Cymbopogon essential oils Chemical compositions and bioactivities

Abstract

The genus Cymbopogon (Poaceae) is most important from the point of view of their essential oils. Essential oils from these species are widely used in flavours, fragrances, cosmetics, soaps, detergents and perfumery owing to their typical lemon and rose-like aroma. Cymbopogon essential oils and constituents present therein e.g. citral, geraniol, citronellol, citronellal and piperitone, have been known to possess impressive antibacterial, antifungal, antiyeast, insecticidal and insect repellent activities for a long time. However, the biological and pharmacological significance of these essential oils has been rapidly expanded in the past ten years; anti-inflammatory, anticancer, allelopathic, free radical scavanging and other useful biological activities have now been demonstrated. Cymbopogon essential oils and constituents offer outstanding biological activities and therefore may be used in the treatment of several diseases, including cancers, and in applications of industrial importance particularly food packaging. The present review discusses the chemical compositions and biological activities essential oils from Cymbopogon species and emphasizing mechanisms of action. These details were gathered from reports on the bioactivities of essential oils of Cymbopogon species published during 1999-2009.

Full text

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Introduction
The genus Cymbopogon (Poaceae) is renowned for
their essential oils of immense commercial signicance
in avours, fragrances, cosmetics, perfumery, soaps,
detergents and pharmaceuticals [1]. The genus comprises
of about 140 species of which most are aromatic and yield
an essential oil upon the steam distillation of their aerial
parts [2].
Some most important species of this genus are:
• Cymbopogonexuosus Stapf. (East Indian lemongrass)
• Cymbopogon citratus DC Stapf. (West Indian
lemongrass)
• Cymbopogonnardus (L)
• Cymbopogonwinterianus Jowitt (citronella)
• Cymbopogonmartinii Roxb. (palmarosa)
• C.nardus x C.jwarancusa(jamarosa hybrid ) [3].
Essential oils from Cymbopogon species of diverse origin
have been studied extensively, both previously and
currently [1-9].
The essential oils of Cymbopogon species mainly
consist of the monoterpene fractions. Several reports
published earlier have revealed the presence of citral
(a mixture of geranial and neral), geraniol, citronellol,
citronellal, linalool, elemol, 1,8-cineole, limonene, geraniol,
β-caryophyllene, methyl heptenone, geranyl acetate and
geranyl formate in the essential oils of different species
with marked variations have been reported. Also, the
essential oil components are greatly inuenced by genetic,
environmental and geographical conditions [1-3]. The
essential oils in Cymbopogon species are biosynthesized in
the rapidly growing leaves and stored in specic oil cells in
the parenchymal tissues [10,11].
For many years lemongrass (C . exuosus) has been used
as a culinary avouring in Asia. The leaves are cooked with
foods, especially curries, and the peeled stems are available
in local markets. Fresh leaves crushed in water are used as
hair wash and toilet water in India. Beside their traditional
uses, studies aimed to evaluate the biological activities of
the essential oils and constituents of Cymbopogon species
International Journal of
Essential Oil Therapeutics
www.ijeot.com
Cymbopogon essential oils: Chemical compositions and
bioactivities
D. Ganjewala
PlantBiotechnologyDivision,SchoolofBiosciencesandTechnology,VelloreInstituteofTechnology(VIT)University,
Vellore-632014,TamilNadu,India
Abstract
The genus Cymbopogon (Poaceae) is most important from the point of view of their essential oils. Essential
oils from these species are widely used in avours, fragrances, cosmetics, soaps, detergents and perfumery
owing to their typical lemon and rose-like aroma. Cymbopogon essential oils and constituents present
therein e.g. citral, geraniol, citronellol, citronellal and piperitone, have been known to possess impressive
antibacterial, antifungal, antiyeast, insecticidal and insect repellent activities for a long time. However, the
biological and pharmacological signicance of these essential oils has been rapidly expanded in the past
ten years; anti-inammatory, anticancer, allelopathic, free radical scavanging and other useful biological
activities have now been demonstrated. Cymbopogon essential oils and constituents offer outstanding
biological activities and therefore may be used in the treatment of several diseases, including cancers,
and in applications of industrial importance particularly food packaging. The present review discusses the
chemical compositions and biological activities essential oils from Cymbopogon species and emphasizing
mechanisms of action. These details were gathered from reports on the bioactivities of essential oils of
Cymbopogon species published during 1999-2009.
