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Gratitude and Grit Indirectly Reduce Risk of Suicidal Ideations by Enhancing Meaning in Life: Evidence for a Mediated Moderation Model
Abstract
We examined meaning in life as a suicide resiliency factor. Since meaning in life may be hard to directly modify, we examine gratitude and grit as factors that synergistically confer resiliency to suicide by increasing meaning in life. Using a longitudinal study of 209 college students, we find that gratitude and grit interact such that individuals endorsing high gratitude and grit experience a near absence of suicidal ideations over time. Testing a mediated moderation model we find that grit and gratitude confer resiliency to suicide by increasing meaning in life. Our findings illustrating the importance of examining co-occurring personality factors as well as the mechanisms of these factors that can confer resiliency to suicide.
... Grit was originally conceptualized as a personality trait characterized by sustained attention to specific goal-related activities (a.k.a., consistency of interests), and persisting despite obstacles and failures (a.k.a., perseverance of effort) associated with the pursuit of long-term ambitions (Duckworth et al., 2007). Previous investigations have linked grit to increased life satisfaction (Jin & Kim, 2017;Li et al., 2018), positive emotions (Datu et al., 2016), and meaning in life (Datu et al., 2019;Kleiman et al., 2013). Grit was also related to reduced suicidal tendencies (Kleiman et al., 2013) and burnout (Salles et al., 2014). ...
... Previous investigations have linked grit to increased life satisfaction (Jin & Kim, 2017;Li et al., 2018), positive emotions (Datu et al., 2016), and meaning in life (Datu et al., 2019;Kleiman et al., 2013). Grit was also related to reduced suicidal tendencies (Kleiman et al., 2013) and burnout (Salles et al., 2014). Recently, grit has been identified as a protective psychological factor during the COVID-19 pandemic (Bono et al., 2020). ...
... Unlike previous research, the present study assessed the roles that meaning in life (the realization that life has meaning; Steger et al., 2006) and relatedness needs satisfaction (the perception that one has a sense of connectedness and significance to other people; Deci & Ryan, 2000) play in the link between TMG and well-being. Consistent with previous findings (Kleiman et al., 2013), it is reasonable to expect a positive association between grit and meaning in life given that gritty individuals are likely to understand the importance of personal struggles and even failures when pursuing long-term aspirations. As the triarchic model of grit (Datu et al., , 2018a has clearly emphasized the importance of calibrating goal-related pathways and strategies depending on contextual or situational factors and past studies have linked grit to positive interpersonal functioning (Bowman et al., 2015;Lan, 2020;Lan et al., 2019), it is possible that grit may be linked to satisfaction of basic psychological needs for relatedness. ...
This study examined how the triarchic model of grit (i.e., perseverance of effort, consistency of interests, and adaptability to situations) is related to cultivation of genuine happiness, loneliness, and COVID-19 anxiety in American ( n = 643) and Filipino ( n = 546) undergraduate students. It also explored whether grit had indirect effects on such social and well-being outcomes via relatedness needs satisfaction and meaning in life. Results of structural equation modeling demonstrated that whereas all grit dimensions were linked to increased relatedness needs satisfaction and meaning in life in the United States, only consistency and adaptability were associated with such constructs in the Philippines. Meaning in life was related to increased cultivation of happiness and reduced loneliness in both societies. Relatedness needs satisfaction was associated with higher happiness as well as decreased COVID-19 anxiety and loneliness in the United States and the Philippines. Finally, evidence supported indirect effects of grit on cultivation of genuine happiness via relatedness needs satisfaction and meaning in life in both settings. This research complements existing literature on the relational and psychological benefits of staying gritty in different societies.
... Grit was originally conceptualized as a personality trait characterized by sustained attention to specific goal-related activities (a.k.a., consistency of interests), and persisting despite obstacles and failures (a.k.a., perseverance of effort) associated with the pursuit of long-term ambitions (Duckworth et al., 2007). Previous investigations have linked grit to increased life satisfaction (Jin & Kim, 2017;Li et al., 2018), positive emotions (Datu et al., 2016), and meaning in life (Datu et al., 2019;Kleiman et al., 2013). Grit was also related to reduced suicidal tendencies (Kleiman et al., 2013) and burnout (Salles et al., 2014). ...
... Previous investigations have linked grit to increased life satisfaction (Jin & Kim, 2017;Li et al., 2018), positive emotions (Datu et al., 2016), and meaning in life (Datu et al., 2019;Kleiman et al., 2013). Grit was also related to reduced suicidal tendencies (Kleiman et al., 2013) and burnout (Salles et al., 2014). Recently, grit has been identified as a protective psychological factor during the COVID-19 pandemic (Bono et al., 2020). ...
... Unlike previous research, the present study assessed the roles that meaning in life (the realization that life has meaning; Steger et al., 2006) and relatedness needs satisfaction (the perception that one has a sense of connectedness and significance to other people; Deci & Ryan, 2000) play in the link between TMG and well-being. Consistent with previous findings (Kleiman et al., 2013), it is reasonable to expect a positive association between grit and meaning in life given that gritty individuals are likely to understand the importance of personal struggles and even failures when pursuing long-term aspirations. As the triarchic model of grit (Datu et al., , 2018a has clearly emphasized the importance of calibrating goal-related pathways and strategies depending on contextual or situational factors and past studies have linked grit to positive interpersonal functioning (Bowman et al., 2015;Lan, 2020;Lan et al., 2019), it is possible that grit may be linked to satisfaction of basic psychological needs for relatedness. ...
This study examined how the triarchic model of grit (i.e., perseverance of effort, consistency of interests, and adaptability to situations) is related to cultivation of genuine happiness, loneliness, and COVID-19 anxiety in American (n = 643) and Filipino (n = 546) undergraduate students. It also explored whether grit had indirect effects on such social and well-being outcomes via relatedness needs satisfaction and meaning in life. Results of structural equation modeling demonstrated that whereas all grit dimensions were linked to increased relatedness needs satisfaction and meaning in life in the United States, only consistency and adaptability were associated with such constructs in the Philippines. Meaning in life was related to increased cultivation of happiness and reduced loneliness in both societies. Relatedness needs satisfaction was associated with higher happiness as well as decreased COVID-19 anxiety and loneliness in the United States and the Philippines. Finally, evidence supported indirect effects of grit on cultivation of genuine happiness via relatedness needs satisfaction and meaning in life in both settings. This research complements existing literature on the relational and psychological benefits of staying gritty in different societies.
... Furthermore, Kleiman et al. (2013) found that higher grit predicts the absence of suicidal risk and depressive symptoms. Likewise, Musumari et al. (2018) reported a strong negative association between grit and mental health issues, including depression and anxiety. ...
... These imply the partial protective effect of grit in that consistency of interest can buffer psychological distress caused by fear of COVID-19. Although the relationship between grit and mental health has been extensively documented in the literature (Kleiman et al., 2013;Musumari et al., 2018), our results provide novel insights into the relationship between grit and fear COVID-19. Interestingly, on the grit subscale, consistency of interest was significantly correlated with psychological distresses, whereas perseverance of effort was not. ...
In the context of a recent outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), the present study investigated the buffering effect of grit on the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress. The data were collected from 224 Japanese participants (98 females; mean age = 46.56, SD = 13.41) in July 2020. The measures used in this study included the Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S), Short Grit Scale, and Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale 21 (DASS). The results of mediation analyses revealed significant indirect effects of consistency of interest, a major component of grit, on psychological distress (depression: estimate = .042; 95% CI: [.008, .088], anxiety: estimate = .021; 95% CI: [.001, .050], and stress: estimate = .030; 95% CI: [.004, .066]); we also found non-significant indirect effects of perseverance of effort, another major component of grit, on psychological distress. These results suggest that consistency of interest buffers the psychological distress induced by fear of COVID-19. Based on these results, it can be concluded that individuals with higher consistency of interest are less likely to experience worsening of their mental health, even if they experience fear of COVID-19 during the pandemic.
... Previous studies have focused on MIL as a predictor of life satisfaction [35], psychological well-being [36,37], and stress [38,39]. MIL was found to mediate the relationship between optimism and subjective well-being [40], gratitude, grit, and suicide ideation [41]. Moreover, Hill et al. [42] found that the purpose in life is moderated by daily stress and well-being. ...
... Previous studies also pointed to the existence of a correlation between personality traits and meaning in life. For instance, gratitude and grit displayed a positive correlation with meaning in life in patients with suicide ideation [41]. Optimism was positively related to two ways of understanding meaning in life-presence of meaning in life and search for meaning in life-in elderly people [40], whereas Future time perspective displayed a positive correlation with MIL in emerging adults, young and middle-aged adults [66]. ...
Resilience and meaning in life are significant indicators of psychological well-being and health, which are particularly important in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, they have been explored by a growing number of scientists. There has been a research gap, however, that fails to show that time perspectives also have a significant impact on the perception and building of different life aspects. The current study investigated the associations between resilience, time perspectives and meaning in life and examined the moderating role of time perspective in the relationship between resilience and meaning in life.
Methods:
Participants of this cross-sectional study were 363 adults aged 18-70. Resilience Measurement Scale (SPP-25), the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), and the Purpose in Life Questionnaire (PIL) were used.
Results:
The findings confirmed a positive relationship between resilience, meaning in life, and positive time perspectives (Present Hedonistic and Future) and a negative link with Past Negative and Present Fatalistic perspectives. The linear regression analyses showed that Past Negative and Past Positive perspectives significantly moderated the relationship between resilience and meaning in life. The moderating effect was also confirmed in the case of past time perspectives only.
Conclusions:
The findings indicate the relevance of positive resources, such as resilience and positive perception of the past, in keeping the meaning in life. Understanding the effect of psychological strengths in the context of the pandemic time can be a key to providing intervention and therapeutic services fostering mental health and well-being.
... found that grit buffered the negative effects of peer bullying and school disengagement on problematic Internet game use in adolescents (Li and Zhu, 2020). Kleiman et al. (2013) found that grit protected people from suicidal intention by increasing their pursuit of the meaning of life (Kleiman et al., 2013). Based on previous studies, this study posits that grit could buffer the impact of interpersonal stress on freshmen's psychological security, that is, grit plays a moderating role in interpersonal stress and psychological security. ...
... found that grit buffered the negative effects of peer bullying and school disengagement on problematic Internet game use in adolescents (Li and Zhu, 2020). Kleiman et al. (2013) found that grit protected people from suicidal intention by increasing their pursuit of the meaning of life (Kleiman et al., 2013). Based on previous studies, this study posits that grit could buffer the impact of interpersonal stress on freshmen's psychological security, that is, grit plays a moderating role in interpersonal stress and psychological security. ...
Grit, as an important positive psychological quality, has rarely been studied for its role involved in the mechanism between stress and psychological security. This article explores the moderating and mediating role of grit in the relationship between interpersonal stress and psychological security of freshmen through two studies. In study 1, freshmen from several Chinese universities ( N = 1,224) were recruited to complete a battery of questionnaire, including assessments about interpersonal stress, grit, and psychological security. The moderating effect analysis showed that grit moderated the relationship between interpersonal stress and psychological security. Specifically, grit buffered the negative effects of interpersonal stress on freshmen’s psychological security, but this effect was obvious only when the level of interpersonal stress was relatively low, and decreased when the level of interpersonal stress was high. In study 2, college freshmen from another university apart from above ones ( N = 604) were recruited, and we verified the results of study 1 and further explored the mediating role of grit in the relationship between interpersonal stress and security. The moderating effect analysis of study 2 also verified that of study 1. The mediating effect analysis showed that interpersonal stress not only negatively predicted psychological security, but also affected psychological security through the mediation of grit. In general, grit played a mediating and moderating role in the relationship between interpersonal stress and psychological security. This study provides first-hand evidence to explain the multiple roles of grit in the relationship between interpersonal stress and psychological security.
... Recently, many scholars have focused on the relationship between gratitude and the meaning of life (Lin, 2019), and the research found that gratitude consistently predicted meaning in life (Kleiman et al., 2013). Gratitude is a mindful appreciation of benefits and gifts that can be attributed to the kindness of other people (McCullough et al., 2001). ...
