 2017). Grant (2013) argues that "extraversion may have diminishing returns and increasing costs". ...
... Indeed, subjects in the middle of the introversionextroversion continuum -ambiverts-achieve better sales performances, based on the idea that "too much of a good thing is a bad thing" (Grant, 2013;Wihler et al., 2017). Grant (2013) argues that "extraversion may have diminishing returns and increasing costs". The reasons are that extroverted salespeople tend to focus more on their views than on the customers, and, at the same time, customers tend to consider too-much enthusiastic salespeople as trying to influence them. ...
... This combination can lead to major effects on interpersonal functioning. Grant (2013) discussed this evidence emphasizing that the relation between extraversion and sales is not universal and does not apply to several situations (Furnham and Fudge, 2008;Stewart, 1996). Far from being an ultimate result, the interdependence of extraversion and agreeableness is not meant to be exhaustive but instead is offered as an example of traits that are interpersonal in nature or that have fundamentally essential implications for interpersonal functioning. ...
A long tradition of research has shown that personality traits, such as extraversion and agreeableness, and interpersonal constructs better predict job performance with a tacit but not explicit distinction in sales marketing activities. In this contribution, we aim to understand the role of job-related and interest data, interpersonal, and personality traits in affecting either inbound or outbound marketing activities and the overall sales performance. An original questionnaire integrates the interpersonal traits and personality factors reported in the literature in sales marketing activities (independent variables). The results were matched with the individual job-related and interest data (control variables) and sales performance (criterion variables) - expressed as the total number of closed contracts over the inbound/outbound related contacts of employees with responsibility in marketing activities for a large banking group. We are able to identify the relevant predictors of sales performance by creating full binary trees using control and independent variables in conditional inference forests and variable importance index measures. Higher performers in either inbound or outbound marketing activities rely on distinct personality sub-traits, which have fundamentally essential implications for interpersonal functioning, and personal data when agreeableness is central to the ability to function effectively in the interpersonal realm of sales activity.
... This can either be because increasing the beneficial predictor leads to wasted energy since its effect plateaus (e.g., there are no benefits of showing additional dominant behavior because one already has sufficient control of the situation), or the increase directly leads to detrimental consequences (e.g., instead of increasing control, showing additional dominant behavior alienates previously cooperative interaction partners). Evidence for this inverse curvilinear effect has, for example, been found for the relationship between agentic behavior and advice seeking (Hu et al. 2019), leadership perception (Ames and Flynn 2007), performance (Grant 2013), the association between warm behavior and peer liking (Hu et al. 2019), and prosocial effort and moral character (Berry and Lucas 2022). Equally, the existence of biases in judgments (e.g., prescriptive stereotypes such as gender or age, Heilman 2012; Ruffle and Shtudiner 2015;Rupp, Vodanovich, and Crede 2006) is only possible in a nonlinear effect. ...
... It however, is interesting that, while a strong linear component was to be expected, a larger impact of nonlinear effects could have been expected too-particularly in light of the evidence for curvilinear relations of generally positive interpersonal behavior, such as dominant and warm behaviors on judgment outcomes (too much of a good thing-effect; Ames and Flynn 2007;Berry and Lucas 2022;Grant 2013;Hu et al. 2019;Pierce and Aguinis 2013). Reflecting on the content of the interpersonal exercises, a curvilinear effect of behaviors such as, for example, leading the interaction (dominance) in situations like managing a crisis, convincing another person of something they do not want, and delivering bad news seems plausible. ...
Although Assessment Center (AC) role‐play assessments have received ample attention in past research, their reliance on actual behavioral information is still unclear. Uncovering the behavioral basis of AC role‐play assessments is, however, a prerequisite for the optimization of existing and the development of novel automated AC procedures. This work provides a first data‐driven benchmark for the behavioral prediction and explanation of AC performance judgments. We used machine learning models trained on behavioral cues ( C = 36) to predict performance judgments in three interpersonal AC exercises from a real‐life high‐stakes AC (selection of medical students, N = 199). Three main findings emerged: First, behavioral prediction models showed substantial predictive performance and outperformed prediction models representing potential judgment biases. Comparisons with in‐sample results revealed overfitting of traditional approaches, highlighting the importance of out‐of‐sample evaluations. Second, we demonstrate that linear combinations of behavioral cues can be strong predictors of assessors' judgments. Third, we identified consistent exercise‐specific patterns of individual cues and cross‐exercise consistent behavioral patterns of behavioral dimensions and interpersonal strategies that were especially predictive of the assessors' judgments. We discuss implications for future research and practice.
... They may be sociable and energetic in some situations and calm and reflective in others. Grant (2013) demonstrated that ambiverts achieve greater success in professions requiring a balance between communication and analytical skills, such as sales and management. Studies also indicate that ambiverts are better equipped to handle changing workplace demands and exhibit greater adaptability compared to strongly introverted or extroverted individuals. ...
... Research indicates that ambiverts possess a high capacity for emotional regulation and social adaptability, making them valuable employees in dynamic work environments (Grant, 2013). ...
The chronological hierarchy and classification of psychological types of individuals are examined. The anomalous nature of psychological activity in individuals involved in scientific work is highlighted. Certain aspects of the introverted thinking type in scientific activities are analyzed. For the first time, psychological archetypes of scientists with pronounced introversion are postulated in the context of twelve hypotheses about the specifics of professional attributes of introverted scientific activities. A linear regression and Bayesian equation are proposed for quantitatively assessing the econometric degree of introversion in scientific employees, considering a wide range of characteristics inherent to introverts in scientific processing. Specifically, expressions for a comprehensive assessment of introversion in a linear model and the posterior probability of the econometric (scientometric) degree of introversion in a Bayesian model are formulated. The models are based on several econometric (scientometric) hypotheses regarding various aspects of professional activities of introverted scientists, such as a preference for solo publications, low social activity, narrow specialization, high research depth, and so forth. Empirical data and multiple linear regression methods can be used to calibrate the equations. The model can be applied to gain a deeper understanding of the psychological characteristics of scientific employees, which is particularly useful in ergonomics and the management of scientific teams and projects. The proposed method also provides scientists with pronounced introversion the opportunity to develop their careers, focusing on individual preferences and features.
... They may be sociable and energetic in some situations and calm and reflective in others. Grant (2013) demonstrated that ambiverts achieve greater success in professions requiring a balance between communication and analytical skills, such as sales and management. Studies also indicate that ambiverts are better equipped to handle changing workplace demands and exhibit greater adaptability compared to strongly introverted or extroverted individuals. ...
... Research indicates that ambiverts possess a high capacity for emotional regulation and social adaptability, making them valuable employees in dynamic work environments (Grant, 2013). ...
The chronological hierarchy and classification of psychological types of individuals are examined. The anomalous nature of psychological activity in individuals involved in scientific work is highlighted. Certain aspects of the introverted thinking type in scientific activities are analyzed. For the first time, psychological archetypes of scientists with pronounced introversion are postulated in the context of twelve hypotheses about the specifics of professional attributes of introverted scientific activities. A linear regression and Bayesian equation are proposed for quantitatively assessing the econometric degree of introversion in scientific employees, considering a wide range of characteristics inherent to introverts in scientific processing. Specifically, expressions for a comprehensive assessment of introversion in a linear model and the posterior probability of the econometric (scientometric) degree of introversion in a Bayesian model are formulated. The models are based on several econometric (scientometric) hypotheses regarding various aspects of professional activities of introverted scientists, such as a preference for solo publications, low social activity, narrow specialization, high research depth, and so forth. Empirical data and multiple linear regression methods can be used to calibrate the equations. The model can be applied to gain a deeper understanding of the psychological characteristics of scientific employees, which is particularly useful in ergonomics and the management of scientific teams and projects. The proposed method also provides scientists with pronounced introversion the opportunity to develop their careers, focusing on individual preferences and features.
... This statement aligns with previous studies on ambiverts, who exhibit a proclivity towards cooperative learning and group collaboration (Davidson, 2017;Zulkarnain & Nurmayana, 2022). Ambiverts benefit from this approach to learning through the acquisition of knowledge and skills from diverse perspectives and experiences (Dorjee & Ting-Toomey, 2020; Grant, 2013). Their ability to work effectively with others is a key interpersonal competency, valued in both personal and professional contexts. ...
... It also helps me understand the subject better by focusing on specific concepts or skills (Participant 10). The statement "Focusing on specific tasks means breaking down big goals into smaller, manageable parts" aligns with the characteristics of ambiverts as individuals known for their organizational and goal-oriented tendencies (Davidson, 2022;Grant, 2013). The strategy of breaking down larger goals into smaller tasks enables ambiverts to prioritize their resources effectively, advance in a structured manner, and steer clear of distractions. ...
The current study endeavors to investigate the preferred English language learning strategies among individuals who self-identify as ambiverts. A mixed-methods research design, comprising a survey questionnaire and follow-up interviews, was implemented to gather data from a sample population of 68 English-major students, of which 22 self-identified as ambiverts. The study aimed to elucidate the influence of the balance between introversion and extroversion on ambiverts’ favored learning strategies and to examine the benefits this balance provides in terms of selecting strategies that are best adapted to their unique needs and preferences. The results demonstrate that ambiverts favored affective learning strategies, such as musical accompaniment and positive self-talk, as well as compensatory strategies, such as deductive reasoning and seeking assistance. Furthermore, ambiverts displayed a proclivity for metacognitive strategies, including the recognition of faults and focusing on specific tasks, and memory-related strategies, including the utilization of color-coding and the integration of images and keywords. The study also revealed that social strategies, such as collaboration with others and seeking clarification, were favored by ambiverts, emphasizing the significance of interaction and engagement in the learning process. These findings have important implications for language educators and may inform the development of more inclusive learning materials that cater to a broad range of learning styles, including ambiverts, and enhance the effectiveness of language instruction.
... Introversion and communication apprehension. One of the most studied aspects of personality in the workplace involves extroversion versus introversion (Grant, 2013). Introversion is typically associated with hesitation or fear to speak up and often leads to self-censorship (Grant, 2013;Ravishankar, 2021;Ruchala & Hill, 1994). ...
... One of the most studied aspects of personality in the workplace involves extroversion versus introversion (Grant, 2013). Introversion is typically associated with hesitation or fear to speak up and often leads to self-censorship (Grant, 2013;Ravishankar, 2021;Ruchala & Hill, 1994). Most people are familiar with the terms extrovert and introvert, yet most people fall somewhere in between as ambiverts (E. ...
