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Effects of single caging and cage size on behavior and stress level of domestic neutered cats housed in an animal shelter
Abstract
Cats need a minimum amount of space even in animal shelters. In this study the effects of single caging and cage size on the behavior and stress level of domestic cats were investigated. Six neutered cats (2-15 years old) that had been housed in a group for at least 7 months were moved to three kinds of single cages (small, medium and large) by rotation on a Latin square design. They experienced each cage size for 6 days. Cats could use vertical dimensions when housed in a group room and the large cage. Behavioral observation was conducted for 3 h in the evening, and stress levels were assessed by urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratios. The amounts (estimated proportions) of time spent in locomotion and social/solitary play were lower even in large cages than in group housing (both P < 0.05). Conversely, the amount of time spent resting tended to increase when housed singly (P = 0.104). The urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratios of singly housed cats tended to be higher than that of group-housed cats (P = 0.086). The results indicate that cats become less active when they are housed singly in cages regardless of the cage size. Cats seem to feel no undue stress even in small cages if the stay is short.
... Secretory immunoglobulins were measured via ELISA (Gourkow et al., 2014b). Cortisol concentrations were measured in urine via the urine cortisol: creatinine ratio (Hawkins, 2005;McCobb et al., 2005;Uetake et al., 2013) or feces (Dybdall, 2011;Ellis et al., 2021;Gourkow et al., 2014b;Liu et al., 2020). Urinary cortisol concentrations were measured in two acclimation studies (Hawkins, 2005;McCobb et al., 2005) and two intervention studies (Hawkins, 2005;Uetake et al., 2013). ...
... Cortisol concentrations were measured in urine via the urine cortisol: creatinine ratio (Hawkins, 2005;McCobb et al., 2005;Uetake et al., 2013) or feces (Dybdall, 2011;Ellis et al., 2021;Gourkow et al., 2014b;Liu et al., 2020). Urinary cortisol concentrations were measured in two acclimation studies (Hawkins, 2005;McCobb et al., 2005) and two intervention studies (Hawkins, 2005;Uetake et al., 2013). Fecal cortisol concentrations were measured in two acclimation studies (Dybdall, 2011;Gourkow et al., 2014b) and two intervention studies (Ellis et al., 2021;Liu et al., 2020). ...
... In addition to the validated ethograms, there were two non-validated ethogram-based assessments, the extended Stress Assessment (eSA) and an ethogram by Uetake et al. (2013). The eSA was developed by Hirsch et al. using elements from the CSS and behavioral observations from previous studies with shelter cats (Gourkow et al., 2014b;Hirsch et al., 2021;Kessler and Turner, 1997;McCune, 1992) and used in an intervention study (Hirsch et al., 2021). ...
The aim of this scoping review was to provide an overview of the published welfare and quality of life assessments that are available for shelter cats. The specific objectives were to identify the available assessments, characterize the assessments as validated or non-validated, and discuss how the available tools were used in the shelter environment. Literature published globally, in English or with an available English translation, between the years 2000 and 2021 was identified through searching five databases and hand searching. Abstracts and full papers were screened, relevant articles obtained based on the inclusion criteria, and welfare assessment methods were characterized. Of 687 unique citations identified, 30 met the inclusion criteria of including a quality of life assessment or welfare analysis in shelter cats. There were seven validated ethogram-based assessment tools and two validated physiological-based assessment methods used to evaluate stress and welfare. Assessment tools were used to either evaluate a cat’s acclimation to the shelter environment or evaluate welfare interventions. The Cat Stress Score (CSS) was the most commonly used tool to evaluate stress, with its inclusion in 19 publications. However, the stress level identified on the CSS only correlated with measures of physiological stress in one out of four studies, highlighting the difficulty and complexity of determining stress levels in cats. In general, welfare assessments that incorporated physical and behavior metrics provided a comprehensive evaluation of general welfare and were shown to be reliable between raters. Cats generally acclimate to the shelter within a few weeks. Stress and welfare assessments indicated that the acclimation period was less stressful for cats that were provided hide boxes and/or human interaction. Shelters should consider incorporating a validated assessment into their welfare program and incorporate interventions, such as hide boxes or structured human interaction, to help relieve acute acclimation stress.
... Cats have more space available for movement and more control over the use of their environment [135]. Uetake et al. [139] reported lower levels of activity in individual cage housing as opposed to group housing. This finding is in contrast to the findings of Guveia et al. [111]-cats that were housed in groups with a high number of individuals were found to generally show lower levels of activity [111]. ...
... For acute stress measurement, it is appropriate to examine blood plasma [192], serum [193] and saliva [50]. Chronic stress, on the other hand, can be detected using non-invasively obtained samples-urine [139], faeces (determination of glucocorticoid metabolites) [164] and fur [194]. [190,192,195] serum acute; peak concentrations: 30-180 min after stressor exposure reflects the actual level of cortisol in the blood invasive (restraint or sedation of cat is necessary); sampling requires skills sampling procedure as well as diurnal patterns, temperature, activity levels may confound results [15,193,195] saliva acute; concentration: 2-15% of the total amount of cortisol in the blood less invasive prior training of cats on sampling procedure is necessary; a relatively big amount of sample is needed for analysis, which can be a problem to obtain (saliva production is reduced during the stress exposure) sample is easily contaminated by the intake of food and water or by blood from the oral cavity [50,182,191,[196][197][198] urine chronic; concentration: 15% to 18% of the total amount of cortisol in the blood, peak concentrations: 9 ± 3 h after stressor exposure non-invasive; detection of long-term stress is possible; easy sample collection in single housing; sample collection does not requires skills in group housing, the sample is difficult to associate with an individual as cats share toilets diurnal patterns, temperature, activity levels may confound results; sample is often contaminated by blood [101,110,115,139,199,200] faeces chronic; concentration: 80% of the total amount of cortisol in the blood, peak concentrations: 24 ± 4 h after stressor exposure non-invasive; detection of long-term stress is possible; easy sample collection in single housing; sample collection does not requires skills in group housing, the sample is difficult to associate with an individual as cats share toilets diurnal patterns, temperature, activity levels may confound results [164,195,[199][200][201][202] fur chronic non-invasive; easy sample collection (does not requires skills); stability of the sample over time; does not require special transport and storage conditions; ability to determine the time period in which stress occurred in the animal inability of detecting changes in cortisol levels during short periods of time (hours/days) cortisol levels may vary depending on some factors-still in research [194,[203][204][205] In addition to stressors, changes in cortisol concentrations depend on other factors (e.g., sampling and animal handling procedures) [206], which can be a problem in assessing acute stress. ...
