The current perspectives, theories, and practices of mobile learning

Abstract

Mobile learning (m-learning) is a highly popular multidisciplinary study field around the world. It has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers in different disciplines who have realized the potential to apply mobile technologies to enchance learning. Thus, mobile learning has been defined differently by different people. This study is a review of m-learning literature for understanding and discussion of current perspectives and theories in mobile learning. Additionally, some m-learning practices that are implemented in different sectors such as corporate, university and military have been mentioned. INTRODUCTION Mobile devices are commonly used all around the world. In some countries, mobile devices are much more widely used than computers. For instance, people in Kenya are able to use mobile devices everywhere to access the internet, check e-mail, make phone calls, send SMS messages, etc. Mobile learning has come to people's attention because mobile devices are portable, ubiquitous, easily accessible and used by many people. This situation shows that there is great potential to enchance learning with mobile devices. Mobile Learning Perspectives Mobile learning (m-learning) is defined differently by different people. Early perspectives of m-learning were focused on technology, and defined as the delivery of training by means of mobile devices such as mobile phones, PDAs and digital audio players, as well as digital cameras and voice recorders, pen scanners, etc. For example, MoLoNET (2007) defined it as "The exploitation of ubiquitous handheld technologies, together with wireless and mobile phone networks, to facilitate, support, enhance and extend the reach of teaching and learning." Another view of m-learning focuses on mobility. Keagen (2005) suggests that m-learning should be restricted to learning on small and portable devices. According to him, mobile devices could be carried everywhere. For example, a lady can carry in her handbag or a gentleman can carry in his pocket. So this definition also relates to a technocentric perspective because of concentrating on the size of mobile devices.

Full text

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2011, volume 10 Issue 2
Copyright  The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 202
THE CURRENT PERSPECTIVES, THEORIES AND PRACTICES OF MOBILE
LEARNING
Nilgun Ozdamar KESKİN
Anadolu University
nozdamar@anadolu.edu.tr
David METCALF, Ph.D.
University of Central Florida
dmetcalf@ist.ucf.edu
ABSTRACT
Mobile learning (m-learning) is a highly popular multidisciplinary study field around the world. It has attracted
a great deal of attention from researchers in different disciplines who have realized the potential to apply mobile
technologies to enchance learning. Thus, mobile learning has been defined differently by different people. This
study is a review of m-learning literature for understanding and discussion of current perspectives and theories
in mobile learning. Additionally, some m-learning practices that are implemented in different sectors such as
corporate, university and military have been mentioned.
Keywords: Mobile learning, m-learning theories and m-learning practices
INTRODUCTION
Mobile devices are commonly used all around the world. In some countries, mobile devices are much more
widely used than computers. For instance, people in Kenya are able to use mobile devices everywhere to access
the internet, check e-mail, make phone calls, send SMS messages, etc. Mobile learning has come to people’s
attention because mobile devices are portable, ubiquitous, easily accessible and used by many people. This
situation shows that there is great potential to enchance learning with mobile devices.
Mobile Learning Perspectives
Mobile learning (m-learning) is defined differently by different people. Early perspectives of m-learning were
focused on technology, and defined as the delivery of training by means of mobile devices such as mobile
phones, PDAs and digital audio players, as well as digital cameras and voice recorders, pen scanners, etc. For
example, MoLoNET (2007) defined it as “The exploitation of ubiquitous handheld technologies, together with
wireless and mobile phone networks, to facilitate, support, enhance and extend the reach of teaching and
learning.” Another view of m-learning focuses on mobility. Keagen (2005) suggests that m-learning should be
restricted to learning on small and portable devices. According to him, mobile devices could be carried
everywhere. For example, a lady can carry in her handbag or a gentleman can carry in his pocket. So this
definition also relates to a technocentric perspective because of concentrating on the size of mobile devices.
Some researchers characterise mobile learning as an extension of e-learning. For instance, Kadirire (2009)
defines m-learning as a form of e-Learning, which can take place anytime, anywhere with the help of a mobile
communication device such as a mobile phone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), iPod or any such small
portable device. But new mobile learning perspectives accept m-learning as a paradigm change. One of these
perspective is the learner-centred perspective. It asserts that m-learning is any sort of learning that happens when
the learner is not at a fixed, predetermined location, or learning opportunies offered by mobile technologies (O’
Malley et al, 2003). The other perspective focuses on individualism. According to this perspective, m-learning is
defined as any activity that allows individuals to be more productive when consuming, interacting with, or
creating information, mediating through a compact digital portable device that the individual carries on a regular
basis, has reliable connectivity, and fits in a pocket or purse (Wexler et al, 2008). There are some researchers
who associate m-learning with ubiquitous learning, as well (Ng et al, 2009).
Finally, there are many different m-learning perspectives in the related literature. Each definitions focus on the
different features such as mobile technologies, mobility, indvualism, ubiquitous, or e-learning.
Mobile Learning Theories
Current mobile learning theories are Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism, Situated Learning, Problem-
Based Learning, Context Awareness Learning, Socio-Cultural Theory, Collaborative Learning, Conversational
Learning, Lifelong Learning, Informal Learning as well as Activity Theory, Connectivism, Navigationism,
Location-based learning,. All of these theories will be discussed in Table 1.