... Gratitude is a feeling of joy and appreciation and can be viewed as "part of a wider life orientation toward noticing and appreciating the positive in the world" (Wood et al., 2010). Individuals with this life orientation tend to experience more frequent, intense, and enduring associated states in daily life (Kleiman et al., 2013). Meanwhile, grateful individuals have stronger social connections and a more positive view of the social environment, so that they can get a stronger sense of belonging and connection (Lambert et al., 2010), which will acquire more opportunities to be aware of how meaningful their life is (Lin, 2019) as well as reinforce their tendency to maintain a meaningful life (Wood et al., 2009). ...
Objective: This study aimed to explore the influence of gratitude on the meaning of life of college students and the mediating effect of family function and peer relationships.
Methods: A total of 1,049 college students (mean age: 18.59 ± 0.96 years) were investigated by gratitude scale, family function scale, peer relationship questionnaire, and meaning of life scale.
Results: (1) Gratitude was positively correlated with meaning existence ( r = 0.39, P < 0.05), meaning seeking ( r = 0.23, P < 0.05), and peer relationship ( r = 0.32, P < 0.05); meanwhile, it is also positively correlated with family function ( r = 0.34, P < 0.05); (2) family function partially mediates the relationship between gratitude and meaning of life. Similarly, peer relationship partially mediates the relationship between gratitude and meaning of life.
Conclusion: The mediating model showed that grateful individuals can better sense the meaning of life by perceiving good family function and good peer relationships.
... Having meaning in life certainly brings many benefits to the functioning of the individual. However, as researchers point out, it is difficult to modify it directly, hence the idea to do so indirectly, e.g., by strengthening gratitude (Kleiman et al., 2013). It is known that both gratitude and meaning in life are positively related to psychological well-being (Krok, 2015;Kardas et al., 2019). ...
... There were no significant differences in the level of meaning in life, so our gratitude intervention has proved ineffective in this area. There is much evidence that there is a positive relationship between gratitude and meaning in life (Kleiman et al., 2013;Datu and Mateo, 2015;Disabato et al., 2017), but the effectiveness of gratitude interventions for meaning in life has not yet been studied. Researchers point out that meaning in life is rather stable (Steger and Kashdan, 2006), which may make it not so easy to strengthen with simple interventions. ...
Background: Strengthening the sense of meaning in life and psychological well-being brings benefits for mental health. The group particularly vulnerable to mental problems are young adults, therefore the aim of our research was to explore how a gratitude intervention will affect the sense of meaning in life, psychological well-being, general health and perceived stress among them. The research also took into account the issue of expressing gratitude.
Method: The study involved 80 young adults (58 women and 22 men) who were randomly assigned to the experimental group that filled out the specially prepared diaries for a week (participants were asked to list three things for which they feel grateful, to whom they are grateful and if and how they expressed their gratitude) or the control group. Participants completed the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), the General Health Questionnaire – 28 (GHQ-28), the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and the Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being (PWBS) twice (before and after intervention).
Results: In the experimental group significant increases were observed in three areas of psychological well-being: environmental mastery, relationships with others and purpose in life. The significant decrease was also noted in anxiety/insomnia and depression symptoms as well as in perceived stress. There were no differences in the level of meaning in life. There was a positive relationship between expressing gratitude and meaning in life and psychological well-being.
Conclusion: Proposed gratitude intervention has the potential to enhance psychological well-being among young adults, however, it may not be effective in enhancing meaning in life.
... The present study adopts this complex perspective to gain understanding of the effective coping mechanisms in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic and thus approaches meaning-centered coping as a set of emotional, cognitive and behavioral strategies that promote a sense of global meaning in life. Based on theoretical considerations and previous empirical data, these coping mechanisms include positive reframing (Park, 2010), hope (Feldman & Snyder, 2005), existential courage (Maddi, 2013), life appreciation (also termed existential gratitude: Jans-Beken & Wong, 2019; Kleiman et al., 2013), engagement in meaningful activities (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2003;Schueller & Seligman, 2010), and prosociality (Klein, 2017;Van Tongeren et al., 2016). The only available questionnaire in the literature that explicitly measures meaning-focused coping includes only predominantly cognitive facets of meaning-creation (e.g., changes in situational beliefs, changes in global beliefs, and changes in goals), thus it does not fully capture the phenomena described above based on the original works of Frankl and the current empirical and theoretical studies on how humans create sense of meaning. ...
... Instead, we approached meaning-centered coping as a concept that inherently involves cognitive, emotional and behavioral elements, as well as personal and interpersonal aspects (e.g., Reker & Wong, 1988;Wong, 2012). Empirical evidence supports this integrative approach, demonstrating the involvement of the areas measured by the MCCS in the creation of meaning in life (e.g., Feldman & Snyder, 2005;Jans-Beken & Wong, 2019;Kleiman et al., 2013;Klein, 2017;Maddi, 2013;Nakamura & Csikzentmihalyi, 2003;Park, 2010;Schueller & Seligman, 2010;Van Tongeren et al., 2016). These results are consistent with the framework adopted by existential positive psychology (e.g., Wong, 2011). ...
Background/Objective
This study examined the role of different psychological coping mechanisms in mental and physical health during the initial phases of the COVID-19 crisis with an emphasis on meaning-centered coping.
Method
A total of 11,227 people from 30 countries across all continents participated in the study and completed measures of psychological distress (depression, stress, and anxiety), loneliness, well-being, and physical health, together with measures of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping, and a measure called the Meaning-centered Coping Scale (MCCS) that was developed in the present study. Validation analyses of the MCCS were performed in all countries, and data were assessed by multilevel modeling (MLM).
Results
The MCCS showed a robust one-factor structure in 30 countries with good test-retest, concurrent and divergent validity results. MLM analyses showed mixed results regarding emotion and problem-focused coping strategies. However, the MCCS was the strongest positive predictor of physical and mental health among all coping strategies, independently of demographic characteristics and country-level variables.
Conclusions
The findings suggest that the MCCS is a valid measure to assess meaning-centered coping. The results also call for policies promoting effective coping to mitigate collective suffering during the pandemic.
... The present study adopts this complex perspective to gain understanding of the effective coping mechanisms in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic and thus approaches meaning-centered coping as a set of emotional, cognitive and behavioral strategies that promote a sense of global meaning in life. Based on theoretical considerations and previous empirical data, these coping mechanisms include positive reframing (Park, 2010), hope (Feldman & Snyder, 2005), existential courage (Maddi, 2013), life appreciation (also termed existential gratitude: Jans-Beken & Wong, 2019; Kleiman et al., 2013), engagement in meaningful activities (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2003;Schueller & Seligman, 2010), and prosociality (Klein, 2017;Van Tongeren et al., 2016). The only available questionnaire in the literature that explicitly measures meaning-focused coping includes only predominantly cognitive facets of meaning-creation (e.g., changes in situational beliefs, changes in global beliefs, and changes in goals), thus it does not fully capture the phenomena described above based on the original works of Frankl and the current empirical and theoretical studies on how humans create sense of meaning. ...
... Instead, we approached meaning-centered coping as a concept that inherently involves cognitive, emotional and behavioral elements, as well as personal and interpersonal aspects (e.g., Reker & Wong, 1988;Wong, 2012). Empirical evidence supports this integrative approach, demonstrating the involvement of the areas measured by the MCCS in the creation of meaning in life (e.g., Feldman & Snyder, 2005;Jans-Beken & Wong, 2019;Kleiman et al., 2013;Klein, 2017;Maddi, 2013;Nakamura & Csikzentmihalyi, 2003;Park, 2010;Schueller & Seligman, 2010;Van Tongeren et al., 2016). These results are consistent with the framework adopted by existential positive psychology (e.g., Wong, 2011). ...
This study examined the role of different psychological coping
mechanisms in mental and physical health during the initial phases of the COVID-19 crisis with an emphasis on meaning-centered coping. Method: A total of 11,227 people from 30 countries across all continents participated in the study and completed measures of psychological distress (depression, stress, and anxiety), loneliness, well-being, and physical health, together with measures of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping, and a measure called the Meaning-centered Coping Scale (MCCS) that was developed in the present study. Validation analyses of the MCCS were performed in all countries, and data were assessed by multilevel modeling (MLM). Results: The MCCS showed a robust one-factor structure in 30
countries with good test-retest, concurrent and divergent validity results. MLM analyses showed mixed results regarding emotion and problem-focused coping strategies. However, the MCCS was the strongest positive predictor of physical and mental health among all coping strategies, independently of demographic characteristics and country-level variables. Conclusions: The findings suggest that the MCCS is a valid measure to assess meaning-centered coping. The results also call for policies promoting effective coping to mitigate collective suffering during the pandemic.
... People who feel gratitude more often have better well-being and perceive less stress both in general (e.g., Lee et al., 2018;Nezlek et al., 2019) and during the COVID-19 pandemic (Jiang, 2020). Individuals who feel more gratitude than others have better mental and physical health, including lower suicidal ideation (Kleiman et al., 2013), posttraumatic stress (among earthquake survivors in Indonesia, Lies et al., 2014), better sleep quality (Wood et al., 2009), and less stress (Lee et al., 2018;Nezlek et al., 2019), which in turn increase life satisfaction (Yildirim & Alanazi, 2018). Furthermore, an intervention promoting daily feelings of gratitude and grateful reflection improved daily well-being and reduced daily stress (O'Leary & Dockray, 2015). ...
... In addition, the nonsignificant partner effect may be due to the fact that we focused on feelings of gratitude, but not gratitude expression (e.g., Kleiman et al., 2013). As noted above, feeling gratitude differs from expressing gratitude to a partner, so a partner might not detect a person's gratitude feelings without their overt expression. ...
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has induced stress and anxiety. According to past studies, positive support within married couples reduces stress during diseases and disasters, but their mechanisms are unclear. To address this gap and help individuals better cope with COVID-19-related psychological distress, this study examined the relationships among daily positive support, daily gratitude, and daily stress within married couples. In this 14-day daily diary study, 54 heterosexually married couples (N = 108) aged 28 to 71 years participated. After reporting their demographic information at the start of the study, they reported their perceived positive support from their partner, daily stress, and feelings of gratitude at the end of each day of the study for 14 consecutive days. Using a multivariate outcome, multilevel cross-classification, we found that daily positive support was negatively associated with daily stress, mediated by daily feelings of gratitude. On a day when a person reported more perceived positive support than others, this person also reported a higher level of feelings of gratitude and a lower level of stress, regardless of age. We found only an actor effect, no partner effect. These findings show how greater daily positive support is linked to greater daily feelings of gratitude, which in turn is linked to less daily stress during an emergent public health crisis.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10902-021-00387-0.
... Extant studies have only examined the buffering effects of gratitude and patience on minimally or moderately distressed populations, such as community samples of adolescents (Li et al., 2012;Rey et al., 2019), college students (Kleiman et al., 2013a(Kleiman et al., , 2013b or cardiovascular outpatients (Hashemi et al., 2018); researchers have not examined the protective effects of gratitude and patience for meaning struggles among participants experiencing acute and/or severe mental illness. Previous theory and research suggest protective factors are most valuable in the presence of risk factors (Kraemer et al., 2001), so gratitude and patience may be more salient during acute distress. ...
... For example, Rey et al. (2019) found that gratitude was a protective factor for bullying victimization on suicide risk and depressive symptoms among adolescent girls (but not boys) in Spain. Likewise, Kleiman et al. (2013b) found gratitude and grit reduced suicidal ideation across 4 weeks in U.S. college students through increased meaning in life. ...
Objective:
Suicidal behavior is a leading cause of injury and death, so research identifying protective factors is essential. Research suggests gratitude and life hardships patience are character strengths that might protect against the deleterious association of struggles with ultimate meaning and suicide risk. However, no studies have evaluated their utility among people experiencing acute/severe mental health concerns.
Method:
We tested the protective function of gratitude and life hardships patience with cross-sectional data from adults (Mage = 31.83 years; SD = 14.84; range = 18-82) hospitalized in a Christian psychiatric inpatient facility (Mstay = 6.37 days, SD = 4.64).
Results:
Gratitude and life hardships patience moderated the positive relation between meaning struggles and suicide risk. Specifically, gratitude and life hardships patience protected against meaning struggles as a risk factor for suicide through mechanisms separate from ameliorating depressive symptoms.