Communication apprehension can lead to professional challenges for individuals, teams, and organizations. This is the first study of communication apprehension that involved a randomized national survey of working adults in the United States and captured broad representation in terms of age, gender, race/ethnicity, managerial status, and other factors. The study showed that communication apprehension is common, including in group discussions, meetings, interpersonal situations, and public speaking. It is significantly more common among early-career professionals, women, introverted professionals, and professionals with anxiety. Interpersonal situations appear to be the situations in which contemporary professionals are most likely to experience high communication apprehension. This study suggests more attention is needed to address communication apprehension in interpersonal and group situations. It also frames communication apprehension as a matter of inclusion and team performance.
... This helps them to be more aware of, and better utilize, data at their disposal (Brebner & Cooper, 1978;Rammsayer et al., 2014). Moreover, individuals low in introversion tend to spend their time talking, but those who are high in introversion tend to observe and listen to others (Cain, 2012;Grant, 2013). Indeed, some research has found that introverts tend to have a better grasp of social psychological phenomena and human behavior than extraverts (Gollwitzer & Bargh, 2018). ...
... Extraverts may also "over-emerge" as leaders, displaying unwarranted influence that results in disastrous group outcomes (Lanaj & Hollenbeck, 2015). Research outside the leadership domain has similarly uncovered the drawbacks of extraversion and strengths of introversion in contexts including sales (Grant, 2013), social perception (Gollwitzer & Bargh, 2018), and many other areas of life (see Cain, 2012). ...
Some leaders tend to use their intuition to think and make decisions more than others do. This individual difference (i.e., an intuitive cognitive style) may have important implications for the collectives of people they lead. Unfortunately, scholars lack a clear understanding of the conditions under which intuition is effective, especially in the context of large and complex organizational structures such as multiteam systems (MTSs). We argue that the effects of leaders’ intuitive cognitive style on MTS performance depends on the amount of information load they face in their roles, as well as their level of introversion: a personality characteristic that is associated with an inward and reflective focus. Using a sample of 222 MTSs comprised of Captains in the United States Air Force, our study demonstrated that the intuitive cognitive style of leaders in high information load roles positively affected MTS performance, especially if they were high in introversion. In low information load roles, however, an intuitive cognitive style had a negative effect on MTS performance, especially for leaders low in introversion. We also argued and found that MTS coordination effectiveness played a key mediating role. Our study advances research in multiple areas of work, including intuition, MTSs, and leadership.
... The Eysenck Personality Inventory was elaborated by Hans J. Eysenck, and assesses human personality based on two general dimensions, independent of one another: extraversion-introversion and neuroticism-stability [15][16][17][18]. The EPI is composed of two parallel questionnaires, for cases in which retesting is required, each consisting of 57 questions that can be answered in 10 min, and are grouped into three scales: the extraversionintroversion scale (E), the neuroticism scale (N), and the lie scale (L). ...
... This type of scale utilizes redundant questions, which are questions that seek to elicit the same information, but use varied question formats to check the consistency of the answers. In the EPI questionnaire, results between 0 and 5 show that the test can be considered valid, and results between 6 and 9 invalidate the test results [15][16][17][18]. ...
Background and objectives: Since the first reports of SARS-CoV-2 infection cases in China, the virus has rapidly spread to many countries, including Romania. In Romania, schools were closed in March 2020 to prevent the virus from spreading; since then, they have been sporadically opened, but only for a short time. Teachers had to adopt online education methods, experiencing real difficulties in their attempts to maintain high-quality teaching, as a result of social distancing from students and colleagues. The current study aimed to evaluate the burden on the neuroticism states of employees in the pre-university education system during the COVID-19 pandemic. Materials and Methods: A prospective study was conducted, in which personality trait data from 138 employees were collected via a questionnaire (EPI, Eysenck Personality Inventory), which measured extraversion–introversion and neuroticism scores before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Initially, 150 subjects were invited to participate in the study, although 12 of them refused to participate. Based on the questionnaire not being fully filled in a further three subjects were excluded from the study, leaving a total of 135, of which 115 were woman and 20 were men. Results: The results demonstrate that the subjects included in the study expressed higher neuroticism during the COVID-19 pandemic than in the pre-pandemic period. This change could promote more stress and depression symptoms. Subjects with high school education had significantly lower neuroticism scores over time than those with university education (p = 0.006). Furthermore, we found extraversion scores to be statistically significant in our population (p = 0.022). Conclusion: The gender and living environment of the teachers were not significantly associated with the reduction in the extraversion score, but were more frequently found among older persons and in subjects without higher education. Subjects of Hungarian ethnicity had lower extraversion scores than those of Romanian ethnicity.
... Additional research on the relationship between extraversion and performance in various contexts highlights the complexity of the relationship and how introverts can in fact thrive in stereotypically extraverted occupations and beyond. For instance, research on extraversion and sales performance suggests the relationship could in fact be curvilinear (Grant, 2013). In leadership, introverted leaders tend to be more effective at leading proactive followers compared to extraverted leaders (Grant et al., 2011). ...
... In the present study, we tested the moderated expression model, stipulating that the sales performance effect of Conscientiousness in apparel store sales depends on a third variable, namely the level of Fearless Happiness. The implication for practice is that organizations should not seek individuals with moderate levels of Extraversion, as suggested by the ambivert model of Extraversion in sales jobs (Grant, 2013), but should try to attract, select, develop, and promote individuals with simultaneously high levels of Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Emotional Stability (Shoss & Witt, 2013). For service positions, simultaneously high levels of Extraversion and Emotional Stability have a high potential for getting strong supervisor ratings (Judge & Erez, 2007). ...
Conscientiousness can be an important personality predictor of sales performance. However, it has been suggested that Conscientiousness may have two faces in the job performance context: the highly functioning worker and the nervous low performer driven by angst. Based on the moderated expression model of Conscientiousness in job performance and the apparel store sales context, we tested whether the Fearless Happiness trait, a compound trait of Emotional Stability and Extraversion, positively moderated the relation between salespersons' (N = 251) Conscientiousness and objective individual sales performance over one year in a large nationwide chain of apparel stores (N = 174 units). We found that individuals who possessed elevated trait levels of Conscien-tiousness and Fearless Happiness were the high-functioning salespersons, individually improving sales performance by more than €20,500 per year above beyond Customer Service Orientation. We discuss implications for the two faces of Conscientiousness in sales performance.
... Note that this indeed implies that, in certain cases, high(er) levels of typically desirable traits (e.g., conscientiousness) can actually lead to unfavorable outcomes, possibly instigating a desire or need to decrease. In one study on this 'Too-much-of-a-good-thing-effect' (Pierce & Aguinis, 2013), Grant (2013) found that sales persons with moderate scores on the introversion-extraversion dimension outperformed both introverts and extraverts, pointing to the unique capacity of 'ambiverts' to not only persuade customers but also be attentive to their needs and listen. Similar resultsi.e. ...
There is a long and successful history of personality research in organizational contexts and personality assessments are now widely used in a variety of human resources or talent management interventions. In this tradition, assessment typically involves describing (future) employees' personality profiles, and then using this information to select or adapt work roles to optimally meet employees' traits. Although useful, one limitation of this approach is that it overlooks employees' motivations and abilities to develop themselves in their pursuit of greater person‐environment fit. This paper therefore argues for a new type of personality assessment that goes beyond the current descriptive approach. Specifically, we propose assessing employees' Personality Development Goals (PDGs) at work to complement the traditional assessment of “who are you?” with information about “who do you want to be?”. We first briefly summarize the current approach to personality assessment and highlight its limitations. Then, we take stock of the research on PDGs in clinical and personality literatures, and outline the reasons for translating this into organizational applications. We end by describing the key principles that should inform the implementation of PDGs at work and propose a number of future research directions to support and advance this practice.
... In theory, psychodiversity shares similarities with the notion of the ambivert personality, given the bistability of psychological states and responsiveness to and experience of environmental contingencies. Ambiverts are defined as possessing a stable combination of introverted characteristics, such as introspection and observation, and also extraverted features, such as assertiveness and enthusiasm (Grant, 2013). Such individuals might be posited as most psychodiverse. ...
A novel self-report methodology for the construction of a multidimensional questionnaire measure of psychodiversity is described and preliminary findings from three exploratory studies examining construct validity in relation to indices of well-being are discussed. Arising from these empirical endeavours, the notion of metamotivational state specific psychodiversity is proposed. The need for additional item generation for the combined alloic-autic and mastery-sympathy pairs is acknowledged. Suggestions are made for further research developing and using the resultant measure both within and beyond Reversal Theory.
... From the point of personality, being 22 A similar issue can arise in the case of introverts, i.e., even in those cases where being an extravert is an advantage when performing one's job, perhaps not hiring introverts is indirect discrimination because the job (or the social world) could have been designed otherwise such that being an introvert would not make one less able to perform well in the job. 23 Some studies challenge the assumption that extraverts are better salespersons than introverts (Grant, 2013). 24 An issue to be considered here is whether this figure hides great variation-for some jobs extraversion is good, for other introversion is. 25 Admittedly, they might get better workers if they also detect lowconscientiousness workers and generally deselect them. ...
Employers sometimes use personality tests in hiring or specifically look for candidates with certain personality traits such as being social, outgoing, active, and extraverted. Therefore, they hire based on personality, specifically extraversion in part at least. The question arises whether this practice is morally permissible. We argue that, in a range of cases, it is not. The common belief is that, generally, it is not permissible to hire based on sex or race, and the wrongness of such hiring practices is based on two widely accepted principles: the Relevance Principle and the Fairness Principle. The Relevance Principle states that hiring should be based on what is relevant to job performance, while the Fairness Principle states that hiring should be based on features that individuals can control. Since hiring based on sex or race violates these principles, it is wrong. However, we argue that, in a range of cases, hiring based on extraversion also violates these principles, and assuming the validity of the Relevance and the Fairness Principles, it follows that personality discrimination is morally wrong in those cases.
... This is a type of personality that contains a cross-mixing of two types of personality in men and women. An ambivert can act like an extrovert or introvert in various situations (Cai et al., 2016;Davidson, 2017;Grant, 2013). ...