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2011, volume 10 Issue 2
Copyright  The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 203
Table 1. Mobile Learning Theories
Theories Definitions Focus Examples with mobile
technologies
Behaviorist
Learning Learning has occured when
learners evidence the
appropriate reinforcement of
an association between a
particular response and
stimulus (Smith and Ragan,
2005)
Information and content
delivery in mobile learning
Language learning: Test,
practices, quiz, listening-practice
speaking
Drill and feed back: Mobile
Reponse System
Content delivery by text
messages.
English learning
applications
SMS, MMS, Voice recorder
softwares
Mobile Response System:
Qwizdom, Turning Point
Response System
Tell me tech. (searching)
Cognitivist
learning Learning is the acquisition or
reorganization of the cognitive
structures through which
humans process and store
information (Good and
Brophy, 1990)
Information and content
delivery in mobile learning
Using Multimedia learning
(Dual code, Cognitive Load
Theory): Images, audio, video,
text, animations
Multimedia (text, video,
audio, animation, images)
SMS, MMS, e-Mail
Podcasting
Mobile TV
Constructive
learning Learning is an activity process
in which learners construct
new idea or concepts based on
their current and past
knowledge (Bruner, 1966)
Context and content-
dependent mobile learning
Questions for Exploration
Cases and examples
Problem solved and Decision
making applications
Multiple representations
Authentic contexts based
information database
Collaboration and interaction
in mobile learning
Collaboration and interaction
between students
Comunication via mobile phones
Handheld games
Simulation
Virtual reality
Interactive Podcasting and
SMS
Interactive mobile TV and
SMS
Situated
learning Learning is not merely the
acquisition of knowledge by
individuals, but instead a
process of social participation
(Brown et all, 1989).
Social Context and Social
participant dependent mobile
learning
Authentic domain activity
Collaborative social interaction
Cooperative activities
Expert modeling
Situated mentoring
Workplace learning
Natural science learning
Medical education
Multimedia museum
Virtual experts by artificial
intelligence tech.
Mobile performance support
system
Problem-based
learning Learning aims to develop
students’ critical thinking
skills by giving them an ill-
defined problem that is
reflective of what they would
encounter as a practicing
professional (Koschmann et
all, 1996)
Problem based context and
solved based content-
dependent mobile learning
Problems – Solutions
Case centred activities
Collaborative social interaction
Medical education
Business administration
Nursing
Simulations
SMS
MMS
Voice responde systems
Context
awareness
learning
Context awareness means
gathering information from the
environment to provide a
measure of what is currently
going on around user an the
device (Naismith et all, 2004)
Context aware in mobile
learning
Context-dependent content
management
Contextual event notification
Context-aware communication
Navigation and retrieval of
learning materials
User interface adapted according
to time and location contexts
Multimedia museum and
gallery
Pre-class podcasts
Films
e-books
Podcasting
Socio-cultural Learning occurs first through Social Context and Social Mobile performance support

