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The Benefits of Sampling Sports During Childhood
Abstract and Figures
Sampling may promote prolonged engagement in sport by limiting physical injuries (Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005). Overtraining injuries are a concern for young athletes who specialize in one sport and engage in high volumes of deliberate practice (Hollander, Meyers, & Leunes, 1995; Law, Côté, & Ericsson, 2007). For instance, young gymnasts who practice for over 16 hours a week have been shown to have higher incidences of back injuries (Goldstein, Berger, Windier, & Jackson, 1991). A sampling approach in child-controlled play (e.g. deliberate play) rather than highly adult-controlled practice (e.g. deliberate practice) has been proposed as a strategy to limit overuse and other sport-related injuries (Micheli, Glassman, & Klein, 2000). In summary, sampling may protect against sport attrition by limiting sport related injuries and allowing children to have early experiences in sport that are enjoyable. Psychosocial Benefits of Sampling Only a small percentage of children who participate in school sports ever become elite athletes. Therefore, the psychosocial outcomes of sport participation are particularly important to consider. Recent studies with youth between the ages of 11 to 17 have found that those who are involved in a variety of extracurricular activities (e.g. sports, volunteer, arts) score more favourably on outcome measures such as Grade Point Average (GPA; Fredricks & Eccles, 2006a) and positive peer relationships (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006b) than youth who participate in fewer activities. These patterns are thought to exist due to each extracurricular activity bringing its own distinct pattern of socialization experiences that reinforce certain behaviours and/or teach various skills (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006b; Rose-Krasnor, Bussen, Willoughby, & Chambers, 2006). This contention is corroborated by studies of children and youths' experiences in extracurricular activities indicating that youth have unique experiences in each activity that contribute to their development (Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003; Larson, Hansen, & Moneta, 2006). This has led Wilkes and Côté (2007) to propose that children who sample different activities (through their own choice or by virtue of parental direction), have a greater chance of developing the following five developmental outcomes compared to children who specialize in one activity: 1) life skills, 2) prosocial behaviour, 3) healthy identity, 4) diverse peer groups and 5) social capital. Il arrive souvent que Ia première exposition des enfants à un contexte sportif structuré passe par les cours d'éducation physique ou les activités parascolaires organisés à l'école. En ce sens, les enseignants et entraîneurs jouent un rôle de premier plan dans le développement des habileté sportives des élèves. Des recherche ont fait ressortir deux méthodes utiles pour aider les jeunes athlètes à se développer, soit la spécialisation précoce (Ericsson, Krampe et Tesch-Römer, 1993) et l'échantillonnage (Côté, [Baker] et [Abernethy] 2007). Même si L· modèle développemental de participation sportive (Côté et coll., 2007) décrit en quoi les deux approches favorisent l'expertise sportive, celle par échantillonnage offre plus d'avantages sur le plan sportif et plus de bienfaits psychosociaux. Cet article explique en quoi l'echantiUonniigr de dijjrrriits sports piir les jeunes les aide à perfectionner des habiletés physiques liées à cinq caractéristiques psychosociales : l'autonomie fonctionnelles, la sociabilité, la saine identité, la diversification des groupes de pairs et le capital social Les auteurs discutent égaiement de stratégies qui encouragent ce genre d'environnement.
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... Additionally, another challenge is to decide whether early childhood PAS programmes should be oriented toward diversification or specialization. According to Côté et al. (2009), the many benefits of multisport practice lead to positive child development, which could clearly tip the balance in favor of a multisport option. ...
... Many studies show that multisport practice at early ages produces significant benefits in terms of improving future sports performance (LaPrade et al., 2016), mental healthcare , injury prevention , adherence to physical activity (Roetert et al., 2018) and the development of social skills (DiStefano et al., 2018), among others. Along the same lines, Côté et al. (2009) argue that multisport practice enables children to experience many different physical, cognitive, affective, and psychosocial environments, which has a positive impact on their overall development. Ultimately, the backbone of the GSSP programme -multisport grounded in deliberate play-provides a more conducive context for promoting PYD compared to an early specialization-oriented sports programme (Holt et al., 2017;Waldron et al., 2020). ...