Conclusions:
Findings provide initial support for gratitude and patience interventions as an adjunct to standard psychiatric treatment for minimizing suicide risk.
... Unlike more static predictors of success (e.g., IQ and SES), grit is malleable and can be learned (Duckworth, 2016). Grit significantly impacts psychological outcomes, including commitment in school, marriage, and work (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2014), teaching effectiveness (Duckworth et al., 2009), intensity of physical exercise (Reed et al., 2013), and meaning in life (Kleiman et al., 2013). Individuals with grit view achievement as a long-term process; they can sustain effort over many years, despite disappointments, failures, or boredom (Duckworth et al., 2007). ...
The individual with grit is one who engages in deliberate practice in effortful perseverance toward long-term goals, despite experiencing difficulty or struggle. We investigated how age, grade point average (GPA), college discipline, and adult attachment dimensions (close, depend, and anxiety) relate to grit. Grit, a trait-level characteristic defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals, has been found to predict successful outcomes, including achievement and high performance, above and beyond talent. We recruited 797 participants through a university listserv to complete an anonymous online survey. Although studies have found gender and age variably relate to grit, we found gender had no significant relationship and age had a small but significant positive relationship with grit. Age, GPA, college discipline, and adult attachment were significant predictors of grit, with close and anxiety attachment dimensions having the largest effect. Although grit may not be inherent to a college discipline, this study joins others in finding that some college disciplines have individuals with higher levels of grit than other disciplines.
... Datu and Mateo (2015) posited that gratitude relates to higher levels of life satisfaction through the partial mediating effects of meaning in life, more specifically, presence of meaning in life. Kleiman et al. (2013) investigated the relationship between gratitude and reduction of suicidal ideation, and suggested that the combination of gratitude and grit were related to reduced suicidal ideation, and that these were partially mediated by increased levels of meaning in life. In one longitudinal study, gratitude and meaning in life predicted decreased depression levels (Disabato et al., 2017). ...
In this mixed-methods research, we examined the practice of writing and delivering letters of gratitude (gratitude visits) and its impact on well-being, happiness, meaning and relationships for students in an online graduate program in psychology. Participants completed assessments and inventories relating to happiness, well-being and meaning in life, including the Satisfaction with Life Scale, Meaning in Life Questionnaire, Approaches to Happiness Questionnaire and open-ended qualitative questions before and after they wrote and delivered gratitude letters. Quantitative analyses found significant increases in meaning in life, satisfaction with life, and approaches to happiness after the gratitude visit intervention. Using a grounded theory qualitative analysis of the data, eight primary themes emerged related to the impact and meaning of gratitude letters on graduate students: (1) the impact on the relationship; (2) positive emotions experienced; (3) experiencing a reciprocal expression of gratitude from the receiver; (4) overcoming uncomfortable emotions; (5) relief, release or liberation after sharing; (6) impact on spiritual growth; (7) unexpected responses; and (8) greater reflection on the meaning of life and a changed perspective. Overall, providing graduate students with the opportunity to engage in gratitude visit interventions was related to greater meaning and well-being. This study suggests implications and recommendations related to the use of positive psychology interventions in educational settings.
... Grit is predominantly discussed in the context of academic outcomes, but lately its relevance towards work outcomes, wellbeing, and quality of life is also receiving considerable attention (Datu et al., 2018;Goodman et al., 2017;Kleiman et al., 2013;Musumari et al., 2018;Tiittanen, 2014). It is associated with greater life course achievements (Abuhassàn & Bates, 2015) and better health care management (Sharkey et al., 2018). ...
Positive psychology nurtures the potent qualities of individuals and aids them in carving a niche for themselves. Based on this theoretical foundation, a non-cognitive trait-like grit plays an imperative role in attaining high achievement. Previous studies have identified three dimensions of grit: perseverance of effort, consistency of interest and adaptability to situations. Recent research has criticized the dimension consistency of interest in a collectivist context. The present study provides an account of grit in view of eastern perspectives to check the suitability of the construct in India. Current findings provide a framework for the development and validation of Multi-Dimensional Scale of Grit reveals four dimensions of grit, namely, adaptability to situation, perseverance of effort, spirited initiative and steadfastness in adverse situations. It also provides an insight regarding the duration of goal attainment with respect to grit. The research conducted over three studies included Indian university students to develop and examine the psychometric properties of grit. Study 1 focused on item analysis and development of the factor structure through exploratory factor analysis. Study 2 confirmed the previously obtained factor structure through confirmatory factor analysis. In study 3, the psychometric properties of the scale were measured through test-retest reliability and validity, criterion, convergent and divergent. Results indicated that Multi-Dimensional Scale of Grit is a reliable and valid measure. It also indicated that the obtained 12 items and four dimensions were in synchronization with the relevant eastern perspective.
... physical fitness, conscientiousness), it is also malleable and can be cultivated in children and young adults, with positive downstream effects on effort and cognitive performance (Eskreis-Winkler, 2015). Most of the existing research on grit has focused on adolescent and young adult samples (Duckworth, Quinn, & Tsukayama, 2012;Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan, & Riskind, 2013;Silvia, Eddington, Beaty, Nusbaum, & Kwapil, 2013), with few empirical studies of grit in older adults. The focus of this study is to characterize grit in older adults and determine its impact on successful aging. ...
Objectives
Grit is a noncognitive trait that has been shown to increase monotonically throughout adulthood and predict late-life cognitive performance. Less is known about the relation between grit and successful aging in older adults.
Method
Participants over 55-years-old (N = 185) completed a series of self-report surveys assessing demographics, grit (Short Grit Scale; Grit-S), physical and emotional functioning (Medical Outcomes Study Short Form Health Survey; SF-36), and changes in cognitive functioning (Everyday Cognition; ECog). Principal component analysis of the Grit-S was conducted, and then Pearson product moment correlations and multiple linear regressions were used to assess the relations between grit, age, and measures of successful aging.
Results
Grit showed no association with age, even after controlling for education. Grit total score was positively associated with a variety of successful aging variables (SF-36; physical, emotional, and social functioning, energy, general health; all p’s <.001). Component analysis of the Grit-S showed a two-component solution representing Consistency and Perseverance. Both components predicted SF-36 measures of energy, general health, and emotional function (SF-36), but only Consistency predicted cognitive decline (ECog) and SF-36 measures of physical health and pain.
Conclusion
Grit is stable throughout older adulthood and may serve as a protective factor that promotes active adaptation to the developmental challenges of aging. Consistency of interests appears to play an adaptive role in all facets of successful aging, including stability of cognitive functioning, while perseverance of effort may have a more circumscribed positive effect on physical and emotional well-being in older adults.
... In addition to being predictive of facets of academic success in higher education, recent research has also confirmed grit as predictive of nonacademic outcomes as well. Grit is related to elevated levels of happiness, positive affect, autonomy, competence, and life satisfaction, as well as lower levels of depression, substance use, and suicidal ideation (Guerrero, Dudovitz, Chung, Dosanjh, & Wong, 2016;Jin & Kim, 2017;Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan, & Riskind, 2013;Singh & Jha, 2008). ...
Due to demand for high performance inside and outside of the classroom, student-athletes are a unique subsection of college students. Researchers have focused on investigating protective factors, which may enhance student-athlete well-being and academic success in higher education and reduce athlete burnout. The current study examined grit as a mediator between parenting behaviors and academic success, mental health outcomes, and burnout in higher education among National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I and Division II student-athletes ( N = 202). Overparenting behaviors were negatively associated with psychological autonomy granting, mental health outcomes, and athlete burnout. Psychological autonomy granting behaviors were positively associated with grit and negatively associated with mental health outcomes and athlete burnout. Student-athlete grit mediated the relationship between overparenting behaviors and mental health outcomes. Clinical implications include improving student-athlete parent onboarding protocol; student-athlete psychoeducation; and preventative outreach and health promotion among athletes, athletic staff, and university practitioners. In summary, these findings suggest that parenting behaviors and grit are factors that require more attention in fostering student-athlete success.
... Our prediction regarding the importance of grit to eco-friendly attitudes and behaviours corroborates the fundamental tenets of invest-and-accrue model of conscientiousness (Hill & Jackson, 2016), which argues that conscientiousness or related personality traits (e.g., grit) can facilitate successful outcomes in specific domains as conscientious or gritty individuals are likely to "invest" in behaviours (e.g., buying eco-friendly products) that can "accrue" optimal domain-specific performance outcomes (e.g., reduced emission of greenhouse gas). If there is evidence showing positive relationships between perseverance and sustainable ecological behaviours (Corral-Verdugo et al., 2015) as well as grit and meaning in life (Kleiman et al., 2013), it is likely that gritty students may demonstrate increased capacity to invest in behaviours that might potentially contribute to ecological welfare. ...
Objectives: Prior studies have demonstrated the educational and mental health benefits of grit — disposition to show passion and perseverance for long term goals — in different societies. However, there is limited research on how grit's dimensions relate to pro-environmental outcomes.
This study aims to explore the associations of grit's dimensions (i.e., perseverance of effort and consistency of interests) with environmental passion, environmentally friendly behaviors, and environmental awareness via a cross-sectional design.
Method: A sample of 700 Filipino undergraduate students completed a self-reported survey on grit, environmental awareness, environmental passion, and pro-environmental behaviors. Structural equation modeling via maximum likelihood estimation was used to examine the hypothesized links among grit and pro-environmental outcomes.
Results: Both dimensions of grit were associated with all pro-environmental outcomes. Whereas consistency was more strongly linked to environmental passion, perseverance was more strongly related to environmentally friendly behaviors as well as environmental awareness.
Conclusions: Results point to the ecological benefits of espousing passion and perseverance for long-term goals.
... Positive psychologists have long called for deeper investigations to understand how college students (especially freshmen) develop their MIL and use it to adapt to the new environment . Although there already are longitudinal studies examining MIL in college students (e.g., Kleiman et al., 2013;Steger & Kashdan, 2007;Yu et al., 2020), scant research has focused specifically on freshmen. Even less is known about the development of MIL and its antecedents and adjustment consequences. ...
Entering tertiary education is a critical developmental task during emerging adulthood when exploration of life meaning becomes salient. A strong sense of meaning in life (MIL) plays a key role in smooth transition to college. However, little is known about how MIL develops in the first year of college, and even less is studied about the extent to which such development is a function of social relationships and predicts subsequent adjustment outcomes in college freshmen. This three-wave longitudinal research aims to address these underexplored questions, collecting data from Chinese college freshmen regarding their MIL, social relationships with parents, peers, and teachers, and a range of adjustment outcomes (i.e., life satisfaction, adaptation, procrastination, and smartphone addiction) at
the second (T1), fourth (T2), and eighth (T3) months upon entry into college (i.e., higher vocational training institute; T1 N = 1,578). Results of latent growth models unravelled that Chinese college freshmen’s MIL showed a slight, but significant, decrease over the first year of college. Positive relationships with mother and teachers were related to higher levels of initial MIL and a positive teacher-student relationship mitigated the decline of MIL over time. In addition, results of path analysis revealed that MIL was concurrently related to better adjustment at both T2 and T3 and that T2 MIL also predicted better adjustment at T3. Mediation analyses further revealed that T2 MIL mediated the associations between T1 teacher-student relationship quality and T3 adjustment, even after controlling for T1 MIL and T2 adjustment. These findings bear important implications for college freshmen’s positive transition to college.
... It is only recently that scholars have started to inspect this construct in general, and in language settings in particular, having the agenda to comprehend the role of grit with respect to well-being and enjoyment, in spite of the noticeable function in language education of grit in contrast to other issues (MacIntyre et al., 2019). The role of grit and its predictive impacts on educational accomplishment has been evidenced by several experts (e.g., Duckworth, 2017;Datu et al., 2018;Musso et al., 2019;Alhadabi and Karpinski, 2020;Meyer et al., 2020); however, grit has been interrelated to numerous indicators of well-being in multicultural research, pleasure, and life gratification (Kleiman et al., 2013;Jin and Kim, 2017). Studies have established that grit is significantly related to desire (Sigmundsson et al., 2020), resilience (Calo et al., 2019;Shakir et al., 2020), well-being (Moen and Olsen, 2020), and enthusiasm (Steinmayr et al., 2018;Karlen et al., 2019). ...