Keywords: allelopathic, anticancer, anti-inammatory, antioxidant, Cymbopogon species, essential oil,
isointermedeol
EORC
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*Correspondingauthor.
E-mailaddress:deepakganjawala73@yahoo.com
© Essential Oil Resource Consultants. All rights reserved.
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57
have revealed their usefulness. Perhaps their signicance
has been best realized in the past ten years. Studies have
revealed many useful biological activities of the essential
oils and essential oil constituents of Cymbopogon species
in recent years such as anti-inammatory, anticancer
and allelopathic activities [12-16]. There are few reports
available describing other bioactivities of agricultural and
ecological signicance such as food packaging and insect
repellent of essential oils of Cymbopogon species [17-20].
For example, C.martinii (palmarosa) essential oil is used as
fumigation to control beetles like Callosobruchus chenesis
and Triboliumcastaneum, which grow in stored grain [18].
Similarly, the insect repellent properties of C.winterianus
(citronella) are used to protect cartons containing muesli
and wheat germ from beetles [19].
It is also reported that the essential oils of Cymbopogon
exuosus, C.citratus, C.martinii,C.winterianus, C.nardus, C.
khasianus, C . nervatus, C. schoenanthus, C. giganteus and C.
densiorus possess several useful bioactivities. In addition,
individual chemical constituents such as citral, geraniol,
citronellol, citronellal, linalool, limonene, piperitone,
borneol, bisabolol and isointermedeol have demonstrated
remarkable bioactivities, including anticancer activity
[14]. The easy availability, pleasant olfactory properties
and insignicant toxicity of the Cymbopogon essential oils
make them most promising candidates for the treatment
of chronic diseases [14]. In addition, their semio-chemical
properties are useful as an alternative to synthetic chemical
pesticides in an integrated pest management programme
[18].
Certainly, essential oils of the Cymbopogon species are
occupying increasingly and vastly varied signicance in
pharmaceuticals and medicine owing to their potential
bioactivities. This trend, however, has been increased
progressively in the past ten years. Despite the fact that
the numbers of reports are increasing on the bioactivities
of Cymbopogon essential oils, these reports have not been
analyzed or reviewed at one place. In this review article,
I have discussed chemical compositions and various
bioactivities of the essential oils of Cymbopogon species
from the collation of reports published in the past ten
years. Also, the biosynthesis and accumulation of the
essential oils has been briey mentioned.
Essential oil extraction from Cymbopogon species
Essential oils from members of the genus Cymbopogonare
usually extracted by steam or hydrodistillation of the aerial
parts, such as leaves and inorescences in mini Clevenger
apparatus (Figure 1). They yield an essential oil with a
characteristic aroma due to the presence of the signicant
monoterpene fractions. Cymbopogonexuosus(East Indian
lemongrass) oil is yellow to reddish-brown in colour and
the odour is powerful lemon like, while that of C.martinii
(palmarosa) and C. exuosus mutant cv. GRL-1 essential
oil has a rose-like aroma due to the higher proportion of
geraniol.
Chemical compositions of the essential oils
Essential oils of a number of Cymbopogon species have been
extensively studied for their chemical composition by gas
chromatography, GC-MS and NMR spectroscopy [1-9]. In
recent years C.exuosus, C.citratus, C.martinii, C.winterianus,
C.nardus,C.giganteus, C.schoenanthus and C.parkeri have
been investigated for their chemical compositions as well as
evaluated for biological activities The studies have revealed
that their essential oils mainly consist of monoterpenes
(acyclic and acyclic), whilst those of C . exuosus and C.
parkeri also consist of bicyclic monoterpenes, piperitone
and sesquiterpenes such as isointermedeol [14, 21].
Isointermedeol is a major component in the essential oil
of C.exuosus that has anticancer properties [18].
Figure 1. Mini Clevenger apparatus for essential oil
extraction.
Gas chromatographic analyses of essential oils of C.
exuosus cultivars OD-19 and GRL-1 has revealed the
presence of several monoterpenes viz., citral (a and b),
geraniol, borneol, isopulegol and 6-methyl hept-5-en-2-
one, geranyl acetate, γ-terpinene, α-thujene, α-pinene,
sabinene, n-decanol, α-terpenyl acetate, β-caryophyllene,
α-humulene, germacrene D, β-bisabolene and γ-cadinene
[1-9]. Structures of some of these monoterpenes are
presented in Figure 2.