... Chronic stress, on the other hand, can be detected using non-invasively obtained samples-urine [139], faeces (determination of glucocorticoid metabolites) [164] and fur [194]. [190,192,195] serum acute; peak concentrations: 30-180 min after stressor exposure reflects the actual level of cortisol in the blood invasive (restraint or sedation of cat is necessary); sampling requires skills sampling procedure as well as diurnal patterns, temperature, activity levels may confound results [15,193,195] saliva acute; concentration: 2-15% of the total amount of cortisol in the blood less invasive prior training of cats on sampling procedure is necessary; a relatively big amount of sample is needed for analysis, which can be a problem to obtain (saliva production is reduced during the stress exposure) sample is easily contaminated by the intake of food and water or by blood from the oral cavity [50,182,191,[196][197][198] urine chronic; concentration: 15% to 18% of the total amount of cortisol in the blood, peak concentrations: 9 ± 3 h after stressor exposure non-invasive; detection of long-term stress is possible; easy sample collection in single housing; sample collection does not requires skills in group housing, the sample is difficult to associate with an individual as cats share toilets diurnal patterns, temperature, activity levels may confound results; sample is often contaminated by blood [101,110,115,139,199,200] faeces chronic; concentration: 80% of the total amount of cortisol in the blood, peak concentrations: 24 ± 4 h after stressor exposure non-invasive; detection of long-term stress is possible; easy sample collection in single housing; sample collection does not requires skills in group housing, the sample is difficult to associate with an individual as cats share toilets diurnal patterns, temperature, activity levels may confound results [164,195,[199][200][201][202] fur chronic non-invasive; easy sample collection (does not requires skills); stability of the sample over time; does not require special transport and storage conditions; ability to determine the time period in which stress occurred in the animal inability of detecting changes in cortisol levels during short periods of time (hours/days) cortisol levels may vary depending on some factors-still in research [194,[203][204][205] In addition to stressors, changes in cortisol concentrations depend on other factors (e.g., sampling and animal handling procedures) [206], which can be a problem in assessing acute stress. The animals should be accustomed to the collection of the necessary sample, otherwise, it is a stressful stimulus that causes a physiological change in the body [207]. ...
At any moment, there are millions of cats housed in foster care facilities for abandoned and stray animals for various reasons worldwide. Care, management and regulation among these facilities differ. Moreover, shelters can never substitute the full comfort of a good home for the animal, and the welfare of cats in shelters is a subject of discussion in many respects. Cats are animals sensitive to changes; for most of them, placement in a shelter is a stressful experience because of changes in routine, environment and the presence of other animals. Stress is reflected in changes in behaviour, causes fluctuations in physiological values and disrupts the immune system, which is a predisposition to the development or reactivation of disease. Evaluation of the presence and intensity of negative impacts is possible through the use of evaluation tools based on indicators that help set the environment and management of keeping so as to disrupt the quality of life as little as possible. Although a comprehensive and valid welfare tool that would evaluate animal-based and at the same time resource-based (or management-based) indicators of cats in shelters is not currently available, it is possible to use partial evaluation of individual welfare indicators to assess welfare. This review aims to provide the readers with an insight into current options of assessment of the welfare of cats in shelters with an emphasis on behavioural, physiological and health indicators with an application in both practical and scientific contexts.
... This may be why more solitary play and greater overall activity is observed in larger rooms [11]. It is not only the room size that results in more activity and playing, the presence of other conspecifics could play a key role in the increased activity of individuals in GH [12]. In a study by Uetake et al. [12], researchers found that there was more activity and play within GH, even if the SH cage was large enough for them to play in [12]. ...
... It is not only the room size that results in more activity and playing, the presence of other conspecifics could play a key role in the increased activity of individuals in GH [12]. In a study by Uetake et al. [12], researchers found that there was more activity and play within GH, even if the SH cage was large enough for them to play in [12]. The authors suggest that space is not enough, but rather contact with conspecifics and with humans can increase normal behavior such as playing and reduce inactivity. ...
... It is not only the room size that results in more activity and playing, the presence of other conspecifics could play a key role in the increased activity of individuals in GH [12]. In a study by Uetake et al. [12], researchers found that there was more activity and play within GH, even if the SH cage was large enough for them to play in [12]. The authors suggest that space is not enough, but rather contact with conspecifics and with humans can increase normal behavior such as playing and reduce inactivity. ...
The merits of various housing options for domestic cats in shelters have been debated. However, comparisons are difficult to interpret because cats are typically not able to be randomly assigned to different housing conditions. In the current study, we attempted to address some of these issues by creating a retrospective matched cohort of cats in two housing types. Cats in group housing (GH) were matched with cats in single housing (SH) that were the same age, sex, breed, coat color, and size. Altogether we were able to find a match for 110 GH cats. We compared these two groups on several measures related to their experience at the shelter such as moves and the development of behavioral problems. We also compared these groups on outcomes including length of stay, live release, and returns after adoption. We found that while the frequency of moves was similar in both groups, SH cats were more likely to be moved to offsite facilities than GH cats. SH cats also spent a smaller proportion of time on the adoption floor. Length of stay and, live release and returns after adoption did not significantly differ across groups, however GH cats were two times as likely to be returned after adoption. Future research should look at the behavioral impacts of shelter decision-making regarding moving and management of cats in different housing systems.