The aim of the article was to thoroughly analyze the current state of the economy of the regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan and identify problems hindering the intensive development of individual regions and develop recommendations and proposals to overcome them. To achieve this goal, the following indicators were selected: 1) the growth rate of the gross regional product; 2) the growth rate of gross regional product per capita; 3) grouping of regions by the growth rate of GRP per capita; 4) gross value added per employed employee; 5) the share of gross regional product in the GDP of the Republic of Kazakhstan; 6) the rate of income growth of the population. The research was carried out using the following methods: economic analysis and synthesis, statistical-economic, computational-constructive and economic interpretation of statistical data. The primary statistical data have been processed and their final values are presented in tabular form, the grouping of indicators has been carried out and the necessary economic generalizations have been made. The information base of the research was compiled by the data of the "Bureau of National Statistics", the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan are classified into groups depending on the growth rate of gross value added, the specific weights of individual regions in the structure of the gross domestic product of the Republic of Kazakhstan are calculated, in order to rank regions by their contribution to the GDP of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The economic factors constraining the development of the economy of individual regions are identified and proposals are given to overcome these barriers. Thus, for the intensive development of both lagging and average regions, it is recommended to improve intersectoral and interregional economic ties between them. In this regard, the problem of insufficient development of industries engaged in harvesting, storage and processing of agricultural products is particularly acute. This issue is especially relevant for the southern and southeastern regions of the country. It is recommended to invest more material, technical and financial resources in the sphere of transportation, storage and processing of the agro-industrial complex.
... This is a type of personality that contains a cross-mixing of two types of personality in men and women. An ambivert can act like an extrovert or introvert in various situations (Cai et al., 2016;Davidson, 2017;Grant, 2013). ...
The main goal of this study was to study social emotional intelligence in male students and female students. The ongoing study is a pilot one. The idea of the study is to reveal the dependence of the level of social emotional intelligence on gender and on the age of students. Social emotional intelligence is represented by three psychological types - extroverts, introverts and ambiverts. The survey was conducted on the basis of the University of International Business named after K. Sagadiev (Almaty, Kazakhstan) among students of the bachelor's level. Within one month, 65 questionnaires were collected. The questions were answered using the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) extraversion-introversion scale. In this pilot paper, three hypotheses were put forward, of which two were refuted, one was confirmed: The level of social emotional intelligence of extraversion does not depend on the gender and age of the student. The study then used Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to test the validity of the test design. The results showed that the main two factors of the test are (1) factors focused on the internal experiences of students during communication with other people and (2) students' attitude towards public speaking. The social intelligence of an ambivert is higher than that of others, since emotional intelligence includes two sides: understanding one's own and other people's emotions. In the future, it is planned to conduct a main study with an increase in the number of respondents up to 354 students.
... This is a type of personality that contains a cross-mixing of two types of personality in men and women. An ambivert can act like an extrovert or introvert in various situations (Cai et al., 2016;Davidson, 2017;Grant, 2013). ...
The article provides an overview of the current situation of digital transformation in certain countries of the world, including Kazakhstan, reveals the problems associated with these processes, and provides comments and suggestions for improving the work on digital transformation. The current state of the IT market of the EAEU and Kazakhstan is analyzed, mutual economic relations between the EAEU member states are studied. The essence of the category "digital economy" is revealed and the characteristics of the digital economy are given. The basis of the digital economy is trading through information and communication technologies (ICT). The role of the digital economy as a source of investment and innovation growth is determined. The problems of further development of the digital economy of modern Kazakhstan are thoroughly investigated. The main methodological concepts of the digital economy development are established, the ways of its implementation in the Republic of Kazakhstan are recommended. A serious study was conducted to analyze the indicators of the current state of digitalization of Kazakhstan in accordance with the indicators of annual international ratings. The "bottlenecks" hindering the digitalization of the country's economy have been identified. The assessment of the current state of the ICT market is given. The structure of the market is critically examined, the dynamics of its development are revealed. Suggestions on the main trends in the development of the IT market of the Republic of Kazakhstan are given.
... First, those overconfident individuals who misjudge skill are also more likely to herald their erroneous advice. That is because they are more likely to be extroverts -assertive, enthusiastic, outgoing, persuasive, and comfortable initiating interactions with others -which leads others to perceive them, at least initially, as better performing than they really are (Bendersky and Shah 2013;Grant 2013). Second, we assume that individuals are equally docile -willing (or reluctant) to receive advice. ...
When facing a crisis (or preparing for one), decision-makers often turn to peer networks, seeking advice and providing it. Scholars and practitioners endorse sharing knowledge and experience, especially for boosting resilience and combating crises. They believe such decentralized, peer-to-peer contact suits the ill-structured challenges organizations encounter. Yet, this endorsement overlooks a bias known as the Dunning-Kruger effect: People regularly misjudge their own and their peers’ skills. Thus, ascertaining whether a peer is sufficiently skilled to advise is an error-prone endeavor. Because of the bias, a person in need may mistakenly accept poor advice—and then proceed to unintentionally spread it. To understand advice networks in crisis, we weave case studies and experimental evidence into a formal model. Seeding the model with empirical data on skill (mis)judgment, we confirm that advice improves performance, but only if skill misjudgment is assumed away. When the bias is incorporated into the model, the risk of transmitting poor advice increases. As it cascades from one person to another, poor advice undercuts skill throughout organizations and networks. And it reduces the diversity and range of knowledge and advice, further hampering crisis response. Seeking a remedy, we introduce a theoretically-derived mechanism for carving up the advice network, showing how organizational design can ameliorate the risk. We conclude with implications for resilience and crisis research and practice whether in established organizations or entrepreneurial ventures.
... [20] One possible explanation is though extraversion is a people-oriented conversational style, [25] it is also associated with talkativeness and attention-seeking behaviors; consequently, people having higher extraversion tendencies might lack positive social characteristics. [26] It can be inferred from these findings that extraversion tendencies may interfere with the listening ability of people and as a result, impede getting along with others, which might lead to halting empathetic behaviors. ...
Background:
Empathy is regarded as a fundamental personal attribute for in-training and in-practice doctors. Several factors may play a significant role to facilitate or prevent the ability of doctors' empathy toward their patients. The objective of the present study is to investigate the relationship of empathy with personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience) among undergraduate medical students.
Materials and methods:
This study was based on a correlational, cross-sectional design and was conducted from January 2020 to April 2020. The sample consisted of 301 undergraduate medical students studying in different medical colleges situated in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Personal information form, the big-five personality inventory, and the interpersonal reactivity index scales were administered. Obtained data were analyzed by applying several methods such as mean, standard deviation, Mann-Whitney U test, Pearson's correlation coefficient, and multivariable linear regression.
Results:
Regression analysis revealed that personality dimensions accounted for 10-19% of the variance in scores of empathy sub-dimensions of perspective-taking, empathetic concern, fantasy, and personal distress. Agreeableness was found to be associated with empathetic concern and perspective-taking. Openness to experience was found to be significantly related to perspective-taking and fantasy, whereas extraversion was negatively associated with perspective-taking. Neuroticism had an association with personal distress, empathetic concern, and fantasy. Additionally, no gender difference was observed and students with people-oriented specialty preferences showed significantly higher scores on empathy sub-domains than technology-oriented students.
Conclusion:
This study confirmed that personality dimensions play a notable role to predict empathetic behaviors among Saudi undergraduate medical students. This study would help to design individualized strategies by incorporating personality dimensions in the training program to enhance empathetic behavior among medical students.
... First, future studies could extend our approach to other big five traits. Considering the existence of the TMGT effect for other traits such as emotional stability (Le et al., 2011), and extraversion (Ames & Flynn, 2007;Grant, 2013), it is possible that similar patterns in evaluations of those traits would be observed. ...
Recent advances in personality theory and research have led to the introduction of the “Too-much-of-a-good-thing-effect” in the relationship between conscientiousness and desirable outcomes, challenging the “more is better” idea that has been dominating research on this trait for a long time. Thus, the question arises as to how people evaluate their conscientiousness levels themselves, more specifically, whether they regard their trait levels as “too little”, “the right amount”, or “too much”. The current study describes how an existing personality inventory can be adjusted to explore such evaluations of conscientiousness levels by incorporating a too little/too much response format. The structural characteristics of this new assessment approach are examined and compared against responses that are collected using a traditional Likert rating format asking people to describe themselves. Results show that – in this sample (N = 367) – about 11 % of participants evaluated their conscientiousness as adequate, whereas the majority (75 %) indicated it to be too high. Further, the “right amount” of conscientiousness was most frequently associated with a 7 on a 9-point Likert scale, while very high Likert-scale ratings of 9 were regarded as “too much” in over three-fourth of the ratings. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
... Neuroticism is the dimension of emotional stability ranging from high levels of neuroticism, characterized with high level of emotional instability, to low levels of neuroticism, characterized by higher levels of emotional stability, but sometimes even described as reserved, calm, and unemotional personality [17]. According to Grant M Adam ambiverts achieve greater productivity in sales than extraverts or introverts do because they naturally engage in a flexible pattern of talking and listening, are likely to express sufficient assertiveness and enthusiasm to persuade and close a sale, but are more inclined to listen to customers' interests and less vulnerable to appearing too excited or overconfident [18]. An ambivert is moderately comfortable with groups and social interaction, but also relishes time alone, away from crowd. ...
Background: Modern psychological theories define introvert-extrovert spectrum as a continuous dimension of personality, rather than simply two personality types. Purpose of this article is to investigate and explain the introvert-extrovert spectrum, define and discuss the term ambivert whilst expanding the term introvert-extrovert spectrum using the term of ambiversion as an equally important, and finally, discuss the importance of libido in the context of introvert-ambivert-extrovert spectrum. Methods: Using literature review, author’s own experience and reflections about this subject, the theory of introvert-ambivert-extrovert spectrum is explained, expanded and discussed in this article. Conclusion: Libido, which can be defined not only as a sexual drive (narrow meaning), but as an overall life energy (wider meaning), can be directed in the individual’s expression of energy more inward (that is being more introverted) or more outward (that is being more extroverted). Ambiversion is somewhere near the half-way mark between two extremes, and it is characterized by high degree of adaptiveness and a good balance between inward and outward turning of the libido, which is associated with having more mature defense mechanisms in different life situations in comparison with predominantly introverts or extroverts, who might be more susceptible for the development of neurotic defense mechanism when faced with demanding life situations that require personality traits from the opposite side of the introvert-ambivert-extrovert spectrum. Using psychological advice and mental training it is possible to develop some of the personality traits from the opposite side of the spectrum in order to increase the adaptiveness to different life situations and avoid the development of neurotic defense mechanisms and neurotic surrogate life goals.