Our earlier study of essential oil compositions in eight
cultivars of C .exuosus revealed that essential oils of the
seven cultivars consisted mainly of citral (75-85%), except
that of cultivar GRL-1, which is mainly composed of
geraniol (90%) [1]. Citral is an isomeric mixture of geranial
(citral a) and neral (citral b) and are major components
in the essential oils of several species of Cymbopogon
[10]. Both citral and geraniol have immense commercial
signicance due to their characteristic lemon and rose-
like smell in the avour, fragrance, cosmetics, perfumery
and pharmaceutical industries [1,22]. A study of essential
oil composition and phylogenetic relationship in 19
Cymbopogon taxa by Khanuja et al. 2005 [2] revealed marked
variation in the essential oil content and compositions of
these taxa. Essential oils from C.confortiorus and C.nardus
var. confortiorus were rich in geraniol with observed
values of 68% and 46%, respectively, whereas essential
oils from C.nardus var. nardus and C.winterianus had very
little amount of geraniol. Essential oil extracted from C.
pendulus, C. exuosus and C. citratus mainly consisted of
Figure 1. Mini Clevenger apparatus for extraction of essential oil.
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58
citral that accounted for 80-84% [2].
The essential oil obtained from the roots of C. citratus
consisted of ten components including longifolene-(V4)
that accounted for 56.67% of the essential oil; also present
as a major constituent was selina-6-en-4-ol (20.03%) [16].
The chemical composition of the essential oil from the
shoots of C. citratus was completely different to that of
the root essential oil, with the former consisting of 12
components with citral (88%) as the major constituent
[16]. Cymbopogongiganteus essential oil has shown a very
distinct composition, which is mainly characterised by
the presence of cis- and trans-p-1(7),8-menthadien-2-ol
(19.9% and 22.3%), cis- and trans-p-2,8-menthadien-1-ol
(10.1% and 14.3%) [13]. Like C.giganteus, the essential oil
of C.schoenanthus L. Spreng from Tunisia also had a very
distinguished chemical composition, but characterised
by different types of monoterpenes such as limonene
(10.5–27.3%), β-phellandrene (8.2–16.3%), δ-terpinene
(4.3–21.2%) and α-terpineol (6.8–11.0%) [23]. So far, these
essential oil compositions are unique.
The essential oil of the C. martinii studied by GC-FTIR
indicated the presence of geraniol (65%) and geranyl
5.
6.
3.
4.
1.
2.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
17.
16.
18.
14.
15.
Figure 2. Chemical structures of Cymbopogon essential oil constituents
1, citral a; 2, citral, b; 3, citronellol; 4, citronellal; 5, geraniol; 6, geranyl acetate; 7, limonene; 8, linalool; 9, nerol; 10, cis-
ocimene; 11, piperitone; 12, α-terpineol, 13, thujane; 14, α-bisabolol, 15, isointermedeol; 16, borneol; 17, α-pinene; 18,
β-pinene.
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59
acetate (20%) as major components [24]. Similar
composition of the leaf and ower essential oils of C.
martinii with geraniol as dominating component (53.41% in
leaf and 69.63% in ower oil) is reported [25]. In addition
to geraniol, piperitone (6.0%) in ower and nerol (24.76%)
and α-pinene (4.32%) in leaf essential oils have also been
identied [25]. Phytochemical analysis of the essential oil
of C.winterianus Jowitt (java citronella) showed presence
of geraniol (40.06%), citronellal (27.44%) and citronellol
(10.45%) as major components [26]. The essential oil of
C. winterianus consisted of 23 compounds as revealed
by gas chromatographic analyses; major constituents
identied were citronellal (27%), trans-geraniol (23%), and
citronellol (10%) [27]. Earlier studies have shown similar
essential oil composition of C.winterianus with citronellol,
citronellal, limonene and linalool as major components
[28]. The essential oil composition of C.nardus is almost
identical to that of C. winterianus, characterised by the
presence of geraniol, citronellal, and citronellol. However,
α-terpineol, cis-sabinene and carvone were identied as
major constituents besides citronellal and geraniol in the
essential oil of C. nardus harvested from India [29]. The
essential oil of C . parkeri Stapf. from Iran has piperitone
(81%) as major component with some other minor
constituents including germacrene-D (5%), santolinyl
acetate (2.1%) and α-eudesmol (2.1%) [21].