... According to Holt et al. (2017, p. 32), PYD climate is a result of the contextual and social characteristics of a sport activity, which provide young people the opportunity to acquire PYD-contributing experiences. Côté et al. (2009) state that a programme based on multisport can help obtain positive social, physical, and personal results-provided the context in relation to peers, parents and coaches is appropriate. In this regard, and in line with was is suggested by Holt et al. (2017), the GSSP advocates the presence and development of an educational community that promotes: (a) the increase of social cohesion among all the agents involved in school sport; (b) the creation and development of human capital; (c) the reduction of feelings of loneliness and helplessness among participants and; (d) the improvement of the integration processes of migrants or disabled people (Provincial Council of Gipuzkoa, 2022, p. 21). ...
Physical activity and sport (PAS) programmes are an important part of organized extracurricular activities for children and young people. They appear as potentially inclusive environments where students could be provided with holistic development based on active and healthy lifestyles. The aim of this study was to evaluate and describe the Gipuzkoa School Sport Programme (GSSP) from the positive youth development (PYD). The research was carried out based on CPAR (Critical Participatory Action-Research) methodology: a “CPAR group” was created -including researchers and policymakers- to carry out the evaluation of the GSSP in which we analyzed (a) the social environment or PYD climate and (b) life skills. The evaluation and description of the GSSP confirmed that it meets most requirements for providing positive development contexts and opportunities for PYD. The choice of prioritizing multisport and deliberate play and putting early specialization aside seem key conditions to ensure PYD-promoting environments. This work could serve as a referent for decision-makers in organizations dedicated to designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating PYD-focused extracurricular youth sport programmes.
... Children's simultaneous participation in multiple organised sports, or 'multisport participation', is associated with a more physically active adulthood and with preventing non-participation in PA in the long term (Côté et al., 2009;Gallant et al., 2022). Cote and colleagues (Côté et al., 2009) discussed a related concept using the term 'sampling', defined as engaging in a variety of sports during childhood. ...
... Children's simultaneous participation in multiple organised sports, or 'multisport participation', is associated with a more physically active adulthood and with preventing non-participation in PA in the long term (Côté et al., 2009;Gallant et al., 2022). Cote and colleagues (Côté et al., 2009) discussed a related concept using the term 'sampling', defined as engaging in a variety of sports during childhood. ...
... Research findings demonstrate that multisport participation offers children more enjoyable experiences and results in fewer sports injuries than specialising in one sport from an early age (Côté et al., 2009). Early sport specialisation has also been linked to an increased risk of overtraining and burnout and reduced motor skill diversity (Lloyd et al., 2015). ...
Young children's physical activity (PA) has been decreasing while their sports participation has been increasing. Therefore, the aim of this research was to longitudinally examine whether and, if so, how organised and non‐organised PA participation by early childhood education and care (ECEC)‐aged children (T1; 3–8 years) predicted their accelerometer‐measured PA at primary school age (T2; 7–11 years). Secondarily, changes in organised and non‐organised PA participation over time were investigated. The cluster‐randomised study participants comprised 501 Finnish children (52.3% girls: T1, Mage = 5.57 ± 1.06; T2, Mage = 8.80 ± 1.07). PA participation was queried via guardian questionnaire at T1 and T2. Organised PA participation was operationalised as non‐participation, participation in one sport or multisport (two or more) participation; non‐organised PA was operationalised as time spent outdoors on weekdays and on weekend days. PA at T2 was measured using accelerometers. The primary outcome was tested using linear regressions, while a paired sample t‐test and Mann–Whitney U test assessed differences between T1 and T2. The results showed outdoor time and organised sports participation increased from T1 to T2. Moreover, outdoor time at T1 predicted more moderate‐to‐vigorous PA (MVPA) and less sedentary time at T2, while multisport participation predicted significantly more MVPA and less sedentary time at T2. Overall, being outdoors and multisport participation at younger ages appear to have predicted Finnish children's later (MV) PA and sedentary behaviour.
... Importantly, our definition does not apply to instances of informal, deliberate play (e.g. backyard or street sport) which is normally unstructured, involves minimal equipment and space, and can use any number of players of different ages (Côté et al., 2009). Informal, unstructured play more closely relates to what we infer to be a collective form of early sampling experiences (Côté et al., 2009). ...
... backyard or street sport) which is normally unstructured, involves minimal equipment and space, and can use any number of players of different ages (Côté et al., 2009). Informal, unstructured play more closely relates to what we infer to be a collective form of early sampling experiences (Côté et al., 2009). ...