... Extraversion has predominantly been linked to specific performance dimensions that include behaviors such as influencing and convincing others, for example, sales (Grant, 2013;Vinchur et al., 1998) Holland's (1997) vocational RIASEC model, is used to capture the enterprising aspects that are featured in multiple jobs and are not specifically restricted to jobs in sales, marketing, and management. Based on this empirical evidence, we selected enterprising performance as the construct that should correspond to extraversion. ...
Recent research has suggested that self‐ and other‐ratings of personality may provide different information about personality, which can be captured in the trait‐reputation‐identity (TRI) model. Based on the TRI model, we investigate the link between personality and aligned job performance criteria on domain and aspect levels of the Big Five personality traits. In five samples (overall N = 571 triplets of target self‐ratings and two coworker other‐ratings), we investigated the relationships between the shared information on personality and shared information about job performance. We found that all personality domains showed substantial criterion validity in predicting the corresponding job‐performance dimensions. Furthermore, we found stronger estimates for aspects of agreeableness and openness. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for target replacement and performance management.
... As personality measures, we use the Five-Factor model of personality (Rammstedt & John, 2007), and Trait Competitiveness (Brown et al., 1998;Plouffe et al., 2017;Schrock et al., 2016). Lay people commonly associate extraversion and competitiveness with presumed sales success, even though empirical research has shown weak or conflicting correlations between these constructs and sales performance (Grant, 2013). Nevertheless, it is plausible that these widespread assumptions may affect extraverted and competitive students' perception of the attractiveness of starting a sales career. ...
This research is one of the first Intent to Pursue a Sales Career (ITPSC) studies to link intent to actual student behavior. In addition, this study systematically revisits the validity and reliability of the ITPSC-scale and its associated antecedents. Based on partial least square analysis, we find support for the validity and reliability of the four-item ITPSC-scale, but notice room for improvement on the ITPSC-Ethics and ITPSC-Knowledge antecedents. We extend prior work by investigating how ITPSC performs differently for women, students with a sales role model, and students who are more advanced in their academic career. We also observe differences in the antecedent structure compared with earlier work. Of the ITPSC-antecedents, the Perceptions of the Sales Profession construct dominates when it comes to predicting intent to pursue a sales career, something that calls into question the recent grounding of the ITPSC in the Theory of Planned Behavior.
... Because each trait domain has a socially desirable pole, we might expect that best traits are more likely to reflect their socially desirable poles, whereas worst traits are more likely to reflect their socially undesirable poles. At the same time, a growing body of research considers the evolutionary (Nettle, 2006), cybernetic (DeYoung, 2015, and practical costs (e.g., for job performance, income, happiness; Grant, 2013;Judge et al., 2012;Smith et al., 2018;Wiese et al., 2018) of having "too much" of the desirable end of various traits. The Aristotelian perspective that virtue is the golden mean implies that both deficient and excessive expressions of traits (relative to what is best for a given situation) can be suboptimal (Grant & Schwartz, 2011;Ng & Tay, 2020). ...
What do people think their best and worst personality traits are? Do their friends agree? Across three samples, 463 college students ("targets") and their friends freely described two traits they most liked and two traits they most disliked about the target. Coders categorized these open-ended trait descriptors into high or low poles of six trait domains (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness, and honesty-humility) and judged whether targets and friends reported the same specific best and worst traits. Best traits almost exclusively reflected high levels of the major trait domains (especially high agreeableness and extraversion). In contrast, although worst traits typically reflected low levels of these traits (especially low emotional stability), they sometimes also revealed the downsides of having high levels of these traits (e.g., high extraversion: "loud"; high agreeableness: "people-pleaser"). Overall, targets and friends mentioned similar kinds of best traits; however, targets emphasized low emotional stability worst traits more than friends did, whereas friends emphasized low prosociality worst traits more than targets did. Targets and friends also showed a moderate amount of self-other agreement on what the targets' best and worst traits were. These results (a) shed light on the traits that people consider to be most important in themselves and their friends, (b) suggest that the desirability of some traits may be in the eye of the beholder, (c) reveal the mixed blessings of different traits, and, ultimately, (d) provide a nuanced perspective on what it means for a trait to be "good" or "bad." (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Another explanation for the weak linear relationship with performance and the sometimes nonlinear relationship between personality traits and performance could be the existence of individual differences (Guay et al., 2013;Thoresen, Bradley, Bliese, & Thoresen, 2004;Witt, Burke, Barrick, & Mount, 2002). For example, conscientiousness (Le et al., 2011) and extraversion (Grant, 2013) have shown a curvilinear relationship with performance. These findings suggest that the presence of moderators could mask the relationship between agreeableness and performance. ...
The role congruity theory and research on gender stereotypes suggest that communion and agency tendencies explain gender discrimination in performance evaluations. We propose that high agreeableness, a Big Five personality trait, captures the communal dimension of an individual’s concern for others. Across two studies conducted in India and the United States, we found evidence that the relationship between agreeableness and performance evaluations is nonlinear for female employees. Women are rated as high performers when they exhibit moderate levels of agreeableness. For male employees, we find a communal bonus effect in which they benefit from being agreeable in the workplace. Our findings demonstrate the stability of these findings across Indian and North American cultures. Our findings contribute to the literature on role congruity, personality theories, and job performance.
... That is, trait activation theory favors situational specificity, in that a trait becomes active depending on the specific situation and situational cues an individual observes. For example, highly socialized situations, such as the annual stakeholder luncheon, activate a person's extroversion level, while in low socialized situations, such as reviewing expense reports, an individual's introversion level would become salient (Fishman et al., 2011;Grant, 2013). ...
Purpose
This conceptual paper explores how the activation of the individual-level trait grit can explain variance in successor willingness to take over leadership of the family firm.
Design/methodology/approach
Drawing from trait activation and situation strength theories, the authors develop a framework to examine the interactions of the two dimensions of grit (passion and perseverance) on the successor's willingness to take control of the family firm.
Findings
The authors identify how the grit dimensions would interact with the situational cues present during the succession process to predict the successor's willingness to take control of the family firm and offer testable propositions to guide future empirical work.
Originality/value
The authors help to address the growing need for additional microfoundational family firm research by drawing insights from organizational behavior theories and personality research and apply them to the family firm succession process.
... Such curvilinear relationship has also been reported in the literature (e.g. [322], [323]). In particular, Barry and Stewart note [322] that when the team has to come up with a single solution, having many extraverts creates a situation in which there are many 'leaders' but no 'followers', thus introducing the conflicts and prolonging the time for convergence. ...
Teams play a crucial role in many product development activities. However, teams - as complex socio-technical systems - are challenging to study in a real-world setting. Computational models and simulations offer easily controllable and cost-effective tools for supporting team studies. Computational models prove especially valuable in studies on the sufficient conditions for the emergence of various team properties and behaviours. As a consequence, the computational models offer a possible explanation of the observed phenomena and provide means for theory-testing and hypothesis generation. To support cognitive studies on product development teams, this dissertation develops a multi-agent system capable of representing various aspects of product development teams. Building on the existing theories, empirical studies and current teamwork models, this work derives a detail theoretical model of a designer, its cognition, its tasks, and interactions with others. The thesis then implements the theoretical model in a multi-agent system directed at studies of the emergence of team properties and behaviours – in particular, team learning and adaptation. Extensive testing of the derived computational model concludes the goal of obtaining a multi-purpose research tool for studies of product development teams and confirms the appropriateness of the chosen simulation technique – agent-based modelling - for the intended research goal.
... Although there exists an extroverted ideal (i.e. organizations' proclivities for extraverts; Grant, 2013), introverts have much to offer, especially in contexts where thoughtful reflection and analytical thinking can be an asset to decision-making (i.e. working remotely during COVID-19). ...
Since being introduced over a century ago, trait extraversion and introversion have generated substantial research. However, this research has focused primarily on extraversion, with introversion being relatively neglected. Accordingly, the purpose of this paper is to take stock of extraversion and introversion research in the workplace. Doing so allows us to propose a shift in focus away from extraversion to the study of introversion and its potential positive benefits. First, we briefly review the traits’ evolution during the past century and then examine 10 commonly used trait extraversion scales to better understand how extraversion and introversion are studied. Thereafter, we review 10 years of scholarship (2009–2019) appearing in 12 leading management journals. Overall, we find that there is a positive bias towards extraversion and its positively valenced characteristics such as positive affect, outgoingness and socialness. In contrast, our review reveals that introversion is treated as ‘low extraversion’ and often imbued with negatively valenced characteristics such as social awkwardness and low social self‐esteem. Based on our multilevel review of the literature, we propose a working list of positively valenced characteristics of introversion and suggest how these introversion characteristics might be beneficial at multiple levels in organizations. In doing so, we hope that our paper will generate new ways of seeing introversion and extraversion alike, which should help right the balance in our shared understanding of how extraversion and introversion can positively shape workplace outcomes.
... Although extraversion was found to positively predict social relations (Jensen-Campbell et al., 2002;Lubbers et al., 2006), individuals exhibiting high levels of extraversion tend to be dominant, impulsive, and eager to be at the center of social attention (Depue and Collins, 1999;Ashton et al., 2002;Roberts et al., 2006;Shao et al., 2013;Hu et al., 2019), which would not always result in favorable social interactions (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1975;Zee et al., 2013). For instance, they may experience more antagonistic conflict in competing for social positions (Lund et al., 2007;Anderson and Shirako, 2008), especially if they insist on their viewpoints while neglecting the perspectives and interests of others (Grant, 2013;Hu et al., 2019). They may limit the time and energy they devote to close relationships (Ashton and Lee, 2007;Gurven et al., 2014) because they prefer to expand their social network to gain increased social attention (Corr and Matthews, 2009). ...
The authors examine the too-much-of-a-good-thing effect (TMGT effect) in a model showing that extraversion has a curvilinear relationship with social acceptance and depression. A study of 371 freshmen in a Chinese university showed that extraversion had a curvilinear relationship with social acceptance, such that the relationship was significantly positive from lower to moderate levels of extraversion, but the positive relationship leveled off at higher levels of extraversion. Extraversion also had a curvilinear relationship with depression, such that the relationship was significantly negative from lower to moderate levels of extraversion, but the negative relationship leveled off at higher levels of extraversion. The study indicates that beyond a certain point, the beneficial effects of extraversion on socialization outcomes were diminished. That is, higher levels of extraversion were not associated with more positive socialization outcomes (though they were not associated with worse outcomes either) when extraversion exceeded a certain point. Implications of theory and practice, and limitations and directions for future research, are discussed.