... The results of the appraisal can be seen in Table 1. [30] Influence of indoor-cat group size and dominance rank on urinary cortisol levels [31] The effect of housing and handling practices on the welfare, behaviour and selection of domestic cats (felis silvestris catus) by adopters in an animal shelter [34] Cat housing in rescue shelters: A welfare comparison between communal and discrete-unit housing [33] Socialization and stress in cats (felis silvestris catus) housed singly and in groups in animal shelters [35] Stress and adaptation of cats (felis silvestris catus) housed singly, in pairs and in groups in boarding catteries [32] • 74 cats residing in 2 animal shelters, randomly selected from the shelter population • Excluded: cats having been in the shelter < 1 month. ...
... There was a lack of agreement overall as to whether single or multi-cat housing was associated with higher levels of stress. The majority of the studies (four out of six) showed no difference in stress levels between single and multi-cat housing [30][31][32][33]. However, one of these studies only compared single cats with those housed with one or two other familiar conspecifics and not with larger multi cat groups [33]. ...
... These included differential treatment of the groups within the study. For example cats in the single housing conditions either had inconsistent handing [34], were exposed to their housing condition for a much shorter period of time [30,34], were deliberately given barren, non-enriched housing [34], or experienced a non-stable environment over the course of the study period [30], when compared with group-housed cats. Sample size calculation was performed in only one study [33], and some of the studies involved very small numbers of cats, which in one case amounted to six cats each exposed to three different interventions [30]. ...
Domestic cats have evolved from solitary, asocial predators and whilst they may display social behaviours, they can still exist as solitary survivors. Over-population and relinquishment of pet cats are ubiquitous problems worldwide, and rehoming centres (also known as rescues/ shelters) aim to ameliorate this by holding cats in confinement for a variable period until a new home is found. The provision of optimal housing for large numbers of cats in close confinement, such as in rehoming centres, is therefore inherently difficult. Under these conditions there is the potential for individuals to develop signs of physical and psychological ill health, and thus experience compromised welfare. Available information regarding housing practices that maximise welfare currently provides conflicting results, and as a consequence there are no unanimous housing recommendations. The aim of this study was therefore to review the evidence on the impact of single housing compared to multi-cat housing on stress in confined cats, as measured by physiological and/or behavioural outcomes. The review was conducted using a Critically Appraised Topic (CAT) format. A systematic search of electronic databases (CAB Abstracts, Zoological Records and Medline) was carried out to identify peer-reviewed literature comparing single and multi-cat housing in confined environments.
A total of 959 papers were initially identified, six of which met sufficient criteria based on their relevance to be included within this review. All of the studies had significant limitations in design and methodology, including a lack of information on how groups were assigned, inconsistent handling and enrichment provision between groups, and lack of information on the socialisation status of cats.
Whilst some studies suggested that single housing may be less stressful for cats, others suggested group housing was less stressful. Several other important factors were however identified as potential mediators of stress within the different housing systems, and recommendations based upon these findings are presented.
... Testosterone concentrations were assayed for 57 samples (3.8 ± 2.0 samples/individual). The assay protocols were based on previous studies [53][54][55][56]. The average of the urine hormone concentrations for each individual was used as the hormone baseline for each individual. ...
Domestic cats ( Felis silvestris catus ) can live in high densities, although most feline species are solitary and exclusively territorial animals; it is possible that certain behavioral strategies enable this phenomenon. These behaviors are regulated by hormones and the gut microbiome, which, in turn, is influenced by domestication. Therefore, we investigated the relationships between the sociality, hormone concentrations, and gut microbiome of domestic cats by conducting three sets of experiments for each group of five cats and analyzing their behavior, hormone concentrations (cortisol, oxytocin, and testosterone), and their gut microbiomes. We observed that individuals with high cortisol and testosterone concentrations established less contact with others, and individuals with high oxytocin concentrations did not exhibit affiliative behaviors as much as expected. Additionally, the higher the frequency of contact among the individuals, the greater the similarity in gut microbiome; gut microbial composition was also related to behavioral patterns and cortisol secretion. Notably, individuals with low cortisol and testosterone concentrations were highly tolerant, making high-density living easy. Oxytocin usually functions in an affiliative manner within groups, but our results suggest that even if typically solitary and territorial animals live in high densities, their oxytocin functions are opposite to those of typically group-living animals.
... Especially in the field of HAI research, urine samples are useful because of the ease of collection. These studies have been conducted under various conditions, for example, in shelter (19,20), laboratory (21), and house (22). Nevertheless, these studies were focused on the welfare of cats, not on their social interaction and relationship with humans. ...
Research to assess the relationship between cats and humans is in a nascent stage. Some studies have assessed the stress status in cats using physiological indicators, such as the cortisol hormone, but have not focused on the social interaction with humans. Moreover, the role of oxytocin secretion in the relationship between cats and humans remains unclear. In this study, we determined the possibility of quantifying the urinary concentration of oxytocin in cats and assessed the effects of social contact with humans on the levels of urinary oxytocin and cortisol. Four cats were subjected to two conditions, namely social (control) and non-social (no social contact with humans) conditions. The levels of cortisol and oxytocin in urine samples from cats in both conditions were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The urinary concentrations of cortisol and oxytocin under the non-social condition were significantly higher than those under the social condition. In addition, the concentration of oxytocin significantly correlated with that of cortisol in cats under the non-social condition. In this study, it was possible to quantify the concentration of oxytocin in cats’ urine, and the obtained results suggest that cats recognize the social interaction with humans as important. This information might contribute to the establishment of an assessment method for the welfare of cats and might help in clarifying the relationship between cats and humans.
... 21 However, a critical appraisal of the body of evidence identified several human, cat and environment factors that may be as, if not more, important than single or group housing alone. 22 These factors included handling and husbandry styles, 20 environmental disruption, 23 socialisation history of cats towards humans and conspecifics 17 and social stability of cat groups. 21 While the authors pointed out that methodological limitations made direct comparison between housing types across studies difficult, these findings highlight the complex, multifactorial nature of social and environmental variables and their impacts on cat wellbeing. ...
Objectives:
The primary objective of this review was to conduct a systematic critical appraisal of published literature, in order to assess the evidence regarding the impact of cat group size on cat wellbeing in the domestic home. The secondary objectives were to: (i) identify additional social and environmental mediators of cat wellbeing in these contexts; and (ii) identify general limitations within the current evidence and provide recommendations for future studies.