... Furthermore, sport transfer is a concept which, if adopted, can help to reduce double counting individual participation data from youth participating in more than one sport concurrently. This effect is most prevalent among children aged 5-14-years-old, before specialisation in one or a few sport(s) reduces the 'double counting' effect (Côté et al., 2009;Eime et al., 2019). This distinction has been previously overlooked by youth sport researchers (e.g. ...
Youth sport participation, retention, and dropout are well-established areas of academic interest in the interdisciplinary field of sport. However, terminology, definitions, and conceptualisations of participation vary significantly within the literature. This variation can potentially lead to inadvertent misreporting or deliberate manipulation of membership and/or participation data by clubs and sporting organisations, particularly when applying for highly prized, competitive grant funding opportunities. This paper advances sport participation terminology by reconceptualising youth sport behaviours that can be situated within the phases of enrolment and entry, retention, sustained engagement, sport transfer, dropout, sustained disengagement, and critically, re-engagement. The purpose of this critical commentary is to highlight the potential benefits of purposefully redefining phases of ‘sport participation’ and propose the Participation Re-Engagement (PRE) model – a new conceptualisation of sport participation for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners to enhance policies, programmes, and interventions aimed at increasing organised youth sport participation.
... 10,12 On the other side, ESS is associated with increased risk of attrition from sport due to factors like burnout, decreased enjoyment, injury susceptibility, and diminished time for unstructured or deliberate play. 19,20 ESS has been suggested to discourage and decrease participation in other activities and unstructured play, 14,15,[19][20][21][22][23][24] and can inhibit motor skill gains from diversification and deliberate play without proven elite performance benefits. 25 Early specializers who get cut from teams may miss further developmental opportunities. ...
... 10,12 On the other side, ESS is associated with increased risk of attrition from sport due to factors like burnout, decreased enjoyment, injury susceptibility, and diminished time for unstructured or deliberate play. 19,20 ESS has been suggested to discourage and decrease participation in other activities and unstructured play, 14,15,[19][20][21][22][23][24] and can inhibit motor skill gains from diversification and deliberate play without proven elite performance benefits. 25 Early specializers who get cut from teams may miss further developmental opportunities. ...
... 25 Early specializers who get cut from teams may miss further developmental opportunities. 19,26 Multisport participation is shown to enhance motivation and balance development, 22,26 hence, a multisport approach through mid-adolescence is suggested for injury prevention and balanced development of young athlete. 10,12,13 The American Orthopedic Society for Sports Medicine (AOSSM) published a consensus statement in 2016, which recommended that young athletes should delay specialization until at least late adolescence and should participate in multiple sports throughout childhood. ...
Early sport specialization (ESS) is prevalent among adolescent athletes aspiring for elite status. However, the impact of ESS on sports injury (SI) rates during their collegiate and professional careers remains unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluate the effect of ESS on SI rates during high-level sport participation. Data sources Search included PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, EMBASE, Cochrane, CINAHL, ERIC, and Medline. Study selection PRISMA guidelines were followed to identify peer-reviewed articles published until 01 August 2023. Eligible studies reported numbers of athletes in collegiate and professional teams, including national, in ESS and their counterpart category, along with the portion with at least one SI. Studies on concussion or non-contact injuries, or without explicit injury reports during elite sport participation were excluded. Of 526 studies, 13 met the criteria, and 5 were included in the quantitative analysis. These studies reported SIs on collegiate and professional athletes. A total of 3087 athletes were analyzed (ESS = 45%). The overall effect showed that ESS athletes had a lower odds ratio (OR = 0.7) of a SI during high-level sport participation, but this finding was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Results demonstrated that ESS athletes had a lower odds ratio (OR = 0.7) of a SI during elite sport participation, but the effect was not statistically significant. Articles with clear reports are scarce, and thus limit the impact of the findings in this study. High heterogeneity was evident in this analysis, largely due to lack of standardized terminology, evaluation, and data representation. Prospective studies that consider diverse athlete population of the same sport are warranted.
... This rule is based primarily on psychological, social and emotional aspects, more than its focus on skill and technical aspects. Those who hold this belief justify that experimentation and diversity in practicing sports allows individuals to test themselves, their feelings, their level of motivation, their abilities, and their knowledge in a number of sports (Coté et al., 2009). ...