... Grant, aki egy 340 call centerben, értékesítői munkakörben dolgozó munkavállalókra kiterjedő kutatásában az értékesítők teljesítményét vizsgálta, arra az eredményre jutott, hogy míg az introvertált értékesítők egy órára vetítve 120 USA dollárt "termeltek" a vállalatnak, addig az extorvertáltak 125 dollárt. A legmeglepőbb az, hogy a középen "álló" ambivertált üzletkötők keresték a legtöbbet, óránként csaknem 155 dollárt (Grant, 2013(Grant, :1025(Grant, -1027 ...
Jelen tanulmány alapvető célja annak megállapítása, hogy a pénzügyi, biztosítási tevékenység ágban dolgozó értékesítők 1000 fős mintájából, mely Hippokratész-i vérmérséklet típusba tartozik az üzletkötők többsége, megkönnyítve ezzel, az üzletkötői álláshirdetésekre jelentkezők kiválasztását, illetve felvételük esetén a személyiségüknek leginkább megfelelő motiválási rendszer kialakítását.
A kutatás módszertanáról elmondható, hogy a vizsgálat alanyai a jelenleg pénzügyi területen, azon belül is értékesítői munkakörben dolgozó munkavállalók. Elsősorban a bankokban, biztosítóknál, lakástakarékpénztárakban, pénzügyi tanácsadóknál, valamint faktorcégeknél, lízingcégeknél, takarékszövetkezeteknél és tőzsdei vállalatoknál tevékenykedő értékesítők személyisége került górcső alá. A vizsgálati alanyok on-line az internet segítségével töltötték ki a kérdőíveket. A mintavétel a nem véletlen mintavételi eljárások közül, a hólabda-mintavételi eljárás révén történt. A begyűjtött adatok elemzése és kiértékelése az excel program segítségével zajlott.
A vizsgált, pénzügyi területen dolgozó üzletkötők közül a Hippokratész-i vérmérséklet típusok kérdőívben elért eredmények alapján legtöbben a Flegmatikus típusba (a teljes minta 42 %) tartoznak, ami Eysenck stabil introvertált kategóriájának felel meg. (Magas értéket ért még el a Szangvinikus típus (38,9 %), mely Eysenck stabil extrovertált kategóriájának felel meg. A kettő, egyaránt stabil típusba történő besorolás, összesen a minta 80,9 %-át fedi le.)
A fentiek alapján javaslom, hogy a pénzügyi területen tevékenykedő értékesítők kiválasztásában alkalmazandó Hippokratész-i vérmérséklet típusok kérdőív eredményei esetében elsősorban a következő típusokba történő besorolást tekintsék - szükséges, de nem elégséges - pozitív feltételnek a vállalati döntéshozók: Flegmatikus és Szangvinikus!
Kulcsszavak: üzletkötők, pénzügy, biztosítás, Hippokratész-i vérmérséklet típusok.
O termo transgênero ou apenas trans abrange de forma inclusiva várias identidades de gênero. No âmbito da saúde, essas pessoas possuem especificidades que as diferenciam dentro desse coletivo e podem não ter as suas necessidades de saúde atendidas de forma integral por estar subordinada ao preconceito. O objetivo geral dessa pesquisa foi analisar o acolhimento da população Transgêneros, Travestis, Transexuais e pelos serviços de saúde pública na cidade de João Pessoa – PB na perspectiva das pessoas desse grupoTratou-se de um estudo transversal, exploratório e descritivo de abordagem qualitativa. O estudo foi realizado na Coordenadoria Municipal de Promoção da Cidadania LGBT e da Igualdade Racial. O critério adotado para a quantidade de entrevistas foi o de saturação da análise do conteúdo. A coleta de dados foi realizada no período de agosto a outubro de 2022, através de um questionário semiestruturado após aprovação do projeto pelo Comitê de Ética e Pesquisa. Participaram da pesquisa três mulheres transexuais, dois homens transexuais e um transgênero. A idade média dos participantes da pesquisa é de 24,83 anos, sendo 21 anos a idade mínima e 28 anos, a idade máxima. A partir das análises dos resultados, evidenciou-se que o acesso do público trans aos serviços de saúde ainda é precário, mesmo considerando os avanços já existentes nas Políticas Públicas em Saúde no Brasil, que se torna evidenciado pela distância ocasionada pelos pressupostos do SUS e a sua aplicação prática. Esses aspectos demonstram que é possível e necessário o aperfeiçoamento dos serviços de saúde, como também dos atendimentos realizados à população trans, ofertando um serrviço resolutivo e um olhar integral sob as necessidades em saúde da pessoa trans.
The problem of the middle group in personalities refers to the difficulty in accurately classifying individuals who fall between the extremes of extroversion and introversion. This group, also known as ambiverts, may exhibit characteristics of both extroversion and introversion, making it challenging to determine their dominant personality trait. This paper explores the concept of the "middle-group" personality, which falls between the extrovert and introvert extremes, in the context of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Using multiple MBTI datasets, experiments were conducted to classify profiles in the Extraversion/Introversion (EI) scale using state-of-the-art transformer methods. Using the classification results, we identify differences between social media profiles and formal essay writings for personality and give detailed statistical analyses on the stylistic and psycholinguistic differences between introversion, extraversion, and the middle group. We also provide the baseline results on transformers for different experimental setups on the ambivert continuum scale.
в современную действительность, когда окружающая реальность подчинена законам глобализации и динамичного развития инноваций, технологий и информатизации, траектория жизни индивида претерпевает существенные коллизии, что также сказывается на становлении современной женщины как личности на протяжении всего ее жизненного пути. При этом субъекты, находящиеся в середине континуальной шкалы – амбиверты – добиваются лучших показателей во многих видах деятельности. Феномен амбивертности был дифференцирован К. Юнгом, тем не менее, научные изыскания, в которых детально начала рассматриваться «феминная амбиверсия» и ее специфика, только появляются в научном сообществе, что предопределяет новизну данного исследования. Гипотетически, амбивертность свойственна основной массе населения, однако, может видоизменяться под воздействием внешних и внутренних причин и катализаторов. Женщины-амбиверты способны предоставлять бόльшее количество моделей поведения, релевантных для различных жизненных ситуаций и рабочей среды – это детерминирует целесообразность их включения в значимые для социума события и роли. Амбиверты, в свою очередь, извлекают выгоду из этого за счет способности расширять свою эрудицию и получать опыт, вследствие чего они не просто эффективно расставляют приоритеты в своих внутренних и внешних ресурсах, но и достигают существенных высот на протяжении жизни.
in modern reality, when the surrounding reality is subject to the laws of globalization and the dynamic development of innovations, technologies and informatization, the trajectory of an individual's life undergoes significant collisions, which also affects the formation of a modern woman as a person throughout her life. At the same time, subjects in the middle of the continuum scale – ambiverts – achieve the best performance in many types of activities. The phenomenon of ambivalence was differentiated by K. Jung, however, scientific research, in which the "feminine ambiversion" and its specifics began to be considered in detail, only appear in the scientific community, which determines the novelty of this study. Hypothetically, ambivalence is characteristic of the majority of the population, however, it can change under the influence of external and internal causes and catalysts. Ambivert women are able to provide a greater number of behaviors relevant to various life situations and work environments - this determines the expediency of their inclusion in socially significant events and roles. Ambiverts, in turn, benefit from this through the ability to expand their erudition and gain experience, as a result of which they not only effectively prioritize their internal and external resources, but also achieve significant heights throughout their lives.
Silva, A. R. B., Carrilho, S. L. S., Silva, E. S., Roazzi, A., & Souza, B. C. (2024). Qual a sua facção? Usando a série Divergente como base para um novo modelo de personalidade útil para as organizações // What is your faction? Using the Divergent series as a basis for a new personality model useful for organizations. Revista de Gestão e Secretariado – GeSec (ISSN: 2178-9010), 15(7), e3867 01-28. http://doi.org/10.7769/gesec.v15i7.3867 Retrieved from: https://tinyurl.com/6u5z3a22 // Resumo: Em 2013 escritora estadosunidense Veronica Roth publicou uma obra literária chamada "Divergente", onde uma sociedade distópica pós-apocalíptica é organizada em cinco "Facções", cada uma representando um conjunto de características pessoais e de papéis sociais. Estudos empíricos usando um questionário incluído na obra destinado a aferir o quanto o leitor se enquadra em cada uma das Facções produziram achados indicativos de que elas podem ser consideradas como correspondendo a dimensões de personalidade que se associam a medidas psicológicas diversas e a vivências ocupacionais de forma consistente com a sua descrição nos livros da série de ficção científica. O presente trabalho faz um desenvolvimento preliminar de uma nova teoria inspirada na série Divergente, incluindo um novo instrumento, o Inventário Campello-Bezerra de Personalidade, aplicando-o, junto com questionários de sociodemografia e vida laboral, a uma amostra de 174 adultos da Região Metropolitana do Recife. Os resultados obtidos indicam que o novo instrumento apresenta Validade Estrutural e de Critério, medindo dimensões apresentando associações úteis com variáveis socioeconômicas e laborais. Ao final, são feitas sugestões para estudos futuros. Palavras-chave: Série Divergente. Facções. Personalidade. Gestão de Pessoas. Psicometria // Abstract: In 2013, American author Veronica Roth published a literary work called "Divergent," in which a post-apocalyptic dystopian society is organized into five "Factions," each representing a set of personal characteristics and social roles. Empirical studies using a questionnaire included in the work, designed to measure how much the reader fits into each of the Factions, produced findings indicating that they can be considered as corresponding to
personality dimensions associated with various psychological measures and occupational experiences, consistent with their description in the science fiction series. This paper presents
a preliminary development of a new theory inspired by the Divergent series, including a new instrument, the Campello-Bezerra Personality Inventory, applying it, along with
sociodemographic and occupational life questionnaires, to a sample of 174 adults from the Metropolitan Region of Recife. The results obtained indicate that the new instrument presents Structural and Criterion Validity, measuring dimensions that show useful associations with socioeconomic and occupational variables. Finally, suggestions for future studies are made.