Methods:
A systematic search of electronic databases (Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar) was conducted using targeted Boolean phrasing. Papers were retained for appraisal of full text where they included a comparison of both single (n = 1) and multi-cat (n ⩾2) domestic housing conditions and/or comparison of different multi-cat group sizes, within a single study; or where they compared outcome measures that were either behavioural and/or physiological and deemed as relevant indicators of cat wellbeing.
Results:
A total of 1334 unique papers were returned, 15 of which were retained. Of these papers, only four stated their primary aim to be an investigation of links between cat group size and cat wellbeing. Overall, the reviewed papers did not indicate consistent directions of effects regarding cat group size and outcome measures relevant to wellbeing. This was similar for the other social and environmental mediators identified.
Conclusions and relevance:
Inconsistency in results is likely due to the substantial methodological variation, limitations in measures used as indicators of wellbeing and limitations in general study designs and reporting. Results also highlight the complex, multifactorial relationships between cat wellbeing and various social and environmental factors. These may be as, if not more, important than absolute numbers of cats residing within a household. Due to the various limitations and general paucity of research, further studies are recommended to provide a suitable evidence base regarding impacts of multi-cat living on cat wellbeing in domestic environments.
... Half of our initial males had to be removed from the analysis, as some did not form a hierarchy in the cages. These males represents yet another example of how stress induced by detention can impact an individual's behavior, which can limit and even prevent the study of some behaviors (Tauson 1998;McCobb et al. 2005;Uetake et al. 2013;Schneeberger et al. 2014). For other males, the reproductive tactics that they exhibited in the colony changed during the acclimation period. ...
To reproduce, males have to fertilize the female's eggs, sometimes in competition with ejaculates of other males. In species where males display alternative reproductive tactics, whereby territorial males secure mating and non-territorial males have to sneak copulations, the latter might be expected to invest relatively more resources towards sperm quality compared with the territorial males. Sperm cells are especially vulnerable to oxidative stress, which reduces male fertility. Therefore, antioxidant resources are expected to modulate sperm quality, and might be allocated differently between reproductive tactics. To test the link between reproductive tactics, redox profile and sperm quality, we experimentally induced changes in the reproductive tactics of 39 captive males Seba's short-tailed bats Carollia perspicillata. We monitored the blood and ejaculate oxidative balance, and the sperm quality before, 7 days and 21 days after the manipulation of reproductive tactic. Although ejaculates' oxidative damage was negatively related to sperm velocity, males exhibited similar blood and ejaculates redox profiles and similar sperm quality, regardless of their reproductive tactic. Possibly, these results arise as a consequence of some constraints having been lifted during the experiment. Our results also suggest that, in Seba's short-tailed bats, the expression of alternative reproductive tactics is not subjected to strong oxidative constraints. Furthermore, our results could reflect an absence of trade-off between pre- and post-copulatory traits in harem males, as they could be selected to invest both in female attraction and sperm quality, as a consequence of their inability to fully monopolize females.
... The shelter cats were observed with a video camera mounted in front of their cages, a technique used in several studies [36,39,40,41]. In the previous [12] and current study cats were given a habituation time to positioning the camera of 2 minutes, before starting the observation. ...
While staying in an animal shelter, cats may suffer from chronic stress which impairs their health and welfare. Providing opportunities to hide can significantly reduce behavioural stress in cats, but confirmation with physical parameters is needed. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of a hiding box on behavioural stress levels (scored by means of the Cat-Stress-Score) and a physical parameter, namely body weight, during the first 12 days in quarantine for cats newly arrived cats at a Dutch animal shelter. Twenty-three cats between 1 and 10 years of age were randomly divided between the experimental (N = 12) and control group (N = 11) with and without a hiding box. Stress levels were assessed on days 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 12 according to the non-invasive Cat-Stress-Score (CSS). Body weights were measured on days 0, 7 and 12. Finally, adoption rates and length of stay (LOS) were determined. Major findings of the study are: (1) the mean Cat-Stress-Score decreased with time for all cats, but cats with a hiding box showed a significant faster decrease in the CSS, reaching a lower CSS-steady state seven days earlier than the control group; (2) nearly all cats in both groups lost significant body weight during the first two weeks; (3) hiding boxes did not significantly influence weight loss; (4) no differences were found in the adoption rates and the LOS between both groups. Hiding enrichment reduces behavioural stress in shelter cats during quarantine situations and can therefore be a relatively simple aid to shelter adaptation. It offers no prevention however against feline weight loss, which indicates a serious health risk for shelter cats.
... In zoos, the male jungle cats are kept mostly solitarily as they tend to fight each other, while the females are put in social groups. A study on domestic cats showed that female cats managed in group housing to be more active than those kept in separate cages [22]. As such, the practice of keeping females in groups and males solitarily might be the reason for such a sex-wise difference in the active and inactive behaviour observed among the cats under study. ...
... Half of our initial males had to be removed from the analysis, as some did not form a hierarchy in the cages. These males represents yet another example of how stress induced by detention can impact an individual's behavior, which can limit and even prevent the study of some behaviors (Tauson 1998;McCobb et al. 2005;Uetake et al. 2013;Schneeberger et al. 2014). For other males, the reproductive tactics that they exhibited in the colony changed during the acclimation period. ...