It has been documented that grit plays an indispensable role in the process of language learning and teaching. It is postulated that gritty people are more able to become involved in classroom practice and remain motivated even in light of challenges; however, what remains vague is the interplay of grit, well-being, and classroom enjoyment. To this end, 335 male and female Chinese EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners who were studying English in 28 universities took part in this study. They completed three questionnaires including the grit scale questionnaire (Grit-S), foreign language enjoyment scale, and PERMA well-being scale. The Pearson coefficient of correlation was run to investigate the first research question of the study while, after checking the preliminary assumptions, for the second research question a multiple regression analysis was used. The findings of the study demonstrated that there is a positive relationship between learners' grit and enjoyment, and high degrees of enjoyment were interrelated to high degrees of grit. The findings of the study also signified that grit significantly predicted students' well-being and was also a predictor of classroom enjoyment. Finally, some implications and recommendations have been offered for language teaching stakeholders in educational settings.
... Moreover, the studies on the relationship between grit and other psychological indicators and healthcare indicators have sprung up over the past few years. Previous studies have found that grit could negatively predict stress, anxiety and depression (Zhang et al., 2018a;Datu et al., 2019;Coleman, 2020), reduce suicidal ideation (Kleiman et al., 2013), and be an important protective factor for adolescent Internet addiction (Borzikowsky and Bernhardt, 2018;Kim et al., 2021). By contrast, grit could positively promote health management skills and health-related quality of life (Traino et al., 2019), improve individual wellbeing (Arya and Lal, 2018;Schimschal et al., 2021) and life satisfaction (Li et al., 2018a). ...
Grit, as a positive psychological trait, could affect the stability of nursing workforce and nurses’ physical and mental health continuously. The Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) with fewer items than the original Grit Scale was widely used to measure individual trait-level grit. However, the psychological properties of Grit-S among Chinese nurses have not been verified. A self-designed sociodemographic questionnaire was used to investigate 709 Chinese nurses in the study, and Grit-S, Big Five Inventory-44, Brief Self-Control Scale, 10-item Connor-Davidson resilience scale, and Task Performance Scale were adopted to collect information of grit, personality, self-control, resilience, and work performance. The confirmatory factor analysis, Pearson correlation analysis, hierarchical regression analysis, and multi-group confirmatory factor analysis were conducted to verify the psychometric properties of the Grit-S. The results demonstrated that the Grit-S had sound validity and reliability among Chinese nurse samples and had good measurement invariance across nurses in general hospitals and psychiatric hospitals. The results of this study provide confidence in using the grit measurement among Chinese nurse in the future.
... In addition, having both grit and perfectionist tendencies can provide great benefits to individuals. Grittier individuals pursue long-term goals, which could compensate for the lack of life meaning caused by perfectionism (Kleiman et al., 2013;Park and Jeong, 2016). Perfectionists in college tend to experience more pressure when meeting strict personal standards for academic performance, and grit could significantly improve their academic achievement to alleviate the mental burden (Rice et al., 2006;Tang et al., 2019). ...
Background: As a personality trait, perfectionism has shown a close association with psychological disorders, such as depression. The protective effect of grit on depression has been confirmed by a series of recent studies. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the buffering role of grit in the above relationship and the possible underlying mechanism. Objective: Based on the multidimensional theory of perfectionism, we differentiated two dimensions of perfectionism as positive and negative and further examined the relationships between these two dimensions of perfectionism and depression. We also aimed to examine the possible moderating effect of grit on the above two relationships. Methods: Us a questionnaire survey approach, a total of 2,602 college students (1,608 females and 994 males) were assessed using the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale the Short Grit Scale, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to investigate the direct effect of two dimensions of perfectionism on depression as well as the moderating role of grit in these associations. Results: After controlling for gender, age, family income, and academic performance, both positive and negative perfectionism had positive predictive effects on depression, and grit negatively moderated these two relationships. Specifically, grit completely counteracted the effect of positive perfectionism on depression yet partly counteracted the effect of negative perfectionism on depression. Conclusion: Grit prevents the depressive symptoms raised by positive and negative perfectionism.
... A study conducted among Chinese adolescents also showed that gritty adolescents experienced more positive affect, less negative affect, and more life satisfaction since they were more mindful in pursuing goals in the present moment . The beneficial effect of grit on well-being has been documented in many other empirical studies (e.g., Datu et al., 2020;Disabato et al., 2019;Jiang et al., 2019;Jin & Kim, 2017); it is thus suggested that grit could serve as a protective factor for suicidality (Kleiman et al., 2013). ...
To extend our understanding of the development of adolescent grit, we examined the relationships between social support and the two facets of grit (i.e., perseverance of effort and consistency of interest) and whether the relations were moderated by age and gender. Our sample was composed of 1475 Chinese adolescents with ages ranging from 10.65 to 19.24 years old (Mage = 14.98, SDage = 1.66). The results showed that social support was positively related to perseverance of effort but not significantly related to consistency of interest. However, these relations were moderated by age. Specifically, the effect of social support on perseverance of effort declined as age increased, but remained positive among late adolescents. Nevertheless, the effect of social support on consistency of interest was positive only among early adolescents, and the effect decreased and even became marginally negative among late adolescents. Gender difference was further examined, and the results show that the moderating role in the relationship between social support and perseverance of effort was only significant among males rather than females. That is, the positive effect of social support on perseverance of effort did not change with age among females. Theoretic and practical implications are discussed.
... It is hard to capture the tradeoffs that a person adopts to pursue their purpose. It is hard to examine the interactive influence of multiple strengths that operate within a person (recent work suggests that synergies among strengths are common and offer added psychological benefits; Kleiman et al., 2013;Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2020). It is hard to capture the nonlinear value of strengths, where underuse or overuse can produce problems. ...
Much has been discovered about well-being since 1998, when positive psychology entered the lexicon. Among the wide range of areas in positive psychology, in this commentary we discuss recent discoveries on (1) distinctions between meaning in life, a sense of purpose, and happiness, (2) psychological or personality strengths and the benefits of particular combinations, and (3) resilience after exposure to adversity. We propose a series of questions about this literature with the hope that well-being researchers and practitioners continue to update their perspectives based on high-quality scientific findings and revise old views that rely on shaky empirical ground.
... This shows that while the presence of MiL is clearly higher in patients with lower SI, the search for MiL tends not to be significantly different between patients with high versus low SI. Previous studies have also found a protective effect of searching for MiL against SI [52], but other studies have reported a positive correlation between searching for MiL and SA [28]. Overall, our results support the search for MiL as a factor that can protect against an increased severity of SI; however, less significantly as compared to presence of MiL. ...
Background
Chronic pain is associated with an elevated risk of suicidal ideation (SI).
Objective
We aimed to examine if the presence or the search for Meaning in Life (MiL) are associated with less SI and explore whether MiL profiles emerge in our cohort. These profiles can be described as high presence–high search, high presence–low search, low presence–low search, and low presence–high search.
Methods
In this observational study, we recruited 70 patients who were referred to the Multidisciplinary Pain Center of the Geneva University Hospitals and who answered positively to question 9 on the Beck Depression Inventory, 2nd Edition, investigating SI. Patients who agreed to participate in the study were further investigated; they participated in a structured diagnostic interview to screen for psychiatric diagnoses. During this interview, they completed the Meaning in Life Questionnaire and the semistructured Scale for Suicide Ideation (SSI) to assess the characteristics and severity of SI.
Results
There was a statistically significant correlation between the presence of MiL subscale and the SSI. These 2 scales had a negative and statistically highly significant correlation (R=–.667; P<.001). The results also showed a negative and statistically highly significant correlation between the score of the search for MiL and the SSI (R=–.456; P<.001). The results thus pointed to the presence of MiL as a potential protective factor against the severity of SI, while the search for MiL is also a possible resiliency factor, although to a lesser extent. The profile low presence–low search grouped the vast majority (47%) of the patients; in these patients, the mean SSI score was 14.36 (SD 5.86), much higher compared with that of the other subgroups.
Conclusions
This study’s results point to MiL as a concept of interest regarding devising psychotherapeutic interventions for chronic pain patients in order to reduce the suicidal risk and more accurately determine patients’ suffering.
... This instrument measures a set of attitudes and behaviors that include positive reframing of adversity, maintaining hope, existential courage, life appreciation, engagement in meaningful activities, and prosociality (see Eisenbeck et al., unpublished). Elements of this conceptualization of meaning-centered coping are well-studied, show strong relationships with both higher levels of well-being and decreased psychological distress (e.g., Nakamura and Csikzentmihalyi, 2003;Feldman and Snyder, 2005;Schueller and Seligman, 2010;Kleiman et al., 2013;Maddi, 2013;Van Tongeren et al., 2016;Klein, 2017;Jans-Beken and Wong, 2019) and are incorporated in the theory of PP2.0. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has subjected most of the world’s population to unprecedented situations, like national lockdowns, health hazards, social isolation and economic harm. Such a scenario calls for urgent measures not only to palliate it but also, to better cope with it. According to existential positive psychology, well-being does not simply represent a lack of stress and negative emotions but highlights their importance by incorporating an adaptive relationship with them. Thus, suffering can be mitigated (and transformed into growth) by, among other factors, adopting an attitude of positive reframing, maintaining hope, existential courage, life appreciation, engagement in meaningful activities, and prosociality. The conglomerate of these elements has been recently denominated as meaning-centered coping. In this study, we evaluated the protective role of this type of coping on mental health. A sample of 12,243 participants from 30 countries across all continents completed measures of Meaning-Centered Coping Scale (MCCS), depression, stress, anxiety and stressful COVID-19 related conditions they experienced. Results indicated that meaning-centered coping was strongly associated with diminished symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression. Moreover, it moderated various relationships between vulnerability factors and markers of psychological distress, especially in the case of depression. These findings call for attention to meaning-centered coping approaches in the context of hardship, such as the current COVID-19 health crisis. In these difficult times, decision-makers and health organizations may integrate these approaches into their guidelines.
... Mental health professionals can help clients increase their optimism by employing the Best Possible Selves intervention (Malouff & Schutte, 2017) and learned optimism techniques (e.g., cognitive distancing from negative events and linking to positive desired future outcomes; Seligman, 2006). Moreover, there are numerous ways shown to increase meaning in life, including enhancing one's sense of belonging (Lambert et al., 2013), engaging in prosocial behavior (Klein, 2017), and practicing gratitude (Kleiman et al., 2013). Although these interventions are likely beneficial for almost anyone, they may also help to promote happiness and health in economically marginalized populations. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate certain positive characteristics (i.e., social resourcefulness, personal resourcefulness, optimism, and meaning in life) as protective factors for people from lower social class backgrounds. Resilience theory (Yates & Masten, 2004) posits that certain positive characteristics may act as protective factors against vulnerability. We tested this theory with a sample of adults in the United States who completed an online survey. Results partially supported our hypotheses. Subjective social status (SSS) moderated the relations from social resourcefulness and personal resourcefulness to life satisfaction. Specifically, social resourcefulness was a stronger predictor of life satisfaction for individuals with lower SSS compared to higher SSS. These results suggest that social resourcefulness may act as a protective factor for individuals with lower SSS. Results also replicated past findings on the positive relationship between optimism, meaning in life, personal resourcefulness, and subjective well-being. Implications for helping professionals and researchers are discussed.
... This shows that while the presence of MiL is clearly higher in patients with lower SI, the search for MiL tends not to be significantly different between patients with high versus low SI. Previous studies have also found a protective effect of searching for MiL against SI [52], but other studies have reported a positive correlation between searching for MiL and SA [28]. Overall, our results support the search for MiL as a factor that can protect against an increased severity of SI; however, less significantly as compared to presence of MiL. ...
BACKGROUND
Chronic pain is associated with an elevated risk of suicidal ideation (SI).
OBJECTIVE
We aimed to examine if the presence or the search for Meaning in Life (MiL) are associated with less SI and explore whether MiL profiles emerge in our cohort. These profiles can be described as high presence–high search, high presence–low search, low presence–low search, and low presence–high search.