Keywords: Divergent Series. Factions. Personality. Human Resources Management. Psychometrics.
The coexistence of extroverted and introverted tendencies characterizes the psychological trait known as ambiversion. The impact of ambiversion on collaboration among various groups has received limited attention in the literature. This study examines the relationship between ambiversion and collaboration among individuals with culturally diverse backgrounds, using three leading theoretical models in personality psychology: the HEXACO Model, the Big Five Model, and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Model (MBTI). This type of research is qualitative research (literary study). The data collected and analyzed are secondary data from research results such as relevant books, journals, articles, internet sites, and others. Data analysis techniques in this study used content analysis data analysis techniques. The results of the study, namely, in particular the HEXACO Model, highlight the importance of openness to experience in facilitating collaboration among various groups. In contrast, the Big Five Model emphasizes the role of conscientiousness in this relationship. The MBTI model must provide significant evidence of its contribution to the relationship between ambiversion and collaboration between diverse groups. It concluded that individuals and organizations could create ways to encourage successful collaboration and teamwork while leveraging the capabilities of various team members by identifying the strengths and specific problems of ambiverts.
The COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented changes to the education system, forcing students to adapt to new ways of learning and increasing their reliance on smart devices. This has raised questions about the impact of smart device utilization on various factors related to student learning, including motivation, growth mindset, self-regulation, and well-being, which we aim to explore. A systematic literature review was conducted for analysis. In particular, it seeks to identify the challenges and opportunities arising from the increased use of smart devices for learning, and to examine the potential impact of smart device use on students’ motivation, mindset, and well-being. This paper examines intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, social cognition, and emotion. Existing research will be utilized to investigate variables related to learning motivation, including cognitive factors and emotions. Finally, this paper will examine the relationship between well-being and academic success and the potential impact of smart device usage on student well-being. In conclusion, to support learning motivation and well-being, it is important for educators to promote a growth mindset and to monitor changes in device use to assess their impact on student outcomes. By taking these actions, educators can help students develop the skills and resilience needed to succeed in these new learning environments and succeed in the future.
Like all states, Australia has a strategic personality—a set of recognisable traits that shape how policymakers manage security challenges. These traits are displayed in the ways that politicians, officials, and influential analysts process information about those challenges, craft responses, and implement policy. They tend to be consistent over time, but they are not unchangeable. To assess Australia’s strategic personality and how it may be changing, as Australia’s security environment evolves, we developed a new approach and built a new dataset based on interviews with analysts and scholars from across the Indo-Pacific. This dataset allowed us to construct an account of how influential regional security experts perceive Australian policymaking and implementation. We analysed these findings with the advice of a group of Australian-based specialists on Australian foreign and security policy. For an additional check of robustness, we also conducted off-the-record interviews with regional diplomats based in Australia to ascertain their views of Australia’s strategic personality.
This resource review focuses on the use of the DISCflex instrument in the classroom. While frequently administered in industry, DISC-style instruments are less frequently used in academic contexts, despite a usefulness in clarifying and working with preferred behaviors. This review provides a brief history and description of the DISCflex instrument, guidance for administering the instrument to students, suggestions for its use in teaching, and a comparison to the Everything DiSC [sic], an alternative DISC-style instrument.
There is consistent empirical support for the benefits of using adaptive selling behaviors with customers. However, the identification of trainable salesperson antecedents remains elusive in practice with respect to what enables salespeople to adapt their behaviors. We suggest that the salesperson’s personal resources provide unique, unexplored opportunities in the sales and marketing literature. Specifically, we examine quiet ego, a positive psychological construct, and assert its potential as an explanatory variable for adaptive selling behaviors. Using a job demands-resources framework, we develop a conceptual model to better understand the effects of quiet ego on selling behaviors and salesperson performance. Further, we examine its effects when moderated by a common demand in sales, role conflict. A cross-sectional study that includes data from business-to-business sales professionals is used to test the proposed arguments in the model. Our findings suggest that quiet ego promotes adaptive selling behaviors in customer interactions and indirectly increases sales performance. However, its effects may be limited based on the level of role conflict experienced by the salesperson. A quiet ego may also provide a cost-effective means to assist salespeople in their selling behaviors.
Trends in personnel management of frontline employees’ (FLEs) imply that “soft skills” related to personality may be hardest to replace by technological advancements and, thus, become increasingly important. Building on the five-factor model (FFM) of personality, the present research therefore aimed at clarifying meta-analytically the role of personality for explaining FLEs’ job performance. Analyses covered 31 to 55 studies per FFM dimension (N = 6,514 to 10,139). It was found that all five dimensions showed moderate and generalizable relations either to subjectively, or to objectively, measured performance in sales jobs, whereas results were more mixed in non-sales jobs. We also found some evidence of positive time trends of validities. Theoretical and managerial implications include shifting the focus to (1) narrower and more job-related traits, (2) identifying more homogeneous clusters of non-sales jobs, (3) studying more complex personality performance relations, and (4) further monitoring time trends related to technological changes.
Trends in personnel management of frontline employees' (FLEs) imply that "soft skills" related to personality may be hardest to replace by technological advancements and, thus, become increasingly important. Building on the five-factor model (FFM) of personality, the present research therefore aimed at clarifying meta-analytically the role of personality for explaining FLEs' job performance. Analyses covered 31 to 55 studies per FFM dimension (N = 6,514 to 10,139). It was found that all five dimensions showed moderate and generalizable relations either to subjectively, or to objectively, measured performance in sales jobs, whereas results were more mixed in non-sales jobs. We also found some evidence of positive time trends of validities. Theoretical and managerial implications include shifting the focus to (1) narrower and more job-related traits, (2) identifying more homogeneous clusters of non-sales jobs, (3) studying more complex personality performance relations, and (4) further monitoring time trends related to technological changes.
本文从揭示教师隐性知识的教学论意义的视角出发，立足佛法的悟性思维，研究马来西
亚锡兰佛寺大寺院所办的巴利文暨佛学文凭的教学创新过程。所谓认知学上阐述“隐性
知识是人们所意识到的、所知道的，但难以用符号表达、难以编码、难以言传的知识”。
佛法意会性知识同样难以言传、难以编码、难以表达，需要学习者和继承者的诠释、理
解、联想和领悟能力。佛经《四念处经》指出“行者须观身如身，观受如受，观心如心，
观法如法”。即要与所 观事物成为一体，观察出事物的本来面目。所谓悟性思维，是指
怀抱放下束缚的心态，采取隐性知识的观察方法，运用取象比类的认知模式（由直觉、
想象、象征、联想、类比等要素所构成），获得求解问题之本质洞见的思维过程。研究
发现，佛法的悟性创新不仅要充分运用主题知识，更需要巧妙地借助于非主题知识的触
类旁通式启发创造性地解决问题。另一方面，教师隐性知识产生于佛学实践， 同时也具
有深厚的教学论意义，具体体现在教师隐性知识可以成为佛学内容，创新佛学方法，更
新佛学观念，改善佛学评价。
Purpose
Based on the broaden-and-build theory, this study aims to clarify that the relationship between extraversion and service outcomes will be mediated by work vigor, and that, in turn, this mediating effect will be moderated by coworker support. Specifically, the authors examine vigor as an attitudinal resource to drive organizational performance.
Design/methodology/approach
This research collected 181 valid questionnaires from service industries through a two-wave survey. The authors used hierarchical regression analysis to conduct each hypothesis test. Owing to the conditional mediating effect, the authors differentiated each variable centering and used the fractional number and the product as the predictor variable, moderator, and interaction effects after centering.
Findings
The relationships between extraversion and customer orientation and service performance mediated by work vigor in that the indirect relationships are stronger when perceived coworker support is higher than is lower.
Research limitations/implications
Future studies are suggested to probe into different forms of social support (e.g. family support), mechanisms of coworker support (e.g. task-related vs. non-task-related assistance), and different workplace contexts.
Practical implications
Extraversion, as a personality trait, is a significant reference index to examine an applicant's qualifications during recruitment, particularly in service organizations. Appropriate job assistance and emotional conciliation from coworkers can effectively facilitate employees' work vigor and service outputs.
Originality/value
Previous studies suggested the influence of different personality traits on different dimensions of work engagement. Accordingly, investigation indicates that extraversion can effectively predict work vigor which is an important attitude of willingness to put personal efforts at work to facilitate frontline service outcomes.
Eighty-four managers who make hiring decisions in 1 of 6 occupations representative of J. L. Holland's (1973) 6 job typologies (medical technologist, insurance sales agent, carpenter, licensed practical nurse, reporter, and secretary) rated 39 hypothetical job applicants on 2 dependent variables, hirability and counterproductivity. Applicants were described on the Big Five personality factors (Emotional Stability, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) and on general mental ability. Results showed that general mental ability and conscientiousness were the most important attributes related to applicants' hirability and that Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness were the most important attributes related to counterproductivity. In most respects, these results mirror meta-analytic reviews of validity studies, thereby confirming hypotheses.
Extraversion predicts leadership emergence and effectiveness, but do groups perform more effectively under extraverted leadership? Drawing on dominance complementarity theory, we propose that although extraverted leadership enhances group performance when employees are passive, this effect reverses when employees are proactive, because extraverted leaders are less receptive to proactivity. In Study 1, pizza stores with leaders rated high (low) in extraversion achieved higher profits when employees were passive (proactive). Study 2 constructively replicates these findings in the laboratory: passive (proactive) groups achieved higher performance when leaders acted high (low) in extraversion. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for leadership and proactivity.
Aristotle proposed that to achieve happiness and success, people should cultivate virtues at mean or intermediate levels between deficiencies and excesses. In stark contrast to this assertion that virtues have costs at high levels, a wealth of psychological research has focused on demonstrating the well-being and performance benefits of positive traits, states, and experiences. This focus has obscured the prevalence and importance of nonmonotonic inverted-U-shaped effects, whereby positive phenomena reach inflection points at which their effects turn negative. We trace the evidence for nonmonotonic effects in psychology and provide recommendations for conceptual and empirical progress. We conclude that for psychology in general and positive psychology in particular, Aristotle's idea of the mean may serve as a useful guide for developing both a descriptive and a prescriptive account of happiness and success.
© The Author(s) 2011.