To reproduce, males have to fertilize the female's eggs, sometimes in competition with ejaculates of other males. In species where males display alternative reproductive tactics, whereby territorial males secure mating and non-territorial males have to sneak copulations, the latter might be expected to invest relatively more resources towards sperm quality compared to the territorial males. Sperm cells are especially vulnerable to oxidative stress, which reduces male fertility. Therefore, antioxidant resources are expected to modulate sperm quality, and might be allocated differently between reproductive tactics. To test the link between reproductive tactics, redox profile and sperm quality, we experimentally induced changes in the reproductive tactics of 39 captive males Seba's short-tailed bats Carollia perspicillata. We monitored the blood and ejaculate oxidative balance, and the sperm quality before, 7 days and 21 days after the manipulation of reproductive tactic. Although ejaculates' oxidative damage was negatively related to sperm velocity, males exhibited similar blood and ejaculates redox profiles and similar sperm quality, regardless of their reproductive tactic. Possibly, these results arise as a consequence of some constraints having been lifted during the experiment. Our results also suggest that, in Seba's short-tailed bats, the expression of alternative reproductive tactics is not subjected to strong oxidative constraints. Furthermore, our results could reflect an absence of trade-off between pre-and post-copulatory traits in harem males, as they could be selected to invest both in female attraction and sperm quality, as a consequence of their inability to fully monopolize females. A male's ability to reproduce depends both on its capacity to acquire mates, determined by pre-copulatory traits (Andersson 1994; Clutton-Brock 2007), and his ability to fertilize the eggs, determined by post-copulatory traits such as sperm quality (Simmons and Fitzpatrick 2012). In the last three decades, a large number of sperm competition models assuming costs to both pre-and post-copulatory traits, limited resources, and allocation trade-offs of these resources to both types of traits have been developed to help us understand how males optimize their fitness under sperm
... Four behavioural categories were chosen based on studies demonstrating reduced activity levels and a lack of playful and exploratory behaviour as stress indicators (Carlstead et al., 1993a,b;Uetake et al., 2013). The categories were exploratory behaviour, inactivity, play and other. ...
The rescue shelter environment is known to be stressful for domestic cats, which can lead to them becoming less active, playful and exploratory as well as spending a long time hiding. Early adoption can prevent long term stress in shelter cats, but adopters often look at behaviour and friendliness as criteria when choosing a cat to rehome. This study aimed to test the efficacy of a clicker training intervention to promote behaviours indicative of improved welfare and increase the potential adoptability of cats in rescue shelters. Twelve cats were clicker trained over two weeks their behaviour and response to humans was recorded before and after the training schedule. Cats showed significantly more exploratory behaviour, a decrease in inactivity and spent more time at the front of their enclosures after training. Four of the cats which failed the human approach test initially, passed it after training but this result was nonsignificant. Clicker training may be a simple and rapid way to improve welfare and adoptability in rescue cats.
... For example Vinke and Van der Leij, (2014) looked at the effects of hiding boxes in shelter cats and Uetake, et al., (2013) studied the effects of cage size and housing on cats housed in shelters. There were a few studies that measured owner behavior, and the findings showed that the owners play a crucial role in the behaviors of their pets Schöberl A u s t r i a B r a z i l C a n a d a F i n l a n d F r a n c e G e r m a n y I t a l y I r e l a n d J a p a n N e t h e r l a n d s P o r t u g a l S o u t h Belew, Barlett and Brown, (1999). ...
The purpose of this study was to create a systematic review of articles pertaining to stress measurement and management of dogs and cats in order to use the information to find a way to reduce stress associated with a visit to the veterinarian. The corpus for this review contains 42 articles with 33 primary research studies and 9 secondary research studies. The information deduced during the review showed that a majority of studies on animal stress take place outside of the USA. The review also showed that a visit to a vet practice begins with client-staff communication. This collected knowledge was used to create four behavioral analysis questionnaires to be filled out by pet owners in order to open the communication between owner and DVM about pet behavior. These questionnaires are a first step for establishing a stress-free environment at a vet’s office.
... For example, Kessler and Turner (1999) measured acclimation to boarding over 2 weeks and concluded that qualitative factors other than cage size may have influenced the degree of stress the cat experienced. Uetake, Goto, Koyama, Kikuchi, and Tanaka (2013) also assessed cage size and did not find any significant differences in the behavior of the cats in the different-sized cages. They concluded that cats can cope with being housed in small cages for short periods of time (less than 1 week). ...
The effect of providing additional floor space on cat behavior and welfare is not well documented. This study involved replication of an investigation of cats' responses to enhanced cage and room environments using cages of 0.56 m(2) with the same methodology but an increased space allowance of 1.1 m(2). Singly housed adult cats (n = 59) were randomly assigned to a treatment group that was a combination of a managed or unmanaged room and an enriched or unenriched cage environment. Cats were observed for 2 days for maintenance, affiliative, and avoidant behaviors using scan sampling and 5-min, continuous focal sampling. At the end of Day 2, cats' reactions to the approach of an unfamiliar person were assessed. Cats housed in enriched/managed environments exhibited more maintenance and affiliative behaviors and fewer avoidant behaviors than cats in unmanaged/unenriched environments, suggesting that macro and micro environments may be equally relevant to the cat. Increased space did not enhance the cats' welfare outcomes, suggesting that the provision of additional cage space may not be as important to the cat as a managed housing environment.
... The behavioural evaluations were performed using a chart prepared by a specialist in veterinary behaviour, and although these questionnaires are not a standardized tool, in behavioural medicine, such questionnaires are widely accepted. 22,24 The number of separate questions (measures) was high in order to increase the robustness and objectivity of the evaluation. 25 The measurement of blood pressure may have been an interesting parameter in itself related to stress, 26 and could potentially have provided a less subjective indicator. ...
Background
Olfactory communication in cats is of major importance. It is rather complex and includes pheromone-driven and classical odour-based communication. Cats use various marking behaviours to transmit pheromone signals: appeasing markings that have a calming effect and alarm markings that can exacerbate stress. On the other hand, classical odours could possibly complete, modify, synergise, or add to pheromone-driven communication in felines, including in the domestic cat. One of the best known natural odours able to produce an identified behavioural sequence in Felidae is nepetalactone, from Nepeta plant species. A relationship is suspected to exist between nepetalactone and pheromone production in cats. We hypothesised that nepetalactone may have a synergistic or additive action with appeasing pheromones in domestic cats.