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2011, volume 10 Issue 2
Copyright  The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 204
theory interpersonal (interaction with
social environment) than
intrapersonal (internalization)
(Vygotski, 1978).
participant dependent mobile
learning
Mobile experts
Community of practice
Workplace learning
Mobile communication
system
Virtual experts
Mobile forum, E-mail
Social network (Web 2.0
tools)
Collaborative
learning Learning is promoted,
facilitated and enhanced by
interaction and collaborations
between students.
Collaboration and interaction
dependent mobile learning
Actively participation
Social context
Communication between peers
via mobile phones.
Mobile Assisted Language
Learning
Mobile Response System
Mobile computer supported
collaborative learning
Forum, Web 2.0 tools, e-
mail, mobile portal, games
Conversational
learning Learning is in terms of
conversations between
different systems of
knowledge (Sharples, 2002).
Interaction and
communication dependent
mobile learning
Solving a problem
Exploring an environment
Communication between peers
via mobile phones.
Laboratory classes
Field trip
Mobile computer supported
collaborative learning
Calling, Interactive Voice
Respond (IVR)

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2011, volume 10 Issue 2
Copyright  The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 205
Lifelong
learning Learning happens all the time
and is influenced both by our
environment and the particular
situations we are faced with
(Sharples, 2000).
Lifelong information and
interaction with education
content in mobile learning
Podcasting
Information resources
Mobile web site
Social networks (Blogs,
Wikipedia, Twitter,
Youtube)
Podcast
E-mail
Mobile Forums
Informal
learning Learning is a process of
learning that occurs
autonomously and casually
without being tied to highly
directive curricula or
Instruction (Vavoula, 2004)
Information and interaction
with education content in
informal mobile learning
setting
Mobile information resources
Mobiles in a museum setting
Field Trips
Science Field Work
Social networks (Blogs,
Wikipedia, Twitter,
Youtube)
Podcast
E-mail
Mobile Forums
Activity theory Learning occurs with three
features-involving a subject
(the learners), an object (the
task or activity) and tool or
mediating artefacts and human
behaviour is situated within a
social context that influences
their actions (Vygotsky,
1987).
User actions in social context
dependent mobile learning
Actively participation
Social context
Activities
Museum Art Gallery exhibit
via SMS, polls, calling
Mobile Games
Multimedia
Connectivism Learning is process of
connecting specialized nodes
or information sources
(Siemens, 2004).
Diversity of information
sources in mobile learning
Connecting specialized nodes
Information sources
Facilitate continual learning
environment
Knowledge management
activities
Decision-making
Social networks (Blogs,
Wikipedia, Twitter,
Youtube)
Podcast
E-mail
Mobile Forums
Diccussion Platforms
Podcasting
Navigationism Learning is a process of
connecting specialized nodes
or information sources
(Brown, 2005).
Complex of information
sources in mobile learning
Connecting specialized nodes
Information sources
Facilitate continual learning
environment
Knowledge management
activities
Decision-making
Manage information (identify,
analyse, organize, classify,
assess, evaluate, etc.)
Sense making and chaos
management.
Social networks (Blogs,
Wikipedia, Twitter,
Youtube)
Podcast
E-mail
Mobile Forums
Diccussion Platforms
Podcasting
Location based
Learning Location-based learning holds
promise for just- in-time
learning tied to a student’s
physical location (Johnson et
all, 2009)
Location context in mobile
learning
Conceptual knowledge
Conceptual application
Constructive environment
Partnership with location
Immersive activities
Field trips
Archaeology studies
Location based game
Virtual world
Google Map, GPS, RFID,
network triangulation
Current Mobile Learning Practices
In this part, it will be given some current mobile learning applications developed by METIL LAB (Mixed
Emerging Technology Integration Lab) in the Institute for Simulation & Training in University of Central
Florida which is a world-leading center for the development, demonstration, and utilization of interactive and
virtual systems for simulating operational environments and for training personnel who will utilize specific