Contents: Facts and Theories of Adult Development. A Trait Approach to Personality. Measuring Personality. The Search for Growth or Decline in Personality. Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Personality and Aging. The Course of Personality Development in the Individual. Stability Reconsidered: Qualifications and Rival Hypotheses. A Different View: Ego Psychologies and Projective Methods. Adult Development as Seen through the Personal Interview. A Five-Factor Theory of Personality. The Influences of Personality on the Life Course.
This book provides an up-to-date review of commonly undertaken methodological and statistical practices that are sustained, in part, upon sound rationale and justification and, in part, upon unfounded lore. Some examples of these "methodological urban legends", as we refer to them in this book, are characterized by manuscript critiques such as: (a) "your self-report measures suffer from common method bias"; (b) "your item-to-subject ratios are too low"; (c) "you can "t generalize these findings to the real world"; or (d) "your effect sizes are too low". Historically, there is a kernel of truth to most of these legends, but in many cases that truth has been long forgotten, ignored or embellished beyond recognition. This book examines several such legends. Each chapter is organized to address: (a) what the legend is that "we (almost) all know to be true"; (b) what the "kernel of truth" is to each legend; (c) what the myths are that have developed around this kernel of truth; and (d) what the state of the practice should be. This book meets an important need for the accumulation and integration of these methodological and statistical practices.
This meta-analysis evaluated predictors of both objective and subjective sales performance. Biodata measures and sales ability inventories were good predictors of the ratings criterion, with corrected
rs of .52 and .45, respectively. Potency (a subdimension of the Big 5 personality dimension Extraversion) predicted supervisor ratings of performance (
r = .28) and objective measures of sales (
r = .26). Achievement (a component of the Conscientiousness dimension) predicted ratings (
r = .25) and objective sales (
r = .41). General cognitive ability showed a correlation of .40 with ratings but only .04 with objective sales. Similarly, age predicted ratings (
r = .26) but not objective sales (
r = -.06). On the basis of a small number of studies, interest appears to be a promising predictor of sales success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Effect size is becoming an increasingly popular measure of the importance of an effect, both in individual studies and in meta-analyses. However, a large effect size is not the only way to demonstrate that an effect is important. This article describes 2 alternative methodological strategies, in which importance is a function of how minimal a manipulation of the independent variable or how difficult-to-influence a dependent variable will still produce an effect. These methodologies demonstrate the importance of an independent variable or psychological process, even though they often yield effects that are small in statistical terms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent recognition that the dominance and nurturance dimensions of the interpersonal circumplex correspond closely to the surgency/extraversion and agreeableness dimensions of the five-factor model of personality provides an occasion for the closer integration of these two traditions. We describe the procedures whereby we extended our adjectival measure of the circumplex Revised Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS-R) to include the additional Big Five dimensions of conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. The resultant five-scale instrument (IASR-B5) was found to have excellent structure on the item level, internally consistent scales, and promising convergent and discriminant properties when compared with the NEO Personality Inventory and the Hogan Personality Inventory. The unique feature of the IASR-B5 is that it provides a highly efficient instrument for combined circumplex and five-factor assessment. We provide an example of such combined assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Used 91 sales representatives to test a process model that assessed the relationship of conscientiousness to job performance through mediating motivational (goal-setting) variables. Linear structural equation modeling showed that sales representatives high in conscientiousness are more likely to set goals and are more likely to be committed to goals, which in turn is associated with greater sales volume and higher supervisory ratings of job performance. Results also showed that conscientiousness is directly related to supervisory ratings. Consistent with previous research, results showed that ability was also related to supervisory ratings of job performance and, to a lesser extent, sales volume. Contrary to expectations, 1 other personality construct, extraversion, was not related to sales volume or to supervisory ratings of job performance. Implications and future research needs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Dependent variables such as preference, hedonic tone, aesthetic appreciation, stimulus generalization, degree of interest or attention, exploratory behavior, developmental stages, and intensity of attitudes are frequently observed to be single-peaked functions of the independent variables. The problem of deriving, from more elementary underlying processes, a preference function that rises monotonically to a peak and then falls monotonically is discussed. Psychological principles are proposed for the perception and processing of good and bad attributes such as pleasure and pain and an elimination principle that affects the options that are available. It is shown that single-peakedness is inevitable if there is only 1 component, is quite likely if there are 2, and must be contrived if there are 3 or more components. Results are generalized for approach-avoidance, approach-approach, and avoidance-avoidance conflict in individuals and bear upon the resolution of social choice problems of a particular class. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research and meta-analysis has suggested that individuals with high Conscientiousness and Extraversion, as well as low Neuroticism, perform better in sales occupations. In the present study 66 sales consultants from a sports organization completed the NEO-FFI and scores were correlated with their sales performance. Conscientiousness and Openness did show a positive relationship and Agreeableness a negative relationship with sales, however, Extraversion and Neuroticism showed no statistically significant relationship. The implications of these results and the applicability of the Five Factor model or personality traits for personnel selection are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
One of the most difficult tasks facing industrial-organizational psychologists is evaluating the importance of variables, especially new variables, to be included in the prediction of some outcome. When multiple regression is used, common practices suggest evaluating the usefulness of new variables by showing incremental validity beyond the set of existing variables. This approach assures that the new variables are not statistically redundant with this existing set, but this approach attributes any shared criterion-related validity to the existing set of variables and none to the new variables. More importantly, incremental validity alone fails to answer the question directly about the importance of variables included in a regression model - arguably the more important statistical concern for practitioners. To that end, the current article reviews 2 indices of relative importance, general dominance weights and relative weights, which may be used to complement incremental validity evidence and permit organizational decision makers to make more precise and informed decisions concerning the usefulness of predictor variables. We illustrate our approach by reanalyzing the correlation matrices from 2 published studies.
The relationships between personality traits and performance are often assumed to be linear. This assumption has been challenged conceptually and empirically, but results to date have been inconclusive. In the current study, we took a theory-driven approach in systematically addressing this issue. Results based on two different samples generally supported our expectations of the curvilinear relationships between personality traits, including Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability, and job performance dimensions, including task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and counterproductive work behaviors. We also hypothesized and found that job complexity moderated the curvilinear personality–performance relationships such that the inflection points after which the relationships disappear were lower for low-complexity jobs than they were for high-complexity jobs. This finding suggests that high levels of the two personality traits examined are more beneficial for performance in high- than low-complexity jobs. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for the use of personality in personnel selection.
One of the fundamental questions in personality psychology is whether and how strongly trait standing relates to the traits that people actually manifest in their behavior when faced with real pressures and real consequences of their actions. One reason this question is fundamental is the common belief that traits do not predict how individuals behave, which leads to the reasonable conclusion that traits are not important to study. However, this conclusion is surprising given that there is almost no data on the ability of traits to predict distributions of naturally occurring, representative behaviors of individuals (and that there are many studies showing that traits do indeed predict specific behaviors). The authors describe a meta-analysis of 15 experience-sampling studies, conducted over the course of 8 years, amassing over 20,000 reports of trait manifestation in behavior. Participants reported traits on typical self-report questionnaires, then described their current behavior multiple times per day for several days as the behavior was occurring. Results show that traits, contrary to expectations, were strongly predictive of individual differences in trait manifestation in behavior, predicting average levels with correlations between .42 and .56 (approaching .60 for stringently restricted studies). Several other ways of summarizing trait manifestation in behavior were also predicted from traits. These studies provide evidence that traits are powerful predictors of actual manifestation of traits in behavior.
This article examines conditions that influence consumers' use of persuasion knowledge in evaluating an influence agent, such as a salesperson. We propose that persuasion knowledge is used when consumers draw an inference that a persuasion motive may underlie a salesperson's behavior. These motive inferences then affect perceptions of the salesperson. We propose that two factors, the accessibility of persuasion motives and the cognitive capacity of the consumer, affect whether consumers use persuasion knowledge. When an ulterior persuasion motive is highly accessible, both cognitively busy targets and unbusy observers use persuasion knowledge to evaluate the salesperson. When an ulterior motive is less accessible, cognitively busy targets are less likely to use persuasion knowledge, evaluating the salesperson as more sincere than are cognitively unbusy observers. Several experiments find support for the predictions. Copyright 2000 by the University of Chicago.
Eighty-four managers who make hiring decisions in 1 of 6 occupations representative of J. L. Holland's (1973) 6 job typologies (medical technologist, insurance sales agent, carpenter, licensed practical nurse, reporter, and secretary) rated 39 hypothetical job applicants on 2 dependent variables, hirability and counterproductivity. Applicants were described on the Big Five personality factors (Emotional Stability, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) and on general mental ability. Results showed that general mental ability and conscientiousness were the most important attributes related to applicants' hirability and that Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness were the most important attributes related to counterproductivity. In most respects, these results mirror meta-analytic reviews of validity studies, thereby confirming hypotheses.
The proposition that the relationship between extraversion and sales performance is moderated by reward structure was investigated. Specific hypotheses were tested with data obtained from 152 sales representatives. One group of sales representatives was rewarded primarily for obtaining new sales and another primarily for retaining customers. Data pooled across the 2 groups showed that extraversion did not correlate significantly with either new sales or customer retention. However, moderator analysis revealed that extraversion was positively associated with the dimension of performance that was explicitly rewarded but not with the nonrewarded dimension. A significant correlation between conscientiousness and new sales, but not between conscientiousness and customer retention, was found with the pooled data. As expected, relationships between conscientiousness and sales performance were not moderated by reward structure.
R. E. Lucas, E. Diener, A. Grob, E. M. Suh, and L. Shao (2000) recently argued that the core of the personality dimension of Extraversion is not sociability but a construct called reward sensitivity. This article accepts their argument that the mere preference for social interaction is not the central element of Extraversion. However, it claims that the real core of the Extraversion factor is the tendency to behave in ways that attract social attention. Data from a sample of 200 respondents were used to test the 2 hypotheses with comparisons of measures of reward sensitivity and social attention in terms of their saturation with the common variance of Extraversion measures. The results clearly showed that social attention, not reward sensitivity, represents the central feature of Extraversion.
This study extends the literature on personality and job performance through the use of random coefficient modeling to test the validity of the Big Five personality traits in predicting overall sales performance and sales performance trajectories--or systematic patterns of performance growth--in 2 samples of pharmaceutical sales representatives at maintenance and transitional job stages (K. R. Murphy, 1989). In the maintenance sample, conscientiousness and extraversion were positively associated with between-person differences in total sales, whereas only conscientiousness predicted performance growth. In the transitional sample, agreeableness and openness to experience predicted overall performance differences and performance trends. All effects remained significant with job tenure statistically controlled. Possible explanations for these findings are offered, and theoretical and practical implications of findings are discussed.