The terms short-term, temporary, and transitional are related but can have different contexts and meanings for animal husbandry. The definitions and use of these terms can be pivotal to animal housing and welfare. We conducted three separate literature searches using Google Scholar for relevant reports regarding short-term, temporary, or transitional animal husbandry, and analysed key publications that stipulate relevant periods of accommodation. English Government guidance regarding acceptable short-term, temporary, or transitional accommodation for animals varies widely from <1 day to 3 months; whereas independent scientific criteria and guidance use typical periods of hours to several days. Stipulations regarding acceptable short-term, temporary, or transitional accommodation, notably among English Government guidance, which we focused on in this study, were highly inconsistent and lacked scientific rationale. The definitions and use of terms for both formal and other guidance should be limited to precautionary time frames within one circadian cycle, i.e., periods of <24 h. At >24 h, all animals at all facilities should be accommodated in conditions that are consistent with long-term housing, husbandry, and best practices.
Separation from what is familiar coupled with exposure to an unfamiliar environment makes shelters particularly stressful for cats. Environmental enrichment can improve a cat's perception of their environment, resulting in a reduced stress response and improved well‐being. Careful consideration of how to employ enrichment effectively and efficiently is key to the success of any enrichment program. A standard program of enrichment should be provided for all cats, while a more diverse range of enrichment opportunities may be prioritized to meet the needs of individuals expressing certain behaviors or health concerns or that have longer projected lengths of stay. It is also key to assess the impact of enrichment efforts so as to continually optimize the quality of the program overall and its impact on the well‐being of each individual. Placing as many appropriate cats in foster homes as possible is likely to be the most effective enrichment strategy.
Safety and sanitation concerns in animal sheltering can interfere with the ability to provide optimal welfare and well‐being for cats. Because of the unique biology of cats, sheltering additionally presents a number of potential stressors that can adversely affect feline welfare, including unfamiliar people, altered routines, inconsistent husbandry, and the disruption of social bonds. The greatest stressor is the inability to control or escape from confinement. Appropriately designed feline housing is a critical tool and starting point in reducing the stress experienced by shelter cats and ensuring their medical and behavioral health. The quantity and quality of housing spaces should be enriched, functionally complex settings that allow for cats to not only cope with their environment but to encourage them to engage in a wide range of normal behaviors. Housing that upholds the Five Freedoms as well as the Five Pillars of a Healthy Feline Environment that allow cats to meet their physical and behavioral needs not only enhances feline welfare but also facilitates adoption potential. Shelters should provide a variety of housing and enrichment options to help each cat acclimate to the sheltering environment in their own way.
Although attention to domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) behavior and cognition has increased in recent years, numerous questions remain regarding their play. Few studies have included play as a variable of interest, and to the best of our knowledge no behavioral studies focusing on cat play have been published in the last 15 years, and there is no recent review of our current understanding of its development, behavioral components, function, or outstanding research questions. This is despite the accessibility of the cat as a convenient model for more difficult to study members of the Carnivora, as recognized by pioneering studies of cat play in the 1970s and 1980s. We address this gap by reviewing and synthesizing the existing literature on play development, identifying and discussing eliciting factors and possible functions of play in cats. Additionally, we conducted an extensive review of the literature to identify how play has been operationalized in peer-reviewed publications (N = 46). We identified 138 behaviors measured in these studies, with 84 of them unique behavioral labels. Our findings demonstrate the diversity—and sometimes commonalities—of descriptions of play behavior across these studies, while highlighting the challenge of inconsistent operationalization of cat play in the literature. We conclude by proposing and exploring several open questions and offering suggestions for future research, particularly related to pet cats.
To optimize the health and well-being of companion animals, a robust understanding of energy and macronutrient metabolism in these species is necessary. Calorimetry is considered the gold standard for measuring energy expenditure (Q). This chapter examines the use of indirect calorimetry to quantify Q in companion animals and a summary of the published feline and canine literature is provided. As Q can be affected by a number of factors, especially environment, a discussion of the behavioural idiosyncrasies of cats and dogs are provided. To successfully achieve acclimation, behavioural idiosyncrasies of dogs and cats need to be considered and measures to adequately acclimate them to the equipment and handling associated with indirect calorimetry methodology should be utilized. Reports using calorimetry in cats have for the most part included details on behavioural acclimation, the feeding paradigm, and environmental factors and, in general, are in agreement. As a result, the range in published Q values is 124-250 kJ/kg body weight/d for fasting and post feeding and ad libitum food availability. In contrast, reports using calorimetry in dogs often lack any consideration of behavioural acclimation or understanding of breed differences, age, gender, body weight and condition, lean body mass, ambient and chamber temperature and relative humidity, feeding regime, and seasonal effects. As a result, the range in published Q values is considerable, 278-711 kJ/kg0.75/d for fasted and post-prandial resting Q. Future literature should include descriptions of acclimation, monitoring of stress responses, and consideration of other measurements of energy expenditure in addition to environmental conditions and animal characteristics.
Environmental enrichment programs are necessary to fully meet the needs of cats in shelters and should be given the same priority as provision for their medical and physical needs While research examining the efficacy of environmental enrichment to improve the welfare of shelter cats is still sparse, clearly stress and deprivation can reduce a cat's quality of life and its chance of successful adoption. Human social interaction is particularly important for kittens 2-7 weeks of age. Control may be the single most important factor in maintaining quality of life, and enrichment is an important means by which it is provided. Stress in shelters is not limited to the animals alone as shelter staffs are likewise regularly exposed to stressors; high turnover and compassion fatigue are common. Behavioral responses are important for assessing quality of life of cats in shelters because behavior is a primary method by which animals cope with stressors.
Objectives
The aim was to characterize the behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) responses of six cats (Felis catus) to single caging for 30 days.
Design
In this observational study, changes in outcome measures were monitored with habituation to caging. Continuous focal observations of the activity, location in the cage, and posture were conducted from video recordings for one 24-hour period/week/cat. Cat-Stress-Scores were recorded daily. All faecal samples were collected for analysis of FGM.
Results
The percentage time spent eating increased, while percentage time spent grooming decreased, from week 1 to week 2. Cat-Stress-Score declined significantly from week 1 to week 2. FGM concentrations were significantly greater in week 1 than in week 5. A posthabituation time budget of the behaviour of the cats in the single cages showed that inactivity dominated the time budget and the cats were located on the shelf almost half of the time.