METHODS
In this observational study, we recruited 70 patients who were referred to the Multidisciplinary Pain Center of the Geneva University Hospitals and who answered positively to question 9 on the Beck Depression Inventory, 2nd Edition, investigating SI. Patients who agreed to participate in the study were further investigated; they participated in a structured diagnostic interview to screen for psychiatric diagnoses. During this interview, they completed the Meaning in Life Questionnaire and the semistructured Scale for Suicide Ideation (SSI) to assess the characteristics and severity of SI.
RESULTS
There was a statistically significant correlation between the presence of MiL subscale and the SSI. These 2 scales had a negative and statistically highly significant correlation ( R =–.667; P <.001). The results also showed a negative and statistically highly significant correlation between the score of the search for MiL and the SSI ( R =–.456; P <.001). The results thus pointed to the presence of MiL as a potential protective factor against the severity of SI, while the search for MiL is also a possible resiliency factor, although to a lesser extent. The profile low presence–low search grouped the vast majority (47%) of the patients; in these patients, the mean SSI score was 14.36 (SD 5.86), much higher compared with that of the other subgroups.
CONCLUSIONS
This study’s results point to MiL as a concept of interest regarding devising psychotherapeutic interventions for chronic pain patients in order to reduce the suicidal risk and more accurately determine patients’ suffering.
... Initially studied as a predictor of academic and professional success (Duckworth et al., 2007), grit has made its way into health and wellbeing studies. For example, grit has a buffering effect for suicidal ideation risk (Kleiman et al., 2013) as well as protective effects against peer victimization and problematic video gaming (Li and Zhu, 2020). Additionally, grit is inversely associated with psychological distress (Datu et al., 2018), substance use (Guerrero et al., 2016), and depression (Musumari et al., 2018). ...
This study investigated the effect of ACEs and COVID-19 on grit and whether this effect is mediated by mindfulness. Although current scholarship has found that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have harmful consequences to individuals across the life span, less is known about the relationship between ACEs and grit. Grit is predictive of educational success and subjective wellbeing. A cross-sectional online survey administered to junior and senior students from 12 universities spread across China was conducted from September 20, 2020 to October 5, 2020. The universities were selected from geographically diverse regions of China to ensure a diverse sample. We received 1,871 completed responses from 2,229 invited students. The survey response rate was 83.9%. The results indicated that ACEs had significantly negative effects on grit, while mindfulness had significantly positive effects on grit. Once controlling for level of mindfulness, the effects of ACEs on grit largely reduced and became insignificant. The findings of this research indicate that mindfulness has a significant mediational effect on the relation between ACEs and grit and call for mindfulness-based interventions for enhancing grit for the population at risks.
... As employees observe leaders' optimism, they develop their own optimism. They also learn to develop resilience when working with leaders who convey high Grit-PE because these leaders express resilience, in that they are more likely to persevere following setbacks and adversity (Kleiman et al., 2013). We thus suggest that by conveying Grit-PE to employees, leaders act as a potential PsyCap enhancer of employees. ...
In spite of a growing interest for improvisation in organizations, the microfoundations of improvisation have not been theorized yet. Exploring these microfoundations, we study how employees’ psychological capital (PsyCap) acts as a critical cluster of resources to face improvisational challenges and how leaders who convey grit (operationalized as perseverance of effort: Grit-PE), counterbalanced with humility, create conditions to develop those resources. By building upon the conservation of resources and the dual-systems model of self-regulation theories, our empirical studies suggest that the interaction between two leader-conveyed resources (Grit-PE and humility) creates a contextual resource that helps employees develop PsyCap, thus making them more likely to improvise. The positive effect of high Grit-PE in leaders on employees’ improvisation materializes mainly when leaders also are humble.
... Regarding protective variables against SI, meaning in life has been found to be a protective and mediating factor that can reduce SI (35,36). Meaning in life refers to the fundamental motivational force of the human being and the condition of personal self-realization (37), and it has been described as comprising three main dimensions: purpose, coherence, and significance (38). ...
Introduction
Suicide is a preventable death in young people. It is well known that suicide behavior is a multicausal phenomenon. However, suicidal ideation (SI) commonly underlies suicide, and Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) can help us to better characterize it and its risk and protective factors in the short term. We aimed, first, to investigate the estimated prevalence and trajectories of SI in a community sample of Spanish college students using an EMA methodology and, second, explore the associations between risk and protective factors and SI categorized as moderate or low.
Materials and Methods
A total of 737 participants followed the EMA during a period of 6 months. We estimated the prevalence and trajectories of SI and the associations between depressive symptoms, positive and negative affect, thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, cognitive reappraisal, emotional suppression, and purpose in life with the MEmind smartphone App. SI was assessed 14 times during this period.
Results
Twenty-eight participants referred to SI at least once in longitudinal assessments. We found a lack of curvature and, thus, a relatively stable trajectory of SI. Two groups of latent dimensions were observed related to risk and protective factors of SI. One latent dimension of the risk factors (higher levels of thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, depressive symptoms, negative affect, and emotional suppression) best represented the group with moderate levels of SI, and a second latent dimension of protective variables (positive affect, cognitive reappraisal, and purpose in life) best represented the group with lower levels of SI.
Discussion
These findings may indicate that students with a sense of having a life worth living, in addition to having the ability to reevaluate their negative beliefs, are less likely to experience high levels of SI. Therefore, purpose in life would be a protective factor against the presence of SI.
... Many scholars have studied and discovered the relationship between gratitude and grit. Kleiman 55 found that grit and gratitude interacted to eventually reduce an individual's suicidal ideation. Therefore, in addition to grit, gratitude can also reduce the risk of depression, both of which are protective factors against depression. ...
Purpose:
COVID-19 has been exerting tremendous influence on an individual's physical behavior and mental health. In China, prolonged isolation may lead to depression among college students during the recurrent outbreak of COVID-19. We conducted this study to explore the relationship among stressful life events, grit, gratitude, and depression in college students during the recurrent outbreak of COVID-19.
Methods:
We investigated 953 college students from across China, with an average age of 20.38 (SD=1.39) years. Participants completed four scales (Stressful Life Events Scale, Oviedo Grit Scale, Gratitude Questionnaire, and Patients' Health Questionnaire Depression Scale-9 item).
Results:
The present study found that (1) stressful life events were positively correlated with depression in college students; (2) grit mediated the positive relationship between stressful life events and depression; (3) gratitude moderated the relationship between grit and depression, and such that there was a stronger association between grit and depression for college students with high gratitude.
Conclusion:
This study was of great significance for studying the relationship between stressful life events and depression in Chinese college students during the recurrent outbreak of COVID-19. Results indicated that grit and gratitude of college students may be the main targets of depression prevention and intervention. The research conclusion has theoretical and reference value for solving and preventing depression in college students during the recurrent outbreak of COVID-19.
... Daily gratitude. Prior literature has found positive associations between gratitude and MiL both at the state level (e.g., Allan, Steger, & Shin, 2013) and trait level (e.g., Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan, & Riskind, 2013;Lambert, Graham, Fincham, & Stillman, 2009). There are no previous studies that have examined the relationship between meaning salience and daily gratitude, though we anticipated a positive association between the two. ...
A growing body of evidence suggests that meaning in life (MiL) is a predictor of health behaviors and outcomes. However, previous research has relied on self-report ratings of a global sense of MiL (i.e., how meaningful individuals perceive their lives to be in general or overall) to study the relationships between MiL and health. Meaning salience is a recently introduced construct in the literature that allows for more nuanced investigation of the ways in which MiL may influence individuals on a day-to-day or moment-to-moment basis. The purpose of the present study was to continue the development of a measure of meaning salience, the Meaning Awareness Scale (MAS), which assesses for phenomenological salience of MiL in everyday life. Using a cross-sectional design, this study included a
nationwide sample of adults (N = 342) to: (a) explore the factor structure of the MAS, (b) conduct item reduction of the MAS, (c) assess the internal consistency of the MAS, and (d) conduct a preliminary analysis of the criterion-related validity of the MAS. Results indicate that the 6-item MAS represents one factor and demonstrates strong internal consistency. Findings provide preliminary evidence in support of the criterion-related validity of the MAS. This study offers a means to measure a new and innovative construct related to MiL (i.e., meaning salience) that may lend itself well to intensive longitudinal methods and a more precise investigation of the relationships between MiL, health behaviors, and outcomes.
... Indeed, qualitative studies indicate that sense of purpose is central to the recovery needs of veterans with prior suicide attempts (Denneson et al., 2021). Dispositional gratitude has similarly been found to bolster subjective well-being (Killen and Macaskill, 2015) and buffer the effects of hopelessness and depression on suicide risk (Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan and Riskind, 2013a); and may indirectly confer resilience to suicide risk by bolstering a sense of meaning or purpose in life (Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan and Riskind, 2013b). Conscientiousness, which refers to the propensity to be goal-directed and fastidious, is associated with more adaptive health behaviors (Bogg and Roberts, 2004), including lower likelihood of suicide attempts. ...
Suicide is a major public health problem in U.S. military veterans, but little is known about factors associated with remission from suicide attempts in this population. We aimed to identify risk and protective correlates of remission from suicidal thoughts and behavior (STB) in U.S. veterans with a prior suicide attempt. Data were analyzed from the 2019-2020 National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study survey. A broad range of sociodemographic, military, physical and mental health, and psychosocial variable were assessed. Purpose in life, dispositional gratitude, and conscientiousness emerged as independent correlates of STB remission (24.3%-40.3% of explained variance), even after accounting for other relevant risk and protective factors. While the cross-sectional nature of the study precludes the ability to determine whether the identified protective factors are causally related to STB remission, results suggest three potentially modifiable targets for suicide prevention efforts in veterans. Longitudinal studies are needed to better understand the role of purpose in life, dispositional gratitude, and conscientiousness in promoting remission from STBs in veterans and other populations at risk for suicide.
... Research within these disciplines has indicated that grit significantly contributes to wellbeing [4], (i.e. lower depression [5,6], reduction of risk of suicidal ideation [7,8]) and predicts success in work and personal life [9,10], as well as academic achievement [3,11]. ...
Although grit is predictive of wellbeing, educational achievement, and success in life, it has been conceptualized as largely distinct from cognitive ability. The present study investigated the link between grit and executive functions since regulation abilities might underlie the expression of grit. A hundred thirty-four people were administered personality questionnaires (grit, impulsiveness, and mindfulness) and four experimental tasks tapping into Miyake's and Braver’s models of executive functioning (including measures of flexibility, inhibition, working memory, and control mode dimensions). Multivariate analyses showed that two composite scores (trait and executive functioning) were reliably predictive of grit, although it was the trait composite (characterized by low impulsivity and high mindfulness) that explained more variance. Importantly, gritty participants did not demonstrate enhanced executive functioning. Instead, they exhibit a different pattern of performance that might be reflecting a cautious profile of control, characterized by paying attention to all available information, less reliance on previous contextual cues but sensitive to conflicting information of the current context. These findings converge with Duckworth’s idea that high grit people do not necessarily have a greater cognitive capacity, rather they use it in a different way.
... There is also evidence linking grit to adults' career-related outcomes such as retention of in-service teachers (Robertson-Kraft & Duckworth, 2014), military (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2014), and surgical residents (Burkhart et al., 2014). Further, grit has been associated with increased psychological wellbeing (Vainio, & Daukantaitė, 2016), life satisfaction (Datu et al., 2016;Jin & Kim, 2017;Li et al., 2018), positive emotions (Singh & Jha, 2008), authenticity (Vainio, & Daukantaitė, 2016), positive academic emotions (Datu & Fong, 2018), meaning in life (Datu et al., 2019;Kleiman et al., 2013), psychological well-being (Salles et al., 2014), and school satisfaction (Ivcevic & Brackett, 2014). Yet, all these studies relied on the two-factor model of grit with perseverance and consistency as core dimensions (Duckworth et al., 2007) with typically developing students. ...
Passion and perseverance for long-term goals (often referred to as grit) has been found to be associated with well-being in typically developing students and adults. However, previous studies primarily relied on a two-factor model of grit, underpinned by perseverance of effort and consistency of interests. This model has received considerable theoretical and methodological criticisms. The research examined the association of an alternative model of grit underpinned by perseverance of effort and adaptability to situations as key dimensions, with students’ life satisfaction in Chinese gifted adolescents in Hong Kong. Structural equation modeling via maximum likelihood estimation approach demonstrated that perseverance was linked to higher levels of life satisfaction. Adaptability was indirectly linked to increased life satisfaction via the intermediate variable – career development self-efficacy. Results indicate that perceived confidence in career-related activities might serve as a mechanism through which grit may be linked to higher well-being in gifted students.