Personality profiles of cultures can be operationalized as the mean trait levels of culture members. College students from 51 cultures rated an individual from their country whom they knew well (N=12,156). Aggregate scores on Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) scales generalized across age and sex groups, approximated the individual-level 5-factor model, and correlated with aggregate self-report personality scores and other culture-level variables. Results were not attributable to national differences in economic development or to acquiescence. Geographical differences in scale variances and mean levels were replicated, with Europeans and Americans generally scoring higher in Extraversion than Asians and Africans. Findings support the rough scalar equivalence of NEO-PI-R factors and facets across cultures and suggest that aggregate personality profiles provide insight into cultural differences.
The Mini-IPIP, a 20-item short form of the 50-item International Personality Item Pool-Five-Factor Model measure (Goldberg, 1999), was developed and validated across five studies. The Mini-IPIP scales, with four items per Big Five trait, had consistent and acceptable internal consistencies across five studies (= at or well above .60), similar coverage of facets as other broad Big Five measures (Study 2), and test-retest correlations that were quite similar to the parent measure across intervals of a few weeks (Study 4) and several months (Study 5). Moreover, the Mini-IPIP scales showed a comparable pattern of convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related validity (Studies 2-5) with other Big Five measures. Collectively, these results indicate that the Mini-IPIP is a psychometrically acceptable and practically useful short measure of the Big Five factors of personality.
The authors propose that individual differences in assertiveness play a critical role in perceptions about leaders. In contrast to prior work that focused on linear effects, the authors argue that individuals seen either as markedly low in assertiveness or as high in assertiveness are generally appraised as less effective leaders. Moreover, the authors claim that observers' perceptions of leaders as having too much or too little assertiveness are widespread. The authors linked the curvilinear effects of assertiveness to underlying tradeoffs between social outcomes (a high level of assertiveness worsens relationships) and instrumental outcomes (a low level of assertiveness limits goal achievement). In 3 studies, the authors used qualitative and quantitative approaches and found support for their account. The results suggest that assertiveness (and other constructs with nonlinear effects) might have been overlooked in research that has been focused on identifying what makes a leader rather than on identifying what breaks a leader.
Factor analyses of 75 facet scales from 2 major Big Five inventories, in the Eugene-Springfield community sample (N=481), produced a 2-factor solution for the 15 facets in each domain. These findings indicate the existence of 2 distinct (but correlated) aspects within each of the Big Five, representing an intermediate level of personality structure between facets and domains. The authors characterized these factors in detail at the item level by correlating factor scores with the International Personality Item Pool (L. R. Goldberg, 1999). These correlations allowed the construction of a 100-item measure of the 10 factors (the Big Five Aspect Scales [BFAS]), which was validated in a 2nd sample (N=480). Finally, the authors examined the correlations of the 10 factors with scores derived from 10 genetic factors that a previous study identified underlying the shared variance among the Revised NEO Personality Inventory facets (K. L. Jang et al., 2002). The correspondence was strong enough to suggest that the 10 aspects of the Big Five may have distinct biological substrates.
Aristotle proposed that to achieve happiness and success, people should cultivate virtues at mean or intermediate levels between deficiencies and excesses. In stark contrast to this assertion that virtues have costs at high levels, a wealth of psychological research has focused on demonstrating the well-being and performance benefits of positive traits, states, and experiences. This focus has obscured the prevalence and importance of nonmonotonic inverted-U-shaped effects, whereby positive phenomena reach inflection points at which their effects turn negative. We trace the evidence for nonmonotonic effects in psychology and provide recommendations for conceptual and empirical progress. We conclude that for psychology in general and positive psychology in particular, Aristotle’s idea of the mean may serve as a useful guide for developing both a descriptive and a prescriptive account of happiness and success.
We advance previous research that has associated extraversion with high status and neuroticism with low status in newly formed task groups by examining how variations in personality affect status changes over time. By building on research that emphasizes the dark sides of extraversion and the bright sides of neuroticism, we challenge the persistence of extraverts' advantage and neurotics' disadvantage in task group status hierarchies. In a field and an experimental study, we find that extraversion is associated with status losses and disappointing expectations for contributions to group tasks and neuroticism is associated with status gains due to surpassing expectations for group-task contributions. Whereas personality may inform status expectations through perceptions of competence when groups first form, as group members work together interdependently over time, actual contributions to the group's task are an important basis for reallocating status.
Since the inception of the concept, researchers have hypothesized that customer orientation plays a fundamental role in explaining sales performance. However, Franke and Park’s (2006) meta-analysis challenged this notion with findings of a nonsignificant effect of customer orientation on objective sales performance. This counterintuitive result was explained by noting that the impact of customer orientation on objective sales measures may be present in the long run. In this research note, we evaluate that notion by testing a model in which customer orientation is used to predict individual rates-of-change in sales performance over time. Longitudinal salesperson performance in dollars, from the database of a direct selling organization, is merged with survey responses and modeled using an emerging method called latent growth modeling (LGM). Results confirm Franke and Park’s findings that customer orientation has a nonsignificant direct effect on the static initial-level aspect of objective sales performance. However, as postulated, customer orientation does show a significant direct effect on longitudinal sales performance trajectories. Our findings also suggest that customer-oriented selling’s nonsignificant direct effect on cross-sectional performance may be due to a fully mediated indirect effect through adaptive selling.
Two separate factor analyses of Big Five traits have independently identified two higher-order factors. These factors have been interpreted quite differently by their respective researchers. This conceptual paper posits the superordinate personality dimensions of Engagement (engaged versus disengaged) and Self-Control as the common elements of these higher-order factors. A review and integration of existing research shows that Engagement traits decline and Self-Control traits increase during adulthood. The Big Five traits of the Engagement dimension are each empirically related to positive affect, academic engagement in the form of classroom participation, benefiting from major life challenges, sensation seeking, and the construct of inspiration. Self-Control traits are negatively related to variables such as problematic work-related behaviors and job performance, personality disorders, negative affect, and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder.
The present chapter is organized as follows. First, we offer a brief review of the meaning of effect size. Second, we describe the urban legend that is the focus of this chapter as well as the kernel of truth that drives it. Third, we describe relevant lessons from W. V. Quine, the foremost authority on the language of science. Fourth, we use these lessons to uncover situations in which small effect size values justify strong conclusions. Finally, we apply these lessons to the opposite situation in which large effect sizes fail to justify strong conclusions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We demonstrate that the mere-measurement effect occurs because asking an intention question is not perceived as a persuasion attempt. In experiments 1 and 2, we show that when persuasive intent is attributed to an intention question, consumers adjust their behavior as long as they have sufficient cognitive capacity to permit conscious correction. In experiment 3 we demonstrate that this finding holds with product choice and consumption, and we find that persuasion knowledge mediates the effects. In experiment 4, we show that when respondents are educated that an intention question is a persuasive attempt, the behavioral impact of those questions is attenuated.
The purpose of this study is to examine the nature and magnitude of the relationship between 2 widely accepted models for classifying individual differences–the 5-factor model of personality and Holland's RI-ASEC occupational types. Based on extensive meta-analyses, our results illustrate that there are meaningful relations between some FFM personality dimensions and some RIASEC types. The strongest relationships were obtained between the RIASEC types of enterprising and artistic with the FFM personality dimensions of Extraversion and Openness to Experience, p= .41 and .39, respectively. Three other RIASEC types had moderate correlations with at least 1 FFM personality trait. In contrast, the realistic type was not related to any FFM personality traits. Multiple regression analyses in which each RIASEC type is regressed on the FFM scores (based on meta-analytic estimates), revealed a multiple R of .11 for realistic, .26 for investigative, .42 for artistic, .31 for social, .47 for enterprising, and .27 for conventional types. The overall conclusion from the study is that although FFM personality traits and RIASEC types are related, they are not merely substitutes for each other.
As we begin the new millennium, it is an appropriate time to examine what we have learned about personality-performance relationships over the past century and to embark on new directions for research. In this study we quantitatively summarize the results of 15 prior meta-analytic studies that have investigated the relationship between the Five Factor Model (FFM) personality traits and job performance. Results support the previous findings that conscientiousness is a valid predictor across performance measures in all occupations studied. Emotional stability was also found to be a generalizable predictor when overall work performance was the criterion, but its relationship to specific performance criteria and occupations was less consistent than was conscientiousness. Though the other three Big Five traits (extraversion, openness and agreeableness) did not predict overall work performance, they did predict success in specific occupations or relate to specific criteria. The studies upon which these results are based comprise most of the research that has been conducted on this topic in the past century. Consequently, we call for a moratorium on meta-analytic studies of the type reviewed in our study and recommend that researchers embark on a new research agenda designed to further our understanding of personality-performance linkages.
The leader trait perspective is perhaps the most venerable intellectual tradition in leadership research. Despite its early prominence in leadership research, it quickly fell out of favor among leadership scholars. Thus, despite recent empirical support for the perspective, conceptual work in the area lags behind other theoretical perspectives. Accordingly, the present review attempts to place the leader trait perspective in the context of supporting intellectual traditions, including evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics. We present a conceptual model that considers the source of leader traits, mediators and moderators of their effects on leader emergence and leadership effectiveness, and distinguish between perceived and actual leadership effectiveness. We consider both the positive and negative effects of specific “bright side” personality traits: the Big Five traits, core self-evaluations, intelligence, and charisma. We also consider the positive and negative effects of “dark side” leader traits: Narcissism, hubris, dominance, and Machiavellianism.
In theories and studies of persuasion, people's personal knowledge about persuasion agents' goals and tactics, and about how to skillfully cope with these, has been ignored. We present a model of how people develop and use persuasion knowledge to cope with persuasion attempts. We discuss what the model implies about how consumers use marketers' advertising and selling attempts to refine their product attitudes and attitudes toward the marketers themselves. We also explain how this model relates to prior research on consumer behavior and persuasion and what it suggests about the future conduct of consumer research. Copyright 1994 by the University of Chicago.
The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, 3620 Locust Walk Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions
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Readings in extraversion-introversion: Bearings on basic psychological processes
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Personal projects and free traits: Mutable selves and well beings
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Personality in adult-hood: A five-factor theory perspective Personality profiles of cultures: Aggregate personality traits
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To sell is human: The surprising truth about moving others When small effects are impressive
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