Conclusions
Results suggests that a shelf was a resource of value to the cats, and that its inclusion in enclosure design is important. Quantitative and qualitative behavioural data indicated that there was an initial stress response to caging that stabilised after the first week, while FGM concentration took longer to stabilise.
Although cats are extremely common, pet owners seem to have a poor understanding of their natural behaviour and needs and a large number end up in cat shelters. In Sweden, no records exist of the number of cat shelters or their activities. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of cat shelters in Sweden. We found 62 cat shelters during 2006; the year in which this study was conducted. Questionnaires were sent to these shelters with questions concerning: received animals, reasons for relinquishing cats, cat husbandry and how the shelter was run. The most common reason for relinquishing a cat was that the cat was homeless; another common reason was that the owner had an allergy to cats. The shelters had, on average, space for 29 cats, but this varied from six-to-100, and they received on average ten cats per month. This means that a total of around 7,400 cats enter the 62 shelters in Sweden each year. On average, the cats stayed more than three months in the shelter. Less than 10% of the relinquished cats were euthanised. Our study reveals that there are shelters that continuously receive unwanted cats. The majority of these cats are said to be homeless, therefore in order to minimise the number of cats in shelters in Sweden, the focus should be on reducing the number of homeless cats.
As adult cats can often be difficult to re-home, they may spend long periods in rescue shelters where barren housing and inconsis-tent handling can reduce their welfare. In this study, 165 adult cats in an animal shelter in Vancouver, Canada, were assigned to four treatments. The Basic Single treatment reflected typical conditions in that particular shelter, with cats handled in an inconsistent manner by various staff and housed singly in relatively barren cages. Three alternative treatments involved more consistent, positive handling by only the experimenter and research assistants, plus three housing conditions: Enriched Single (individual cages with oppor-tunities to perch and hide), Basic Communal (group housing with opportunity for each cat to have personal space), and Enriched Communal (group housing enriched to encourage play and cat – cat interaction). The Basic Single treatment had the lowest percentage adopted in 21 days (45% versus 69-76% for other treatment, and higher stress scores than other treatments. The three alternative treatments did not differ significantly on any measure. Cats euthanised for poor health showed higher stress levels when alive than other cats. In a questionnaire, most adopters cited certain behavioural/emotional traits ('friendly', 'playful', 'happy') as reasons for selecting cats; these were generally associated with lower stress scores. The results suggest that consistent handling combined with a range of improved housing options can improve the chances of adoption for adult cats, perhaps by reducing fear-related behaviours that make cats less attractive to adopters.
This study performed a multifactor analysis of the effects of the provision of toys, cage location, and cat characteristics (activity level, age, sex, and coat color) on 111 cats available for adoption in a nonhuman animal shelter. The analysis revealed a greater adopter viewing of cats housed at eye level and of those with toys-even though the toys did not affect the cats' behavior. Adopters viewed cats who were active for longer periods of time. The active cats were more likely to be adopted during the 16-week study than cats who were less active.
The role of pets (dogs and cats in particular) in human society has changed in recent years. Nowadays pets are an integral part of the human family and this aspect has many social and emotional implications. For their positive effects on human health, pets are also employed in some special and therapeutic activities known by the generic term of “Pet Therapy”. In these programmes the animal becomes an integral part of the therapeutic plan in order to induce some physical, social, emotional, and cognitive improvements in human patients. However, the close bond between companion animals and man is not always the herald of beneficial effects. Sometimes the welfare of pets may be compromised by distress due to many factors, mostly related to the environment and to management by humans. Both behavioural and physiological variables may be analysed in order to evaluate welfare level in pets. Reduced welfare may be indicated by the onset of some behavioural problems, which have usually a multifactorial aetiology, related both to the genetic individual basis and environmental factors. Physiological variables which may be analysed in order to evaluate pet welfare include hormone levels, mainly related to the HPA (hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal- axis) and to the immune systems activations. Behavioural problems may also lead to the relinquishment of pets to shelters. Animals housed in rescue shelters cannot display their ethogram and show behavioural and physiological signs of distress. Thus it is very important to improve the human-pet relationship both by educating owners and reducing the number of stray animals, in accordance with the indications of the European Convention for the Protection of Pet Animals stated at Strasbourg in 1987, mainly as regards pet breeding and welfare. Humans have to realise that adopting pets implies the responsibility to care for their health and welfare, avoiding undue stress in the living environment and improving the human-pet relationship.
Domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) are often housed indoors both singly and in groups. However, there is a lack of studies dealing with cat-cat relationships, group composition and effects of environmental parameters on the well-being of privately-owned cats. One way to index the effects of stressful situations is to measure glucocorticoid levels, as glucocorticoids are released from the adrenal cortex in response to stress-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Therefore, we investigated the influence of single and group housing on basal urinary cortisol levels of indoor-only domestic cats in private households, taking into account dominance
status and environmental parameters. Urine samples were collected non-invasively by owners from six single-housed cats and six alphaomega animal pairs of multi-cat households. Dominance status in group-housed cats was determined by competition test series.
Additionally, we compared cortisol levels of privately-owned cats with those of shelter cats. Results showed that basal urinary cortisol levels of cats in private households are neither influenced by housing style (single cat vs multi cat) nor by individuals’ dominance status. Correlations indicated a positive influence of human density, number of persons per household, and number of m2 available to cats on basal urinary cortisol levels, whereas cat-related parameters such as number of cats per household, number of m2 per cat, and number of persons per cat, did not have any significant influence on basal urinary cortisol levels. A comparison of basal urinary cortisol levels of privately-owned and shelter cats revealed no influence of location (private household, shelter) and group type (single, group [dominant or subordinate]) on basal urinary cortisol levels. This study is the first to investigate basal urinary cortisol levels of domestic cats in private households and an animal shelter considering housing style, dominance status, and environmental parameters.