... Moreover, it can effectively buffer the adverse effects of external pressures on the individual, form an adaptive response to negative events, expand the individual's timely thinking and behavior paradigm to efficiently trigger positive reactions, seek self-worth, and gain more happiness (Wood et al., 2008;Li, 2016). Gratitude, as a protective factor, plays a regulatory role in enhancing the sense of life meaning and reducing the risk of suicide; additionally, it can be utilized as a valuable intervention to enrich the sense of life meaning (Kleiman et al., 2013b;Tongeren et al., 2015). ...
This study aimed to explore the mechanism of college students’ meaning of life. The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, the Gratitude Questionnaire Six-Item Form, the General Wellbeing Schedule, the Meaning in Life Questionnaire were used as measurement instruments. In total, 1,312 valid responses were obtained. The results showed that the cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression strategies were significantly positively and negatively correlated with gratitude, subjective wellbeing, and the sense of life meaning, respectively. Further, Emotion regulation strategies can affect college students’ sense of life meaning through three paths: the mediating effect of gratitude; the mediating effect of subjective wellbeing; the chain mediating effect of gratitude and subjective wellbeing. This study illuminated the roles of gratitude, and subjective wellbeing in influencing the sense of life meaning among the Chinese college students. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.
... Duckworth & Quinn, 2009;Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2014), and work performance (Lechner et al., 2019, Suzuki et al., 2015. Additionally grit has been linked with specific positive outcomes including academic achievement (Crede et al., 2017), academic diligence (Galla et al., 2014) academic engagement (Datu et al., 2015;Datu et al., 2016), goal attainment (Sheldon et al., 2015), lower risk of depression (Datu et al., 2018;Salles et al., 2017), lower risk of burnout (Jumat et al., 2020), metacognitive awareness (Arslan et al., 2013); positive affect towards difficult tasks (Lucas et al., 2015), psychological well-being (Wyszynska et al., 2017), self-regulation (Wolters & Hussain, 2015), and resiliency to suicide (Kleiman et al., 2013). However, only a few studies to date have examined grit's relationship with foreign language learning (Giordano, 2019;Robins, 2019;Wei et al., 2019;Teimouri et al., 2020). ...
Although research has ascribed a number of virtues to critical thinking, what critical thinking means is itself open to debate. This paper, as a part of a larger qualitative study on critical thinking practice in a Vietnamese EFL context, presents the findings about how Vietnamese EFL teachers and students in a university interpreted critical thinking.
The data were collected through semi-structured interviews with eight teachers and 22 students in a Vietnamese tertiary EFL context to seek their understandings of critical thinking. A majority of the interviews (28) were conducted in Vietnamese, then transcribed in their entirety, and translated into English. Thematic analysis was used to make sense of the data.
The participating teachers and students defined critical thinking as involving cognitive skills (e.g., analysing, synthesising, evaluating) and affective dispositions (e.g., inquisitiveness, open-mindedness). Their understandings were found to be limited to the first two domains of criticality in Barnett’s (1997) framework. That is, they understood critical thinking mainly within the domains of “knowledge”, less in “self”, barely at all in the domain of the “world”. The findings further revealed three characteristics distinctive in the participants’ conceptions of critical thinking: (i) expressing personal opinions as an indication of critical thinking, (ii) right/wrong dichotomy as the aim of critical thinking, and (iii) others’ rather than one’s own opinions or arguments as the subject of criticism.
The findings imply that the participating teachers and students appeared to have quite a rudimentary grasp of critical thinking and that their understandings were influenced to some extent by the Vietnamese culture of teaching and learning, which has some implications for the application of critical thinking in an EFL context.
Previous research indicates that sensation seeking, emotion dysregulation, and impulsivity are predictive of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). A body of research supports that meaning in life predicts improved mental health and well-being, including fewer suicidal thoughts and attempts, yet no research has examined the moderating effects of meaning in life on the relations between personality and temperament and NSSI. Given the growing incidence rates of NSSI among adolescents and the potential lifelong consequences of NSSI, it is imperative to better understand the factors that reduce the rates at which adolescents in a clinical sample engage in NSSI. The present study investigates if the protective factors of meaning in life moderate the relation between personality and temperament variables and NSSI among 126 adolescents (71% female, Mage = 16.1, SD = 1.1, range 13–18, 80% White) residing in an inpatient psychiatric hospital who endorsed NSSI in the last 12 months. Results from hurdle modeling indicate that two subtypes of meaning in life, presence of meaning in life and search for meaning of life, may serve as robust protective factors against engagement in NSSI among a clinical sample of adolescents. Additionally, results suggest that search for meaning, but not presence of meaning in life, variables moderate the relations between personality and temperament and NSSI. Results provide evidence that meaning in life is an understudied variable of importance in understanding how to prevent or treat NSSI. It also underscores the need to develop, refine, and test meaning-making interventions.
Grit has been a renowned construct in the fields of education (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009) and profession (Baum & Locke, 2004). Similarly, personality traits have also been long acknowledged by different researchers as a determiner of one"s likelihood to succeed too. It is depicted as an internal characteristic noted for its relative stability, consistency, and longevity (APA). As they are equal key determiners, it is intriguing to know whether there is a relationship between these two. The current study aims to realize this among pre-service English language teachers as respondents. Big Five Personality Traits Scale and Short-Grit Scale were utilized in gathering the necessary data for such, while a Personal Information Section was provided to identify the demographics of the respondents. Sequentially, it was revealed that there is indeed a statistically significant relationship between the personality traits of the respondents, such as conscientiousness and openness, and their grit levels.
Though gratitude research in organizational behavior (OB) is nascent, this emotion has a rich history in the social sciences. Research has shown gratitude to promote prosocial behaviors, encourage personal well-being, and foster interpersonal relationships. However, gratitude research has been siloed among these three outcomes of gratitude (moral, wellness, and relational). Similarly, past reviews of gratitude have focused on only one group of outcomes, one of its forms (trait, state, or expressed), or empirical findings without emphasis on the theoretical underpinnings. In contrast, this review recognizes that each type of gratitude, its functions, and outcomes are part of a single process model of gratitude. As such, in the current review we provide a comprehensive assessment of gratitude in the social sciences by distilling and organizing the literature per our process model of episodic gratitude. Then, we translate the insights for management scholars, highlighting possible differences and synergies between extant research and workplace gratitude thereby helping advance “gratitude science” in the workplace. In all, this review (a) examines definitions and operationalizations of gratitude and provides recommendations for organizational research; (b) proposes a process model of episodic workplace gratitude as a conceptual map to guide future OB research on gratitude; (c) reviews empirical gratitude research through the lens of our process model; and (d) discusses the current state of the literature, important differences for workplace gratitude, and future directions for organizational scholars.
Retirement is a transition period from productive to unproductive life. During this period various problems arise, often due to unpreparedness and inability to carry out daily activities far different from working periods. This can cause depression, post power syndrome, loss of influence, and less social relations because the frequency of meeting and gathering with friends decreases. Based on this condition it is necessary to ensure individuals have meaningful lives after retirement. This study aimed at describing the meaningfulness of life of the retired civil servants in the city of Bengkulu. This was a quantitative descriptive study, having a research instrument with a scale of five. The sampling technique used purposive samples with a size of 30 people. Data analysis technique was descriptive statistical. The results showed that retired civil servants in the city of Bengkulu live a meaningful life. This is indicated by the fact that retirees had clear life goals and recognizing their potential, directing them to more positive things.
Aim
To investigate the associations between Grit, connectedness, and parental involvement in Thai adolescents. Grit, perseverance, and passion for long-term goals are predictors of academic success and health. There is a small but developing knowledge of the predictors of Grit in Asia, especially Thailand. This paper investigates the proposition that connectedness and parental involvement are positively associated with Grit.
Method
A total of 2,839 lower secondary (grade 8), higher secondary (grade 11), and vocational (year 12) students from 21 schools in Chiang Mai, Thailand participated in a survey that measured Grit using the Short Grit Scale. Bivariate analysis was conducted using the t -test, ANOVA, or Kruskal–Wallis H test as appropriate. Multiple ordinary least squares linear regression analysis was performed to determine factors associated with Grit.
Results
Satisfactory relationships with teachers ( p = 0.01), parental support ( p = 0.03), interest in school ( p = 0.01), having been asked by parents to do homework ( β = −0.69; p = 0.012), and having been told by parents that they had done something bad ( β = −1.09; p = 0.02) associated with Grit. These findings can aid in design of tailored interventions to improve Grit in Thai adolescents.
The dual-factor model of mental health emphasizes the integration of subjective well-being and psychopathology to obtain a complete conceptualization of mental health. When used in schoolwide screenings, this dual-factor approach provides a more comprehensive picture of students' mental health. In a sample of adolescents (N = 404) attending a Midwestern U.S. middle school (Grades 6–8), the current study empirically identified mental health groups through latent profile analysis (LPA) and examined how profile membership was predicted by various demographic variables, academic achievement, general grit, academic grit, and growth mindset. Three mental health profiles emerged: Complete Mental Health (above average life satisfaction and affect, below average internalizing and externalizing problems), Symptomatic but Content (average to above average life satisfaction and affect, above average internalizing and externalizing difficulties), and Troubled (below average life satisfaction and affect, above average internalizing and externalizing difficulties). These profiles partially supported the dual-factor model of mental health, although a vulnerable group was not identified. Gender, SES, racial identity, and IEP status were significant predictors of mental health profile membership. Academic achievement, general grit, academic grit, and growth mindset were also significant predictors of mental health group membership. Limitations, future directions, and implications are discussed, including how these findings inform school psychological theory and practice.
Grit is associated with positive outcomes in nonclinical samples. However, no studies have examined grit in relation to psychopathology in patients with clinical mood or anxiety disorders. Research and clinical experience suggest that individuals who hoard struggle with characteristics associated with grit, such as task persistence, impulsivity, and self-control. The authors tested the hypothesis that hoarding symptoms are associated with less grit in a sample of individuals (N = 72) presenting for treatment to an anxiety disorders clinic. After covarying symptoms of the four mood and anxiety disorders most commonly comorbid with hoarding disorder (viz. depression, generalized anxiety, social anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder), the authors found that hoarding symptoms were associated with less grit, and the effects were medium-to-large. These results indicate that grit is worthy of investigation in individuals with hoarding disorder using methodologies that permit inferences about causality, and with attention to clinical implications for prevention or treatment.
The highest suicide rates are among elderly men. The aim of the present study is to extend previous findings by focusing on meaning in life as a protective factor for suicidal ideation among elderly men. Self-report measures were administered to 170 elderly men aged 65 and over in community. Meaning in life and physical illness predicted suicidal ideation among elderly men. Physical illness moderated the association between meaning in life and suicidal ideation. In the young-old group (ages 65–74), meaning in life predicted suicidal ideation among those who reported higher rates of physical illness. This moderation effect was not found among the older group (aged 75 years and older). The findings of this study highlight the importance of age-differences in studying suicidal ideation among elderly men. Our findings emphasize the importance of cultivating and maintaining meaning in life when coping with chronic illnesses and point at meaning in life as a goal in therapeutic interventions designed to reduce suicidal ideation among elderly.