... Disparities are further highlighted by early accomplishments and their assessment. Due to the absence of standardized criteria for gauging their growth, twice-exceptional athletes frequently face more subjective evaluations than healthy athletes, who benefit from established evaluation systems and development programs (Coté et al., 2009). Their long-term success is greatly influenced by the resilience they acquire in overcoming these obstacles. ...
Introduction
Achieving exceptional performance in sports, particularly among twice-exceptional athletes, is a multifaceted process that remains underexplored. Understanding the developmental pathways that lead to performance excellence is essential for supporting this unique population.
Methods
This study employed a qualitative case study approach involving three male Paralympic champions (mean age: 33 years). Data were collected using achievement portfolios and in-depth interviews to explore the athletes’ lived experiences and identify influential developmental factors.
Results
Two distinct developmental stages emerged from the analysis. The first stage, characterized by spontaneous and unstructured motivation, was shaped by psychological and social influences that sparked a general interest in sports. The second stage involved intentional goal setting and structured practice within specialized sports environments. Key factors such as individual growth characteristics and physiological development influenced each stage differently over time.
Discussion
The findings highlight the complex interplay of personal, psychological, social, and contextual factors in the development of performance excellence in twice-exceptional Paralympic athletes. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of how targeted support and recognition of developmental needs can foster sustained athletic excellence.
... Similarly, competitive travel leagues that are typically unaffiliated with school-sponsored programs start as early as 7 years of age (Brenner, 2016). Since early sport specialization is rooted in the assumption that deliberate practice is superior to deliberate play for elite development (Côté et al., 2009), these travel teams and year-round sport programs provide easily accessible supplemental and specialized training for young athletes. ...
... The sampling pathway in the DMSP is characterized by movement through three distinct developmental phases (i.e., sampling, specializing, and investment years; Côté et al., 2007). Engaging in sport sampling during adolescence is thought to offer benefits such as prolonged engagement in physical activity, decreased sport attrition and injury rates, and positive psychosocial outcomes (Côté et al., 2009). After conducting a review on early specialization literature, Jayanthi et al. (2013) concluded that while some degree of specialization is necessary for elite-level skill development, in most sports, there is insufficient evidence to support that specializing before puberty is necessary to achieve elite success. ...
Early sport specialization (ESS) is a popular pathway for athletic development with implications for enhanced skill acquisition but also adverse mental and physical outcomes (LaPrade et al., 2016). As such, adolescent athletes may face a dilemma regarding whether to play multiple sports or immediately narrow the focus to one. Coaches are positioned to influence motivational climates and sport-specific skill development (Amorose & Anderson-Butcher, 2007), making it important to understand their perceptions of ESS. Interviews were conducted with thirteen coaches of girls’ volleyball and basketball teams to gain an understanding of ESS as it pertains to athletes and programs at the interscholastic level. Participants identified influences and impacts of ESS, specifically how it can affect participation and competitiveness of interscholastic sports.
... A szülők, edzők, sportszövetségek és egyesületek közös munkája biztosítja a fejlődést, kiegészítve szociális kapcsolatokkal, pszichológiai támogatással és szakmai programokkal (Géczi 2014). Az utánpótlásnevelés első éveiben különösen fontos a sport körüli ökoszisztéma integrálása (Farrow et al. 2007;Côté et al. 2009). A sport a teljesítmény mellett a személyiségfejlődést is támogatja, értékeket közvetítve az egyén, a közösség és a társadalom számára (Gombocz 2018). ...
A sportolók fejlődését alapvetően meghatározza a támogató környezet, valamint a szülők és sportvezetők célirányos, hosszú távú együttműködése és a megfelelő kommunikáció (Morris, 2000; Way et al., 2007). Az edzés minősége, a felkészítést segítő programok és a támogató környezet kulcsfontosságúak a sikeresség szempontjából (Bognár, 2010). A Magyar Országos Korcsolyázó Szövetség az LTAD-módszert évek óta alkalmazza az utánpótlás-nevelésben. A kutatás célja a gyorskorcsolyázók hosszú távú sikerességét támogató integrált környezet és a szereplők együttműködésének feltárása volt. Félig strukturált interjúkat (edzők: n=6, szülők: n=6, sportolók: n=6, sportvezetők: n=2) és kérdőíves adatgyűjtést végeztünk (edzők: n=26, sportolók: n=69, szülők: n=69; N=164). Az elemzéshez kvalitatív módszertan, varianciaanalízis és diszkriminancia-analízis is készült. Az interjúk alapján a szülők és sportolók főként a kommunikáció és a bevonás hiányát emelték ki. A kérdőíves válaszok szerint a sportolók számára a legfontosabb tényezők a sport életvitelre gyakorolt nevelő hatás (M=3,79±0,40), a jellemvonások fejlődése (M=3,75±0,43) és a családi pszichés támogatás (M=3,73±0,59) voltak. A legkevésbé meghatározónak a tanárokkal történő egyeztetést (M=1,68±0,92), a tanulmányi eredményeket (M=2,30±0,88) és a pszichés képességek fejlesztését (M=2,41±0,77) tartották. A szereplők között jelentős különbségek mutatkoztak az edzői utasítások betartása (F=19,439; p=0,000), a testnevelővel való együttműködés (F=10,618; p=0,000), a tanulás melletti sportolás (F=9,411; p=0,000) és az edzővel folytatott rendszeres kommunikáció (F=8,242; p=0,000) terén.