The study of the essential oil composition of various
Cymbopogon species presented here led to the conclusion
that the monoterpene compositions of the essential oils
markedly varied among the species. Invariably, essential oil
content and compositions are greatly inuenced by climate,
season and diurnal effects. Additionally, developmental and
ontogenic variations in the essential oil composition in
Cymbopogon species have been reported [1,3].
Essential oil biosynthesis and accumulation
Essential oils are complex mixture of acyclic and/ or
cyclic terpenoids. Monoterpenes are colourless, lipophilic,
volatile substances responsible for the characteristic
odours of essential oils and scents of many plants [3].
The monoterpenes are mainly derived from geranyl
diphosphate (GPP) through interconversions such as,
stereo specic isomerization, acetylation, deacetyaltion,
cyclisation and dehydrogenation [31,31]. Geranyl
diphosphate (GPP) is believed to be biosynthesised by
condensation of the isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) with
dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) in a head to tail fashion.
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate is the universal precursor of all
isoprenoids including monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes
and is thought to be derived either from the cytoplasmic
acetate-MVA pathway or the newly discovered methyl-
erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP) pathway (Figure 3) [22, 32-
34]. Incorporation studies in C.exuosus (lemongrass) and
C.martinii (palmarosa) using radiolabel substrates [2-14C]-
acetate, 14CO2, [14C]-sucrose favoured acetate-MVA origin
of the essential oil [22,35,36]. The essential biosynthesis
and accumulation is subjected to developmental regulation
in Cymbopogons [1]. Previous incorporation studies in
lemongrass and palmarosa revealed only young and
rapidly growing leaves and inorescences are most active
in biogenesis as well as accumulation of essential oil [22,
36,37].
Histochemical methods using Schiff ’s reagent have shown
that Cymbopogon exuosus cv. OD-19 and C. citratus
accumulate essential oils in oil cells located in the adaxial
side of the leaf mesophyll, commonly adjacent to non
photosynthetic tissue and between vascular bundles
[10,11].
Bioactivities of Cymbopogon essential oils
The bioactive potential of Cymbopogon essential oils and
their constituents have been rapidly recognised in the past
ten years (Table 1), although the conventional bioactive
properties against microbes have been known for much


Figure 3. Monoterpene biosynthesis via cytosolic acetate-MVA and plastidic MEP pathway.
DMAPP, dimethylallyl diphosphate; G-3-P, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate; GPP, geranyl diphosphate; IPP, isopentenyl
diphosphate. Secondary transformations of GPP produce diverse monoterpenes structures.
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60
longer. Essential oils of Cymbopogon species are easily
available, have a pleasant aroma, are non-toxic and safe;
the active principles are therefore becoming increasingly
popular in pharmaceuticals and medicines. Also, semio-
chemical properties of the Cymbopogon essential oils
has been promising in integrated pest management
programme since this property may lead to development
of alternatives to synthetic chemical pesticides [18].
While several research groups have investigated the
bioactive potential of essential oils and their constituents
using animal models and cell systems, others have elucidated
and proposed mechanisms underlying their actions. A
number of reports published in recent years have described
several novel bioactivities viz., allelopathic, anthelmintic,
anti-inammatory, anticancer, antioxidant and insect and
mosquito repellency of some Cymbopogon essential oils
and the mechanisms of action. Among the various species,
C.citratus has been recognised most promising since the
essential oil of this species has exhibited a variety of
fundamental and novel bioactivities (Table 1). Cymbopogon
martinii and C.winterianus were other species that showed
outstanding bioactivities, particularly insect repellent and
anthelmintic. In contrast, C. schoenanthus essential oil
demonstrated antioxidant activity. The bioactive potential
of other species of Cymbopogon have not yet been fully
exploited.
Like essential oils, monoterpene constituent of the
essential oil have displayed useful bioactivities [12-16].