Abstrak Perceraian merupakan peristiwa yang sering dipandang negatif oleh anak sehingga menyebabkan mereka sulit untuk merasa bersyukur. Penelitian mengenai kebersyukuran menunjukkan bahwa social support memiliki keterkaitan dengan gratitude. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk melihat bagaimana kontribusi setiap dimensi social support terhadap gratitude pada dewasa awal yang orang tuanya bercerai. Penelitian ini dilakukan terhadap 111 individu, dengan menggunakan instrumen adaptasi skala GRAT (α=0.880, n=40) untuk mengukur gratitude, dan skala ISEL (α=0.92, n=31) untuk mengukur social support. Data penelitian di analisis dengan menggunakan teknik regresi linier berganda dan menghasilkan 3 dimensi social support dapat memprediksi gratitude; dimensi appraisal support (R 2 =0.125, p=0.000; p<0.05), dimensi belonging support (R 2 =0.140, p=0.000; p<0.05) dan self-esteem support (R 2 =0.047, p=0.008; p<0.05). Sedangkan dimensi tangible support tidak dapat memprediksi gratitude pada dewasa awal yang orang tuanya bercerai (R 2 =0.000, p=0.823; p>0.05). Appraisal support memprediksi gratitude secara negatif, semakin tinggi Appraisal support maka semakin rendah gratitude, demikian pula sebaliknya. Sedangkan belonging support dan self-esteem, masing-masing memprediksi gratitude secara positif, semakin tinggi belonging support dan self-esteem maka semakin tinggi gratitude. Kata Kunci: Social Support, Gratitude, Perceraian.
The present study conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relation between grit and subjective well-being (SWB). The association between grit (i.e., overall grit, perseverance of effort, and consistency of interest) and SWB (i.e., positive affect, negative affect, happiness, depression, life satisfaction, job satisfaction, and school satisfaction) were synthesized across 83 studies and 66,518 participants. The results based on a random-effects model showed a substantial correlation between overall grit and SWB (ρ = .46, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [.43, .48]), followed by perseverance of effort (ρ = .38, 95% CI = [.33, .43]) and consistency of interest (ρ = .23, 95% CI = [.17, .28]). The moderator analysis indicated that the correlations between overall grit/consistency of effort and SWB become weaker as age increased, and these links were stronger in affective well-being than in cognitive well-being. Moreover, grit explained unique variance in SWB even after controlling for conscientiousness. Implications and directions for further research are discussed.
Στο κεφάλαιο αυτό καταδεικνύονται, τόσο σε θεωρητικό επίπεδο όσο και σε επί-
πεδο κλινικής πράξης, οι κοινοί τόποι ανάμεσα στην ψυχαναλυτική ψυχοθεραπεία
και τη Θετική Ψυχολογία, προκειμένου να επιτευχθεί μία δημιουργική και ωφέλι-
μη για το κλινικό έργο σύζευξη ανάμεσα στην πλέον παραδοσιακή μέθοδο ψυχοθε-
ραπείας και τις σύγχρονες κλινικές παρεμβάσεις της Θετικής Ψυχολογίας. Ειδικό-
τερα, εξετάζεται η συνάντηση της ψυχανάλυσης με το σύγχρονο πεδίο της Θετικής
Ψυχολογίας μέσα από την ανάδειξη της «θετικότητας» στην ψυχαναλυτική προσέγ-
γιση, τη συγκριτική σύνθεση βασικών ψυχαναλυτικών εννοιών με συναφείς έν-
νοιες της Θετικής Ψυχολογίας, καθώς επίσης με την παρουσίαση συγκεκριμένων
μεθόδων παρέμβασης, οι οποίες προάγουν το «θετικό» σε μία ψυχαναλυτική ψυχο-
θεραπεία. Στόχος ενός τέτοιου εγχειρήματος είναι να εμπλουτίσει αμοιβαία τις δύο
προσεγγίσεις του ανθρώπινου ψυχισμού, προσφέροντας ένα πλαίσιο απαρτιωτικό.
Pozitif psikoloji ile gündeme gelen kavramlardan biri olan minnettarlık, birçok ruh sağlığı göstergesi ile ilişkilidir. Bir değer, tutum, duygu, kişilik yapısı ve davranış örüntüsü olarak tanımlanabilen minnettarlık ile ilgili özgün Türkçe bir ölçeğe rastlanamamıştır. Buna bağlı olarak da Likert tipi Türkçe Minnettarlık Ölçeği geliştirilmesi için bu çalışma yürütülmüştür. Araştırma verileri bir üniversitenin lisans düzeyinde öğrenim gören öğrencilerden toplanmıştır. Doğrulayıcı faktör analizi için 477; Açımlayıcı faktör analizi için 369 ve test tekrar test analizi için 24 olmak üzere toplam 870 veri kullanılmıştır. Ölçek geliştirilme sürecinde 5 uzmandan ölçek maddelerine ilişkin görüş alınmıştır. Uzman görüşlerinin ardından psikoloji lisans öğrencileri ile odak grup görüşmesi yapılmış ve 48 maddelik madde havuzu ile ilk uygulama ve Açımlayıcı faktör analizi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Faktör analizi sonucunda madde yükleri düşük olan maddeler ölçekten çıkarılmış ve 26 madde ile birinci düzey doğrulayıcı faktör analizi için veri toplanmıştır. İlgili modelin test edilmesi sonucunda 3 madde daha ölçekten çıkarılmış ve 5 faktörlü 23 maddelik bir ölçek formu elde dilmiştir. İlgili maddelerin toplam varyansın % 45.75’ini açıkladığı görülmüştür. Ölçüt geçerliliği ve test tekrar test geçerliliği analizlerinde pozitif yönlü anlamlı ilişki görülmüştür. Ölçeğin Cronbach Alpha güvenirlik katsayısı ise .855 olarak tespit edilmiştir.
The most commonly used method to test an indirect effect is to divide the estimate of the indirect effect by its standard error and compare the resulting z statistic with a critical value from the standard normal distribution. Confidence limits for the indirect effect are also typically based on critical values from the standard normal distribution. This article uses a simulation study to demonstrate that confidence limits are imbalanced because the distribution of the indirect effect is normal only in special cases. Two alternatives for improving the performance of confidence limits for the indirect effect are evaluated: (a) a method based on the distribution of the product of two normal random variables, and (b) resampling methods. In Study 1, confidence limits based on the distribution of the product are more accurate than methods based on an assumed normal distribution but confidence limits are still imbalanced. Study 2 demonstrates that more accurate confidence limits are obtained using resampling methods, with the bias-corrected bootstrap the best method overall.
The expert performance framework distinguishes between deliberate practice and less effective practice activities. The current longitudinal study is the first to use this framework to understand how children improve in an academic skill. Specifically, the authors examined the effectiveness and subjective experience of three preparation activities widely recommended to improve spelling skill. Deliberate practice, operationally defined as studying and memorizing words while alone, better predicted performance in the National Spelling Bee than being quizzed by others or reading for pleasure. Rated as the most effortful and least enjoyable type of preparation activity, deliberate practice was increasingly favored over being quizzed as spellers accumulated competition experience. Deliberate practice mediated the prediction of final performance by the personality trait of grit, suggesting that perseverance and passion for long-term goals enable spellers to persist with practice activities that are less intrinsically rewarding—but more effective—than other types of preparation.
At its most elemental level, human development consists of constancy and change in quantitative and qualitative aspects of behavior and functioning. The science of human development therefore illuminates the causes, mechanisms, and conse- quences of constancy and change in behavior and functioning. There is no simple characterization of human development other than complex because it is a multi- dimensional (i.e., biological, social, emotional, and cognitive), multidirectional (i.e., positive and negative), multidetermined (i.e., self, others, contexts, and sys- tems), life-long process (Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999; Erikson, 1950, 1959; Mortimer & Shanahan, 2003). This special issue of Research in Hu- man Development is devoted to the topic of "risk and resilience" in human devel- opment, a topic that epitomizes the complexity of human development as a process of constancy and change throughout life. The terminology of risk and especially resilience is everywhere these days, suggesting these are popular fields of social scientific inquiry that have been on- going for many years. However, it is important to note that although popular, the topics of risk and resilience are relative newcomers to the field of human develop- ment. The terminology and science of risk and resilience emerged primarily from the health sciences and particularly from the investigation of psychopathology. It was a handful of pioneering psychologists—Norman Garmezy (1973), Emmy Werner (Werner & Smith, 1977), and Michael Rutter (1979)—primarily inter- ested in child development who bridged the study of risk and resilience and brought this dual focus into the science of human development. Risk factors are causes of undesirable, non-normative developmental out- comes. Put differently, risk factors generate negative change in or persistent (i.e., chronic) poor behavior or functioning. Risk factors are measurable characteristics
Gratitude is conceptualized as a moral affect that is analogous to other moral emotions such as empathy and guilt. Gratitude has 3 functions that can be conceptualized as morally relevant: (a) a moral barometer function (i.e., it is a response to the perception that one has been the beneficiary of another person's moral actions); (b) a moral motive function (i.e., it motivates the grateful person to behave prosocially toward the benefactor and other people); and (c) a moral reinforcer function (i.e., when expressed, it encourages benefactors to behave morally in the future). The personality and social factors that are associated with gratitude are also consistent with a conceptualization of gratitude as an affect that is relevant to people's cognitions and behaviors in the moral domain.
Counseling psychologists often work with clients to increase their well-being as well as to decrease their distress. One important aspect of well-being, highlighted particularly in humanistic theories of the counseling process, is perceived meaning in life. However, poor measurement has hampered research on meaning in life. In 3 studies, evidence is provided for the internal consistency, temporal stability, factor structure, and validity of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), a new 10-item measure of the presence of, and the search for, meaning in life. A multitrait-multimethod matrix demonstrates the convergent and discriminant validity of the MLQ subscales across time and informants, in comparison with 2 other meaning scales. The MLQ offers several improvements over current meaning in life measures, including no item overlap with distress measures, a stable factor structure, better discriminant validity, a briefer format, and the ability to measure the search for meaning.
Several literatures converge on the idea that approach and avoidance/withdrawal behaviors are managed by two partially distinct
self-regulatory system. The functions of these systems also appear to be embodied in discrepancy-reducing and -enlarging feedback
loops, respectively. This article describes how the feedback construct has been used to address these two classes of action
and the affective experiences that relate to them. Further discussion centers on the development of measures of individual
differences in approach and avoidance tendencies, and how these measures can be (and have been) used as research tools, to
investigate whether other phenomena have their roots in approach or avoidance.
This paper presents a new model of gratitude incorporating not only the gratitude that arises following help from others but also a habitual focusing on and appreciating the positive aspects of life", incorporating not only the gratitude that arises following help from others, but also a habitual focusing on and appreciating the positive aspects of life. Research into individual differences in gratitude and well-being is reviewed, including gratitude and psychopathology, personality, relationships, health, subjective and eudemonic well-being, and humanistically orientated functioning. Gratitude is strongly related to well-being, however defined, and this link may be unique and causal. Interventions to clinically increase gratitude are critically reviewed, and concluded to be promising, although the positive psychology literature may have neglected current limitations, and a distinct research strategy is suggested. Finally, mechanisms whereby gratitude may relate to well-being are discussed, including schematic biases, coping, positive affect, and broaden-and-build principles. Gratitude is relevant to clinical psychology due to (a) strong explanatory power in understanding well-being, and (b) the potential of improving well-being through fostering gratitude with simple exercises.
The interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior (T. E. Joiner, 2005) makes 2 overarching predictions: (a) that perceptions of burdening others and of social alienation combine to instill the desire for death and (b) that individuals will not act on the desire for death unless they have developed the capability to do so. This capability develops through exposure and thus habituation to painful and/or fearsome experiences and is posited by the theory to be necessary for overcoming powerful self-preservation pressures. Two studies tested these predictions. In Study 1, the interaction of (low) family social support (cf. social alienation or low belonging) and feeling that one does not matter (cf. perceived burdensomeness) predicted current suicidal ideation, beyond depression indices. In Study 2, the 3-way interaction among a measure of low belonging, a measure of perceived burdensomeness, and lifetime number of suicide attempts (viewed as a strong predictor of the level of acquired capability for suicide) predicted current suicide attempt (vs. ideation) among a clinical sample of suicidal young adults, again beyond depression indices and other key covariates. Implications for the understanding, treatment, and prevention of suicidal behavior are discussed.
The goal of this study was to develop a multi-dimensional model that might explain suicide ideation among college students. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 1,249 first-year college students. An estimated 6%(wt) of first-year students at this university had current suicide ideation. Depressive symptoms, low social support, affective dysregulation, and father-child conflict were each independently associated with suicide ideation. Only 40%(wt) of individuals with suicide ideation were classified as depressed according to standard criteria. In the group who reported low levels of depressive symptoms, low social support and affective dysregulation were important predictors of suicide ideation. Alcohol use disorder was also independently associated with suicide ideation, while parental conflict was not. Results highlight potential targets for early intervention among college students.