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2011, volume 10 Issue 2
Copyright  The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 206
equipment and systems in those environments. METIL produces mobile learning application and provides
mobile learning research and development expertise for the public, private, and social sectors.
• Johnson & Johnson
The Johnson & Johnson PRD 3D University is a virtual world onboarding system for Johnson & Johnson,
allowing constant new employee training and orientation from all locations worldwide while fostering
communication among the employee base. Employees can launch corporate learning materials and exercises, get
help from HR personnel and collaborate with colleagues across the globe. METIL continues to provide
consultation and development services for PRD 3D University, along with mobile, simulations, and Web 2.0
techniques and products to help connect and streamline processes for Johnson & Johnson's global workforce.
Figure 1 - Johnson & Johnson's project
• Microsoft Mobile Course and IVR Sales Materials
As smart phones become more common and mobile web browsing improves, the need for mobile access to
learning and training materials is more in demand and has greater impact for business professionals. METIL took
Microsoft's existing web courses and created a SCORM-compliant mobile web template. This allows the content
from Microsoft's web courses to be easily repurposed (requiring only some modifications to media assets) for
mobile access with full progress tracking and scoring.
Sales professionals in particular have a strong need for on-demand, mobile access to refresher materials on their
product line. Driving, however, provides challenges to many methods of delivering mobile content, such as apps
or mobile web access, due to limiting ability to look at the device's screen; this is especially true now due to
stricter hands-free laws in many states. In order to allow simple, hands-free access to sales data, we developed a
voice recognition IVR (Interactive Voice Response) system that allows sales professionals to navigate
Microsoft's product information library and select audio for listening.
Figure 2- Microsoft Mobile Course and IVR Sales Materials Project
• My Sports Pulse
The My Sports Pulse project combines mobile and web technologies, STEM education, and a sports theme to
create an innovative approach to bolstering understanding and interest in science and mathematics fields.
Students can register with the My Sports Pulse program to receive questions, presented within the context of
sports scenarios, about subjects such as physics, nutrition, algebra or geometry. Questions are delivered through

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2011, volume 10 Issue 2
Copyright  The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 207
text messages or email, and can also be accessed and answered directly through the My Sports Pulse website. As
students answer questions, they earn points in various knowledge areas and build up their own avatar to compete
with other students and schools. The My Sports Pulse program has been piloted with several schools inside and
outside of the US, with promising results.
Figure 3- My Sports Pulse Project
• Dream Corp Alternate Reality Game
Run as a demonstration for Elliot Masie's Learning 2008 conference, the DreamCorp Alternate Reality Game
(ARG) provided an introduction to cross-media training and employee onboarding. The game involved several
challenges on three different tracks: Compliance, Leadership and Flexible Workforce. Players took on the role of
employees at fictional company DreamCorp and worked, sometimes alone and sometimes in cooperation with
fellow players, to solve puzzles and complete the assigned challenges. Portions of the game were offered through
multiple avenues and media formats: printed materials (e.g. pamphlets and newsletters), emails, text messages,
in-person interaction with METIL team members acting as DreamCorp employees, and a bonus task offered in
Second Life.
• Go for the Green
Go for the Green is a mobile web game, developed for The Willis Organization, that uses a golf theme to
reinforce key sales concepts. Nine holes of the golf course are mapped to nine steps in the sales process, with
each hole presenting several questions and feedback items related to that particular step. Users attempt to
complete the full course by answering all questions and avoiding common "traps" in the sales process. By using
streamlined mobile web development rather than creating a specific game application, we are able to deliver this
content to a wide range of user devices including iPhone, Blackberry and various Symbian and Windows Mobile
platforms.
Figure 4- Go for the Green
CONCLUSION
Mobile learning has a promising future as a field of study. In related literature, there are many different
approaches, theories and practices. The current m-learning study field will be more understandable for new
researchers if these definitions, approaches and theories are disccussed and linked to concrete mobile learning
practices.