For instance, citral, a major constituent in essential oils of
many Cymbopogon species has shown strong antimicrobial
properties against plant and human pathogens and
insecticidal properties [38-41]. Similarly, limonene and
borneol present in the essential oil of C. exuosus have
immunostimulatory, analgesic and anaesthetic properties,
respectively [42, 43]. Some other constituents such as
geraniol, geranyl acetate, α-bisabolol and isointermedeol
have also been correlated with different types of
bioactivities. Isointermedeol, a major component in C.
exuosus essential oil, possesses anticancer properties
[14]. The number of reports describing the bioactivities
of Cymbopogon essential oils is growing. Most of the
bioactivities shown by Cymbopogon essential oils are
discussed in the following sections.
Antimicrobial activities
Rapidly developing resistance of pathogenic microorganisms
against currently available drugs/ treatment is a major
concern in recent years. Essential oils of Cymbopogon
species have strong antimicrobial properties and thus could
produce alternative therapeutics to current antibiotic
drugs. The antimicrobial properties of C. exuosus, C.
citratus, C. martinii, C . winterianus, C. nardus, and C. parkeri
have been well documented (Table 1). Most of the studies
have determined the antimicrobial activity of the essential
oil and its constituents in terms of minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC), which is required for 50% inhibition
of the growth of microorganisms. From these studies it has
become clear that essential oils of Cymbopogonspecies have
outstanding antifungal activities and signicant antibacterial
activities. Cymbopogonnervatus inorescence essential oil
has demonstrated antibacterial activities against Shigella
dysenteriae and Klebsiella pneumoniae [44], whilst that of
C.densiorus has a wide spectrum of antibacterial activity
against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria [45].
De Billerbeck et al. [46] have studied the effect of the
essential oil of C. nardus on the growth of Aspergillus
niger. The study revealed that the essential oil (800 mg/
ml) had strong inhibitory action causing cytological
modications on growth of the mycelium. It was suggested
that the essential oil damaged the plasma membrane and
mitochondrial structural organization. Subsequently, Helal
et al. [47] described a very similar antifungal property of C.
citratus essential oil with negative effects on the growth, lipid
content and morphogenesis in A.niger ML2-strain. The MIC
of the essential oil was 1.5-2.0 μ/ml. Observation of A.niger
hyphae treated with essential oils under the light, scanning
electron and transmission microscope demonstrated the
ultra structural alterations in the hyphae, which might be
developed during treatment with essential oil. Fumigation
with essential oil also caused great loss in Ca2+, K+ and
Mg2+ ions from the mycelium. Moreover, C.citratusessential
oil is reported to block aatoxin B production in A.niger
[48, 49]. The essential oil of C.martiniidisplayed remarkable
antiyeast activity against Saccharomyces cerevisiae at
a concentration as low as 0.1% [24]. Geraniol, which
accounts for 90% of palmarosa essential oil, was found to
be responsible for this activity.
Two mechanisms of antiyeast activity have been suggested.
Geraniol arrests the growth of yeast cells causing excessive
K+ ion leakage from yeast cells and essential oil treatment
induces alterations in the S. cerevisiae cell membrane
composition by increasing the proportion of saturated fatty
acid and decreasing that of unsaturated fatty acid, resulting
in growth inhibition. Besides the effects of palmarosa on
S. cerevisiae, the oil has shown inhibitory effects on the
growth of dermatophytes and lamentous fungi [50]. This
was studied by applying essential oil ointments against
induced ringworm in a guinea pig model; hair samples
were collected after 7-21 days of the treatment and
examined for fungal growth [50]. The essential oil from C.
citratushas been found to be useful in treatment of oral
and vaginal candidiasis [51], with citral exhibiting powerful
inhibitory effects on growth of the yeast [51]. Other
yeasts signicantly affected include Candida oleophila,
Hansenula anomala, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. uvarum,
Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Metschnikowia fructicola.
Cymbopogoncitratusessential oil has also shown signicant
inhibitory activities against a number of lamentous
fungi, namely Alternariaalternata, Aspergillusniger, Fusarium
oxysporum and Penicilliumroquefortii [52].
The essential oil and powder of C. citratus is used to
control storage deterioration and aatoxin contamination
of melon seeds caused by Aspergillus avus, A. niger, A.
tamarii and Penicillium citrinum [53]. The advantages of
this treatment are that the essential oil does not affect
the biochemical composition of the seeds and has strong
effects comparable to that of a commercial fungicide
iprodione. Thus it is a better and safe natural control.