Az eredmények rámutattak, hogy bár az LTAD-módszer alkalmazott, a kommunikáció és az értékelés továbbfejlesztése elengedhetetlen. Hosszú távú sikerességhez személyi és tárgyi fejlesztésekre van szükség.
Kulcsszavak: tehetséggondozás, motiváció, interdiszciplinaritás, edukációs stratégia, pszichológiai támogatás.
... The increased attack and shot efficacies with the new ball, which are comparable to or even surpass those of older age groups, indicate that U15 players can now execute more advanced techniques earlier in their development. This early mastery of skills could potentially lead to more rapid progression in tactical understanding and decisionmaking abilities, as suggested by past investigators' studies of skill acquisition in youth sports (Côté et al., 2009). However, it is important to consider whether this accelerated development might also lead to potential problems, such as early specialization or increased pressure on young athletes, concerns that have been previously raised in sports psychology literature (Malina, 2010). ...
We aimed to investigate how a ball regulation change, implemented in U15 girls’ handball games, now affects game performance and shooting plays. Over 14 matches (28 observations), we included all the attacks (n = 813) and shooting plays (n = 589) with the conventional ball and all the attacks (n = 821) and shooting plays (n = 618) with the new ball performed by both teams. We used notational analysis to compare the game performance and shooting plays in these two conditions. Our main results were as follows: (i) the attack efficacy was higher with the new ball (41.9%) than with the conventional ball (36.1%); and (ii) the prevalence of the three-line defensive system was higher with the new ball (10.5%) than with the conventional ball (2.7%). It can be inferred that the new ball enabled backcourt players to execute more powerful middle- and long-range shots, leading to their adoption of deeper defensive tactics that were effective in halting advancing backcourt players. Moreover, implementing new ball regulations resulted in a significantly higher frequency of shots targeted at the upper third of the goal frame (44.4%) compared to those observed with the conventional ball (35.8%). This implies that the introduction of the new ball enhanced precision control over shot placements, resulting in an increased player preference for targeting the upper course. Lastly, goalkeepers’ saving rates decreased under the new ball, highlighting the need for technical and tactical coaching, tailored to goalkeepers. In summary, implementing the new ball regulations had a positive impact on Japanese U15 girls’ handball performance.