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2011, volume 10 Issue 2
Copyright  The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 208
REFERENCES
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational
Researcher, 18, 32-42. http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/museumeducation/situated.html
Brown, T.H. (2005). Beyond constructivism: Exploring future learning paradigms. Education Today, 2005(2).
http://www.bucks.edu/IDlab/Beyond_constructivism.pdf
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Good, T. L., Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic approach. (4th ed.).White Plains, NY:
Longman.
Johnson, L., Levine, A., & Smith, R. (2009). The 2009 Horizon Report. Austin, Texas: The New Media
Consortium.
Kadirire, J. ( 2009). Mobile Learning DeMystified . In R. Guy (Ed) The Evolution of Mobile Teaching and
Learning. California, USA: Informing Science Press.
Keagen, D. (2005). The Incorporation of Mobile Learning into Mainstream Education and Training. Proceedings
of mLearn2005-4th World Conference on m-Learning, Cape Town, South Africa, 25-28 October 2005.
Retrieved from November 18, 2008, from: http://www.mlearn.org.za/CD/papers/keegan1.pdf.
Koschmann, T., Kelson, A.C., Feltovich, P.J., & Barrows, H.S. (1996). Computer-supported problem-based
learning: A principled approach to the use of computers in collaborative learning. In T.D. Koschmann
(Ed.), CSCL: Theory and practice of an emerging paradigm (pp. 83—124). Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence
Erlbaum
MoLeNet (2007). What is the mobile learning? Retrieved from October 24, 2009, from:
http://www.molenet.org.uk/
Naismith, L. , Lonsdale, P., Vavoula, G. and Sharples, M. (2004) Mobile technologies and learning. Retrieved
from November 18, 2008, from: http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/publications-reports-
articles/literature-reviews/Literature-Review203
Ng, W., Nicholas, H., Loke, Seng. & Torabi, T. (2009). Designing Effective Pedagogical Systems for Teaching
and Learning with MobileAnd Ubiquitous Devices.In T.T. Goh (Ed). Multiplatform E-learning Systems
and Technologies. Mobile Devices for Ubiquitous ICT-Based Education. Hershey –Newyork, USA:
Information Science Reference.
O’Malley, C., Vavoula, G., Glew, J., Taylor, J., Sharples, M. & Lefrere, P. (2003). Guidelines for
learning/teaching/tutoring/in a mobile environment. Mobilearn project deliverable. Retrieved from
February 21, 2009, from: www.mobilearn.org/download/results/guidelines.pdf
Sharples, M. (2000) The Design of Personal Mobile Technologies for Lifelong Learning. Computers and
Education, 34, 177-193. Preprint available as 211Kb pdf file.
Sharples, M. (2002). Disruptive devices: mobile technology for conversational learning. International Journal of
Continuing Engineering Education and Life Long Learning, 12(5/6), 504-520.
Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional
Technology and Distance Learning. Retrieved on November 12, 2006, from
http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_05/article01.htm
Smith, P.L., & Ragan, T.J. (2005). Instructional Design (3rd ed) . New York: Merill
Vavoula, G. (2004). KLeOS: A Knowledge and Learning Organisation System in Support of Lifelong Learning.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Birmingham, UK
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Collected works (Volume 1). New York: Plenum.
Wexler, S., Brown, J. , Metcalf, D., Rogers, D. & Wagner, E. (2008) The e-learning Guild Report Mobile
Learning. Retrieved from May 18, 2009, from:
http://www.elearningguild.com/research/archives/index.cfm?id=132&action=viewonly