Unlike essential oils of other Cymbopogon species, C.
parkeri essential oil has shown substantial activity against
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61
Table 1. Bioactivities of Cymbopogon essential oils, constituents and extracts.
Cymbopogon species essential oil MIC/IC50 value biological activity ref.
CymbopogoncitratusStapf. Essential oil 126.5 and 15.5 μg/ml Anti-proliferative 12
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil and
components
N.D. Allelopathic 16
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil 1.0 - 1.5 μl/ml Antifungal 47
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil 1.0- 3.0 μl/ml Antiyeast 48
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil, citral 100 μg/ml Antifungal 51
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil 1.0 - 1.5 μl/ml Antifungal 49
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil and
powder
1-10 g/100 g seeds and
0.1 to 1.0 ml/100 g seeds
Antifungal 53
Cymbopogoncitratus Lemon grass extract 100 mg/kg body weight Anticancer 55
Cymbopogoncitratus Citral 22.25 μM Inducer of caspase-3 in
tumor cell lines
56
Cymbopogoncitratus Methanol, water
infusion & decoction
50-100 μg/ml Free radical scavenging
and antioxidant
57
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil 50-200 mg/kg Antinociceptive effect 62
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil N.D. Anxiolytic 63
Cymbopogoncitratus Essential oil 0.5 - 1.0 g/kg Neurobehavioral effect 64
Cymbopogoncitratus Fresh leaf aqueous
extract
125-500 mg/kg Hypoglycemic and
hypolipidemic
65
Cymbopogoncitratus Citral 60 mg/kg body weight Anti-clastogenic 66
Cymbopogoncitratus Lemongrass infusion N.D. In the treatment of oral
thrush in HIV/AIDS
67
Cymbopogonexuosus(Nees ex
Steud) Wats
Essential oil 4.2 to 79 μg/ml Anticancer 15
Cymbopogonexuosus Essential oil,
isointermedeol
30 and 20 μg/ml Anticancer 14
CymbopogonmartiniRoxb. Essential oil 0.1% Antimicrobial 24
Cymbopogonmartini Essential oil, geraniol 66.7 μg/ml Anthelmintic 60
Cymbopogonmartini Oil extract N.D. Insecticidal 18
Cymbopogonmartini Essential oils 150 and 500 ppm Antifungal activity
dermatophytes
50
Cymbopogonmartini Essential oil 150 and 500 ppm Antifungal activity
dermatophytes
25
Cymbopogonmartini Essential oil N.D. Anthelmintic activity 25
Cymbopoganmartinivar.soa Essential oil 1 ml Repellent 20
Cymbopogonschoenanthus(L.)
Spreng.
Essential oil 0.47 mg/ml Antioxidant
Antiacetylcholineesterase
23
Cymbopogonschoenanthus Essential oil,
piperitone
1.6 μl/l and 2.7 μl/l Insecticidal 59
Cymbopogonschoenanthus Essential oil 33.3 μl/l Insecticidal 58
CymbopogonwinterianusJowitt Essential oil 100- 400 mg/kg Anticonvulsant 26
Cymbopogonwinterianus Essential oil N.D. Insecticidal/ repellent 60
Cymbopogonwinterianus Essential oil 1-10 μl/ml Antimicrobial 27
Cymbopogonwinterianus Citronella extract 0.2 g/m2 of carton board Insect repellent 19
Cymbopogonwinterianus Citronellal 2.5 mM Phytotoxicity 17
Cymbopogonnardus Essential oil 800 mg/l Antifungal 46
CymbopogondensiorusSteud. Essential oil N.D. Antibacterial activity 45
CymbopogonnervatusStapf. Essential oil N.D. Antibacterial 44
N.D. = not detected
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62
phytopathogenic fungi, namely Rhizoctoniasolani, Pyricularia
orizea and Fusariumoxysporum [54]
Anticancer activity
Until recently, relatively little was known about the
anticancer properties of Cymbopogon essential oils and
their mechanism of actions; only few reports are available.
The rst report on anticancer activity was the effects
of lemongrass on hepatocarcinogenesis in male Fischer
344 rats administered with diethylnitrosamine [55].
Consequently, the anticancer activity of citral has been
reported. Citral functions as a new inducer of caspase-3 in
tumour cell lines, with the mechanism of action involving
DNA fragmentation and enhancement of caspase-3
catalytic activity, eventually inducing apoptosis in several
hematopoietic cell lines [56]. However, apoptotic effects
were dependent on α- and β- unsaturated aldehyde groups.