Güç, Kuvvet, Direnç Antrenmanları Üzerine Yapılmış Doktora Tezlerinde Kullanılan Antrenman Yöntemlerinin İncelenmesi Abdüsselam TURGUT Dijital Pazarlama ve Spor Yönetimi Baykal KARATAŞ Sporda Zihinsel Dayanıklılık Bülent Okan MİÇOOĞULLARI Örgütsel Sosyalleşme Sürecinde Spor Çetin TAN Ayberk KIRDEMİR Suriye TAN Spor Yönetiminde Toplam Kalite Yönteminin Kurumsallaşmaya Etkisi Ejder GÜNEŞ Popüler Kültür ve Serbest Zaman Algısı Emine BAL Muaythai Tarihi (Mücadele Ruhu) Hüseyin Gazi SÖNMEZ Denge Kavramı İlkay YAZARER Spor Eğitimi Süreci ve Eğitim Ömer ZAMBAK Olimpiyatların Serüveni: Antik Dönemden Modern Dünyaya Yolculuk Oğuzhan ALTUNGÜL Dijital Çağda E-Spor, İnovasyon ve Modern Spor Yönetimi Yunus Emre KARAKAYA Ömer Faruk ENGÜZEKLİ
The purpose of this review is to define physiological indices of overtraining, examine psychological factors involved with youth sports, and suggest corrective alternatives for coaches to avoid overtraining of youth athletes. Overtraining is common among athletes. Incremental stages of overtraining of youth athletes include (a) overreaching, (b) overtraining, (c) staleness, (d) burnout, and (e) injury/withdrawal. The body of literature which addressed overtraining has been primarily physiological. Physiological systems affected by overtraining have been both parasympathetic and sympathetic processes. However. the consistency of these findings have been suspect and difficult to differentiate from normal training response. Identification of psychological factors, however, have been more consistent with a large body of investigation using psychometric instruments such as the Profile of Mood States. Psychological factors which effect overtraining include stressand susceptible personality characteristics. Overtraining may be avoided by providing a clear system of rewards and scheduling. Periodization training schedules, implementing psychological testing, and monitoring dietary intake can reduce the potential for overtraining. These suggestions require careful consideration by coaches for useful applications within their own sport situation. Often coaches have limited time and/or finances to implement elaborate screening and prevention programs. However, the syndromes associated with chronic training can cause lack of enjoyment for the participants and a failure to achieve desired effects for coaches. With increased awareness of these issues, a coach can provide a structured sport program that enhances the total sports experience of young athletes.
The purpose of this study was to investigate coping profile of Korean competitive athletes, as a function of performance level, sport type, and gender. A total of 532 elite and non-elite male and female athletes who were currently competing at various individual and team sports completed a culturally-adapted coping scale (CSKA) developed in Korea (Yoo, 2000a). The CSKA consisted of four coping subscales (problem-focused, emotion-focused, transcendent, and avoidance coping) in response to various Stressors commonly experienced in sport situations. A 2 x 2 x 2 (performance x sport x gender) MANOVA revealed that elite athletes reported problem-focused coping and transcendental coping scores that were significantly higher than those displayed by non-elite athletes. The athletes competing in individual sports exhibited higher scores on avoidance and transcendental coping than the athletes competing in team sports. On problem-focused and emotional coping, the individual athletes possessed as much coping scores as the team athletes did. Males were more likely to use problem-focused coping than did females, whereas females were more likely to use transcendental and etnotion-focused coping. These results were discussed within a cultural framework of coping, and future research was suggested.
Adolescence is a developmental period characterized by heightened potential for risk-taking behaviours that have important implications for health and well-being. This study uses social capital to understand social influences on adolescent risk-taking in the Canadian context. Using data from the National Population Health Survey (NPHS), the paper contrasts the three most prominent interpretations of social capital by Bourdieu (1985, 1990), Coleman (1988, 1990), and Putnam (2000) in their association with multiple risk activities. Social capital indicators were significant predictors of risk behaviour among all adolescents; however, they were stronger predictors for males than females. Coleman's model, focusing on the family's role in social capital, had the strongest predictive power for males; whereas Putnam's model, focusing on social capital located in group and organizational membership, had the strongest predictive power for females. The findings support the conclusion that social capital is an important explanatory framework to consider when trying to understand adolescent risk behaviours.
Of growing concern to sport researchers is the practice of youth sport athletes specializing in sport at a young age. Sport specialization is characterized by year-round training in a single sport at the exclusion of other sport or nonsport activities. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the potential benefits of specialized sport at an early age in light of the potential risks associated with specialized participation. Three areas of consideration are discussed, including motor skill acquisition and performance, potential sociological consequences, and psychological concerns related to high-intensity training of young athletes. Finally, recommendations for further research and practical considerations are suggested for deciding the appropriateness of specialized sport in the training and development of youth sport athletes.
This study analyzed the process of socialization of elite tennis players, thereby contributing to an explanation of the success experienced by Swedish tennis players in recent years. The top five male and top five female Swedish players, along with parents and coaches, were interviewed regarding background, early life sport experiences, and development. All five males held ranking positions among the 15 best in the world. The control group was chosen by matching pairs regarding age, sex, and junior ranking. Results indicated that both groups at the ages of 12 to 14 were equal, but after puberty the development of the groups diverged. As teenagers, some elite players were ranked among the world’s top players while the control group players did not experience success. The results clearly indicate that it is not possible to predict who will develop into a world-class tennis player based on individual talent alone. Personal qualifications and early life experiences in combination with social structures, tradi...