The behaviour of a colony of eight laboratory cats and their reactions to a familiar and unfamiliar person were recorded and analysed. Seven of the cats were Domestic Shorthairs and one was a Persian. All were male and only one was intact.Maintenance behaviours (resting, sitting, drinking, eating, defaecating and urinating) were the most commonly observed behaviours (36% of observations). Comfort (grooming, scratching, sneezing, coughing, head shaking, stretching and yawning) and locomotory behaviours (walking, running, jumping from floor to shelf and shelf to floor) were also commonly observed (30% and 24.5%, respectively). Agonistic behaviours were rarely observed (1%). Other behaviours recorded included marking and investigatory (clawing, scratching post, rubbing cage, anal sniff, body sniff, wall/floor licking; 4%), play (2%) and vocalisation behaviours (2%).Walking, jumping, eating, drinking, scratching, rubbing, defaecating and urinating were observed most often between 08:00 h and 09:00 h. Running, walking, resting and sitting occurred most often on the shelves in the cage.The cats made more direct contacts with the unfamiliar person than with the familiar person. Significantly (P<0.01) more attention behaviours (rubs against person, claws person, stands and watches, jumps to floor, stretches head out to person, lies on floor near person) were observed on the first day of the human-cat study than on the second and third days for both the familiar and unfamiliar person.
For cats, appropriate housing conditions and a quick adjustment to new surroundings should be promoted during temporary stays in animal shelters and boarding catteries. In this study the development of stress in 140 boarding cats during a two-week stay under single-, pairand group-housing conditions in a boarding cattery was investigated and compared with the stress levels of 45 control cats which had been at the animal shelter for several weeks. Signs of stress were recorded by a non-invasive Cat-Stress-Score.
Overall, the levels of stress in boarding cats declined during the two weeks of boarding, with a pronounced decline in the first days, but did not reach the stress levels of the control group by the end of the second week of housing. In the second week, the average stress level of about one third of all boarding cats was rated higher than ‘weakly tense’ with 4 per cent of cats rated even higher than ‘very tense’. Neither housing style (single, paired or grouped) nor age had an influence on stress levels.
It was concluded that about two thirds of the boarding cats adjusted well to the boarding cattery during a two-week stay, while for the other third, temporary boarding was more stressful. For 4 per cent of the animals the two-week stay in a boarding cattery was classified as inappropriate because no reduction of their high stress levels occurred.
This study investigated the influence of density and floor area on stress and the adaptation process of cats in animal shelters and boarding catteries. Sixty-three rescued cats were observed on 113 days in a shelter at group densities of 0.3-0.9 animals m ⁻² . In addition, 49 rescued cats were observed during their first week after being admitted to a control group housed at a density of 0.5 or 0.8 animals m ⁻² , and 44 boarding cats were observed in single cages of either 0.7 or 1.0 m ² floor area during their first week in a cattery.
Group density was highly correlated with the stress level of animals housed in groups. A stress level of ‘weakly tense ‘ was reached when the group density reached 0.6 animals m ⁻² . During the first week of their stay, stress levels among cats which had been newly admitted to groups housed at 0.5 or 0.8 animals m ⁻² did not differ significantly. On days 1, 2 and 6 after admission, boarding cats housed in single cages with a floor area of 1.0m ² had significantly lower stress levels than animals in cages with a floor area of 0.7m ² .
Group density was clearly shown to influence the adaptation process of cats which were housed for several weeks in groups. In order to avoid high stress levels, a group density of 0.6 animals m ⁻² should not be exceeded. However, the minimum spatial requirement for singly housed cats remains unknown.
Single- and group-housing conditions for cats in animal shelters represent spatially and socially very different housing types. This study investigated whether the socialization of the cat towards conspecifics and people influences adaptation to these two housing types. Socialization towards conspecifics and people was determined in 169 rescued cats by means of two behavioural tests and a socialization questionnaire. Stress levels of the cats in the single- and group-housing condition were recorded by the non-invasive Cat-Stress-Score. Cats which were non-socialized towards conspecifics (n-SC) were more stressed than cats socialized towards conspecifics (SC) in the group enclosure. During the first hour and on days 6 and 7 in the observation cage, the n-SC were significantly less stressed under the single-than under the group-housing condition. The other members of the group had a higher stress level when a n-SC entered the group than if the new cat was a SC. Among the SC, there was no detectable difference in stress levels between the single-and group-housing condition. Cats which were non-socialized towards people (n-SP) were more stressed than cats socialized towards people (SP) during the whole stay under both single- and group-housing conditions.
It was concluded that n-SC should be held under single-housing conditions in animal shelters. For SC both the single- and group-housing condition are equally recommended for stays of a few weeks. For n-SP, stays in animal shelters should be avoided because of their high stress levels.
In recent years, there has been an increase in interest in applied ethology and animal welfare, and an increase in the popularity of the domestic cat. This has stimulated research on the behaviour and welfare of cats kept in different environments. This article presents a review of the recent research and makes recommendations for the housing of domestic cats in the home, in catteries and animal shelters, in laboratories and in veterinary surgeries.
To measure stress levels among cats in traditional and enriched shelter environments via behavioral assessment and urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratios.
Cross-sectional observational study.
120 cats in 4 Boston-area animal shelters.
Cats were randomly selected and observed during 3 periods (morning, midday, and afternoon) of 1 day and scored by use of a behavioral assessment scale. The next day, urine samples were collected for analysis of the urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratio. Information about each cat's background before entering the shelter was collected.
Stress scores were highest in the morning. The relationships between the amount of time cats spent in the shelter and the cat stress score or urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratio were not strong. There was no correlation between the cat stress score and urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratio. Urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratios did correlate with signs of systemic disease and were significantly lower in cats in the more environmentally enriched shelters, compared with cats in the traditional shelters. Urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratio was highest among cats with high exposure to dogs. Of the cats in the study, 25% had subclinical hematuria detectable on a urine dipstick.
In this study, the cat stress score was not a useful instrument for measuring stress because it failed to identify cats with feigned sleep and high stress levels. Urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratios can be monitored to noninvasively assess stress levels in confined cats. Environmental enrichment strategies may help improve the welfare of cats in animal shelters.