The most dened work on anticancer activity of
Cymbopogon essential oil has been recently carried out
[14,15]. The two reports provided deeper insight in to
anticancer principle of the essential oil and its mechanisms
of action. Kumar et al. [14] have investigated the anticancer
activity of C. exuosus (CFO) essential oil and its major
constituent, isointermedeol (ISO) in human leukaemia
HL-60 cells. This study revealed that C.exuosus essential
oil and isointermedeol (ISO) induce apoptosis in human
leukaemia HL-60 cells and anticancer activity of these
materials was correlated with down regulation of NF-κB
expression and caspase activation. The caspase activation
was through apical receptors and mitochondrial signaling
pathways. As a part of the mechanism of action it was
suggested that signicantly increased levels of cytochrome
c in mitochondria after essential oil treatment, played a
role in triggering apoptosis. Sharma et al. [15] have studied
the anticancer activity of C.exuosus essential oil in human
cancer cell lines HL-60, murine Ehrlich and Sarcoma-180
tumors in combination with electron microscopy. This
indicated some morphological changes favouring induction
of apoptosis in cancer cells lines that were most probably
triggered by the essential oil. Chromatin condensation and
induced apoptosis and fragmentation of the nuclei and
apoptosis were apparent morphological changes in HL-60
and sarcoma-180 cell lines, respectively [15].
Antiproliferative, anti-inammatory and
antioxidant activities
The antiproliferative effect of C.citratus essential oil against
Trypanosomacruzi was demonstrated to be due to citral.
Citral also showed signicant trypanocidal activity against
the parasite [12]. Cymbopogongiganteus is widely used in
traditional medicine against several diseases. The chemical
constituents of this essential oil showed inhibitory effects in
vitro on 5-lipoxygenase. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) method was used for determination of the
antiradical scavenging activity of the essential oil [13].
Antioxidants are substances with the ability to scavenge free
radicals and the essential oils of Cymbopogonspecies have
shown this ability and are thus considered as antioxidants.
However, the antioxidant properties of Cymbopogon species
have not yet been sufciently evaluated. The essential
oil of C . schoenanthus L. (Spreng.) has shown the ability
of scavenging of free radicals and also anti-acetylcholine
esterase activity, hence believed to be a strong antioxidant
[23]. Cymbopogonschoenanthusis consumed in salads and
used to prepare traditional meat recipes in Tunisia. With
C.citratus, instead of essential oil, the methanol, methanol-
water extract, infusion and decoction of leaves exhibited
powerful antioxidant properties. The antioxidant activity
of the essential oils of the above species were determined
using the DPPH assay [23,57].
Allelopathic, repellent and anthelmint activities
It is reported that Cymbopogon essential oils and their
major constituents function as allelochemicals. Allelo-
chemicals affect insect biology and behaviour and hence
are used in biocontrol. Cymbopogonschoenanthusessential
oil functions as an allelochemical and is used to control
Callosobruchus maculates development in cowpea stock
[58, 59]. Piperitone, a major chemical constituent, was
more toxic than the essential oil to neonatal larvae. The
essential oil of C.citratus exhibited alleopathic activity and
affects seed germination and seedling growth of corn and
barnyard grass [16]. Very likely, C.winterianus essential oil
has allelo-chemical property that affects the growth of
Spodopterafrugiperda larvae [60]. An extract of citronella
also has repellent activity [19] and it is for this reason that
citronella extract is used to prevent cartoons containing
muesli and wheat germ from beetles [19]. Similarly, C .
martinii var. soa essential oil exhibited repellent action
against Anopheles sundaicus [20]. Palmarosa oil is safe
for human use and is thus recommended for protection
from malaria due to its potent repellent action against
mosquitoes. Beside mosquito repellent activity, palmarosa
essential oil also showed strong pesticidal activity against
insect infestation and is used to protect stored wheat and
grain from the beetles Callosobruchuschenesis and Tribolium
castaneum [18].
Palmarosa essential oil demonstrated signicant
anthelmintic activity against the nematode Caenorhabditis
elegans [61]. and this was mainly due to geraniol (a major
chemical constituent). Palmarosa oil has also showed
anthelmintic activity against the Indian earthworm
Pheretima posthuma [25]where it causes paralysis and
death in a short time.