In this article, we introduce brief self-report and informant-report versions of the Grit Scale, which measures trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) retains the 2-factor structure of the original Grit Scale (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007) with 4 fewer items and improved psychometric properties. We present evidence for the Grit-S's internal consistency, test-retest stability, consensual validity with informant-report versions, and predictive validity. Among adults, the Grit-S was associated with educational attainment and fewer career changes. Among adolescents, the Grit-S longitudinally predicted GPA and, inversely, hours watching television. Among cadets at the United States Military Academy, West Point, the Grit-S predicted retention. Among Scripps National Spelling Bee competitors, the Grit-S predicted final round attained, a relationship mediated by lifetime spelling practice.
Meaning in life and life satisfaction are both important variables in well-being research. Whereas an appreciable body of
work suggests that life satisfaction is fairly stable over long periods of time, little research has investigated the stability
of meaning in life ratings. In addition, it is unknown whether these highly correlated variables change independent of each
other over time. Eighty-two participants (mean age = 19.3 years, SD 1.4; 76% female; 84% European-American) completed measures
of the presence of meaning in life, the search for meaning in life, and life satisfaction an average of 13 months apart (SD = 2.3 months).
Moderate stability was found for presence of meaning in life, search for meaning in life, and life satisfaction. Multiple
regressions demonstrated specificity in predicting change among these measures. Support for validity and reliability of these
variables is discussed.
The regression models appropriate for counted data have seen little use in psychology. This article describes problems that occur when ordinary linear regression is used to analyze count data and presents 3 alternative regression models. The simplest, the Poisson regression model, is likely to be misleading unless restrictive assumptions are met because individual counts are usually more variable ("overdispersed") than is implied by the model. This model can be modified in 2 ways to accomodate this problem. In the overdispersed model, a factor can be estimated that corrects the regression model's inferential statistics. In the second alternative, the negative binomial regression model, a random term reflecting unexplained between-subject differences is included in the regression model. The authors compare the advantages of these approaches.
To determine the risk factors for suicide, 6,891 psychiatric outpatients were evaluated in a prospective study. Subsequent deaths for the sample were identified through the National Death Index. Forty-nine (1%) suicides were determined from death certificates obtained from state vital statistics offices. Specific psychological variables that could be modified by clinical intervention were measured using standardized scales. Univariate survival analyses revealed that the severity of depression, hopelessness, and suicide ideation were significant risk factors for eventual suicide. A multivariate survival analysis indicated that several modifiable variables were significant and unique risk factors for suicide, including suicide ideation, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and unemployment status.
In four studies, the authors examined the correlates of the disposition toward gratitude. Study I revealed that self-ratings and observer ratings of the grateful disposition are associated with positive affect and well-being, prosocial behaviors and traits, and religiousness/spirituality. Study 2 replicated these findings in a large nonstudent sample. Study 3 yielded similar results to Studies I and 2 and provided evidence that gratitude is negatively associated with envy and materialistic attitudes. Study 4 yielded evidence that these associations persist after controlling for Extraversion/positive affectivity. Neuroticism/negative affectivity, and Agreeableness. The development of the Gratitude Questionnaire, a unidimensional measure with good psychometric properties, is also described.
The present research examined the role of approach and avoidance motivation in models of personality. Specifically, it examined the hypothesis that approach and avoidance temperaments represent the foundation of several basic dimensions espoused in the trait adjective, affective disposition, and motivational system approaches to personality. Factor analytic support for the hypothesis was obtained in Studies 1, 2, and 6; measures of extraversion, positive emotionality, and behavioral activation system loaded together on 1 factor (Approach Temperament) and measures of neuroticism, negative emotionality, and behavioral inhibition system loaded on another factor (Avoidance Temperament). This 2-factor structure was shown to be independent of response biases. In Studies 3-7, approach and avoidance temperaments were shown to be systematically linked to achievement goals (both nomothetic and idiographic). The findings are discussed in terms of an integrative approach to personality.
Two studies were conducted to explore gratitude in daily mood and the relationships among various affective manifestations of gratitude. In Study 1, spiritual transcendence and a variety of positive affective traits were related to higher mean levels of gratitude across 21 days. Study 2 replicated these findings and revealed that on days when people had more grateful moods than was typical for them, they also reported more frequent daily episodes of grateful emotions, more intense gratitude per episode, and more people to whom they were grateful than was typical for them. In addition, gratitude as an affective trait appeared to render participants' grateful moods somewhat resistant to the effects of discrete emotional episodes of gratitude.
To compare the efficacy of a skills-based treatment protocol to a supportive relationship therapy for adolescents after a suicide attempt.
Thirty-nine adolescents (12-17 years old) and parents who presented to a general pediatric emergency department or inpatient unit of a child psychiatric hospital after a suicide attempt were randomized to either a skills-based or a supportive relationship treatment condition. Follow-up assessments were conducted at intake and 3 and 6 months post-attempt.
In contrast to the low rates of treatment received by adolescent suicide attempters in the community, approximately 60% of this sample completed the entire treatment protocol. Significant decreases in suicidal ideation and depressed mood at 3- and 6-month follow-ups were obtained, but there were no differences between treatment groups. There were six reattempts in the follow-up period.
When adolescents who attempt suicide are maintained in treatment, significant improvements in functioning can be realized for the majority of patients.
Positive psychology has flourished in the last 5 years. The authors review recent developments in the field, including books, meetings, courses, and conferences. They also discuss the newly created classification of character strengths and virtues, a positive complement to the various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (e. g., American Psychiatric Association, 1994), and present some cross-cultural findings that suggest a surprising ubiquity of strengths and virtues. Finally, the authors focus on psychological interventions that increase individual happiness. In a 6-group, random-assignment, placebo-controlled Internet study, the authors tested 5 purported happiness interventions and 1 plausible control exercise. They found that 3 of the interventions lastingly increased happiness and decreased depressive symptoms. Positive interventions can supplement traditional interventions that relieve suffering and may someday be the practical legacy of positive psychology.
The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that future orientation is associated with lower levels of suicide ideation and lower likelihood of suicide attempt in a sample of patients in treatment for major depression.
Two hundred two participants (116 female, 57%) ages 50-88 years were recruited from inpatient and outpatient settings. All were diagnosed with major depression using a structured diagnostic interview. Suicide ideation was assessed with the Scale for Suicide Ideation (both current and worst point ratings), and a measure of future orientation was created to assess future expectancies. The authors predicted that greater future orientation would be associated with less current and worst point suicide ideation, and would distinguish current and lifetime suicide attempters from nonattempters. Hypotheses were tested using multivariate logistic regression and linear regression analyses that accounted for age, gender, hopelessness, and depression.
As hypothesized, higher future orientation scores were associated with lower current suicidal ideation, less intense suicidal ideation at its worst point, and lower probability of a history of attempted suicide after accounting for covariates. Future orientation was not associated with current attempt status.
Future orientation holds promise as a cognitive variable associated with decreased suicide risk; a better understanding of its putative protective role is needed. Treatments designed to enhance future orientation might decrease suicide risk.
Suicide in the military is a growing concern. We reviewed empirical studies and used two case studies
to illustrate the potential explanatory role of Joiner’s (2005) interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal
behavior. The theory posits that three variables—perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness,
and acquired capability for suicide—determine the risk of an individual engaging in a lethal suicide
attempt. In our case studies, we illustrate how these variables might be affected in an active duty
population post-deployment. Although methodological limitations preclude conclusive determinations,
the case studies provide a framework within which to understand the phenomenon of suicide in the military.
Future work that examines these findings empirically will be invaluable to both researchers and
mental health counselors
a b s t r a c t Suicide in the military is a growing concern. The interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior proposes that an individual will not die by suicide unless he or she experiences a combined disconnection from others, feelings that one is a burden on others, and the ability to do so, but this theory has not yet been rigorously tested with military samples. The current study tested the theory's hypotheses in pre-dicting history of suicide in a sample of 88 active duty US Air Force personnel, which was compared to a non-military undergraduate sample (n = 309) and a non-military clinical sample (n = 228). Active duty personnel demonstrated higher acquired capability when compared to a clinical non-military sample. As compared to non-military undergraduates, active duty personnel demonstrated less perceived burden-someness, but did not differ in terms of thwarted belongingness. The interaction of burdensomeness and acquired capability significantly predicted suicidal history, but the three-way interaction between burdensomeness, belongingness, and acquired capability did not, providing partial support for the theory in a military sample.
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Purpose-a cognitive process that defines life goals and provides personal meaning-may help explain disparate empirical social science findings. Devoting effort and making progress toward life goals provides a significant, renewable source of engagement and meaning. Purpose offers a testable, causal system that synthesizes outcomes including life expectancy, satisfaction, and mental and physical health. These outcomes may be explained best by considering the motivation of the individual-a motivation that comes from having a purpose. We provide a detailed definition with specific hypotheses derived from a synthesis of relevant findings from social, behavioral, biological, and cognitive literatures. To illustrate the uniqueness of the purpose model, we compared purpose with competing contemporary models that offer similar predictions. Addressing the structural features unique to purpose opens opportunities to build upon existing causal models of "how and why" health and well-being develop and change over time.
Neuroticism and extraversion are potentially important markers of personality vulnerability to suicide. Whereas previous studies have examined these traits independently, we examined their combined effects. Data were collected from family members and/or friends of individuals 18 years or older who died by suicide (n = 64) in rural China and from age-, sex-, and geographically matched controls (n = 64). Personality was assessed with the NEO-Five Factor Inventory. Individuals with a personality style characterized by high neuroticism and low extraversion were at 3.07 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.44-6.55) times greater risk for suicide than were individuals without this personality style; in contrast, a style characterized by low neuroticism and high extraversion conferred decreased suicide risk (odds ratio, 0.41; 95% CI, 1.44-6.55). We conclude that it may be clinically inadequate to conceptualize neuroticism, by itself, as a risk marker for suicide. However, when the negative affect characteristic of neuroticism is combined with the joylessness, pessimism, and hopelessness characteristic of low extraversion, risk for suicide is elevated.
Stressors encountered in daily life, such as family arguments or work deadlines, may play an important role in individual health and well-being. This article presents a framework for understanding how characteristics of individuals and their environments limit or increase exposure and reactivity to daily stressors. Research on daily stressors has benefited from diary methods that obtain repeated measurements from individuals during their daily lives. These methods improve ecological validity, reduce memory distortions, and permit the assessment of within-person processes. Findings from the National Study of Daily Experiences, which used a telephone-diary design, highlight how people's age, gender, and education and the presence or absence of chronic stressors in their lives predict their exposure and reactivity to daily stressors. Finally, future directions for research designs that combine laboratory-based assessment of stress physiology with daily-diary methods are discussed.
A self-report version of the Scale for Suicide Ideation (SSI) was administered to 50 inpatients diagnosed with mixed DSM-III psychiatric disorders and 55 outpatients with affective disorders. The self-report SSI was written for both paper-and-pencil and computer administration. The correlations between the self-reported and clinically rated versions for both inpatients and outpatients were > 0.90, which suggests strong concurrent validity. The Cronbach coefficient alphas for the paper-and-pencil and computer versions were also in the 0.90s and indicated internal consistency. Furthermore, the mean SSI scores of the compute version for both the inpatients and outpatients were higher than the mean SSI scores of the clinical ratings; the patients described more severe suicide ideation than clinicians reported.
Life meaning and coping strategies were investigated as statistical predictors of suicidal manifestations in a sample of 298 university undergraduates. Participants completed measures of hopelessness, sense of coherence, purpose in life, coping for stressful situations, suicide ideation, prior suicide attempts, and self-reported likelihood of future suicidal behavior. Moderated multiple regression techniques examined the incremental validity of life meaning by coping interactions for predicting each suicide variable separately by gender. The interaction of sense of coherence and emotion-oriented coping made a unique, significant contribution to the statistical prediction of all suicide variables for women. For men, the interaction between sense of coherence and emotion-oriented coping contributed significantly to the statistical prediction of suicide ideation. All interactions remained significant when hopelessness was statistically controlled. The hypothesis that life meaning acts as a buffer between coping style and suicidal manifestations was partially supported. Implications for suicide prevention and intervention are discussed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Psychol, 2003.