Other biological activities
Essential oils of Cymbopogon species have some other
less studied bioactivities. Cymbopogon citratus is reported
to possess additional properties such as antinociceptive,
anxiolytic-type, and neurobehavioral activity [53, 62-
65]. Aqueous extracts of C. citratus leaves have shown
hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic effects in rats suggesting
its possible therapeutic role in Type 2 diabetic mellitus [65].
Administration of aqueous extracts of leaves (125-500 mg/
kg body weight) in normal male Wistar rates for 42 days
resulted in a signicant decline in fasting plasma glucose,
increase in plasma HDL-c level and no change in plasma
triglycerides level [65].
The essential oil of C.winterianus is used in Brazilian folk
InternationalJournalofEssentialOilTherapeutics(2009)3,56-65

63
medicine as an analgesic and anxiolytic [15]. A recent
study has revealed anticonvulsant and depressant activity
of C . winterianus essential oil on central nervous system
(CNS) of rodents [26]. Citronella essential oil exhibited
signicant inhibitory effects on the growth of several
weed species like Ageratumconyzoides, Chenopodiumalbum,
Parthenium hyterophorus, Malvastrum coromendelianum,
Cassia accidentalis and Phalaris minor [17]. It is suggested
that a major component, citronellal, exerts multiple
effects on the biochemistry and physiology of the weeds
and inhibits their emergence. Citronellal mainly impairs
the photosynthetic and respiratory metabolism, disrupts
cuticular wax, clogs stomata, shrinks epidermal cells
and causes rapid electrolyte leakage. Post-emergence
application of citronella has been equally effective and
cause chlorosis, necrosis, wilting and nally death of the
weeds [17].
Citral possesses many useful bioactivities and one of
these is an anti-clastogenic effect in nickel chloride-
treated mouse micronucleus system [66]. The citral
caused inhibition of micronuclei formation and enhanced
the superoxide scavenging activity. Elevated superoxide
scavenging activity was thought to be responsible for the
anti-clastogenic effects of the citral [66].
Recently, Wright et al. [67] have reported that lemon
juice and C.citratusinfusion is safe in and highly effective
in the treatment of oral thrush in HIV/AIDS patients in
comparison to group using gentian violet aqueous solution
(0.5%). This randomised controlled trial validated the
efcacy of lemon juice and lemongrass for the treatment
of oral candidiasis in an HIV population in South Africa.
Conclusion
Essential oils of Cymbopogon species that are diverse
in chemical composition possess many important and
potential bioactivities of great pharmaceutical and medicinal
signicance. Some of the novel bioactivities of Cymbopogon
essential oils and constituents include anti-inammatory,
anticancer, antioxidant and insect repellency. In addition,
they have a number of other activities of ecological and
industrial signicance.
At present, the focus of several research laboratories is
to investigate plausible mechanism/s of action underlying
the newer bioactivities of Cymbopogon essential oils.
Despite the fact that Cymbopogon essential oils have
offered immense biological, ecological and pharmaceutical
properties, little efforts have been made to harvest the
maximum bioactive potential of these species. Only C.
citratus has been extensively investigated and it possesses a
range of outstanding bioactivities.
One of the major concerns with regard to bioactivity
screening is subsequent adequate clinical trials in human
subjects, which are often lacking in many cases. The absence
of clinical trails severely impedes the development of the
bioactive component identied as an alternative medicine
or therapeutic agent. Thus the studies of Cymbopogon
essential oils also need to be substantiated by clinical trials
in human subjects.
It is true that our interest in Cymbopogon essential oils has
rapidly increased, shifting from their aromatic potential to
bioactive potential. It is very timely to investigate bioactive
potential of this genus when the demand for natural
remedies from the public is escalating because of their
safe use with no side effects. Also, the growing resistance
of pathogenic microbes against current antibiotics has
prompted the search for plant-based new or alternative
drugs.
Acknowledgement
The author is grateful to the Chancellor, Vellore Institute
of Technology (VIT) University, Vellore, India for providing
necessary support and facilities. This work is done under
the project “Metabolic ngerprinting of the monoterpenes
in the genus Cymbopogon” nancially supported by the
Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi,
government of India.
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InternationalJournalofEssentialOilTherapeutics(2009)3,56-65