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Analytical approach and effects of condensed tannins in carob pods (Ceratonia siliqua) on feed intake, digestive and metabolic responses of kids
Abstract
There are contradicting data in the literature regarding condensed tannins content in carobs. In this study, urea (0.5 g/ml) under reflux conditions increased dramatically the yield of condensed tannins to 17% of dry matter, as compared to 3.5% in acidic methanol extraction. This shows that carob pods are rich source of nonextractable condensed tannins. The effect of PEG in diet rich in carob pods on voluntary feed intake, digestibility and growth in weaning kids was studied during 15 days of balance trials in 24 kids distributed into three dietary treatments. The corn grain and wheat bran components in the control diet (diet 1) were replaced by carob in treatments 2 and 3; treatment 3 was supplemented by 3.3% of PEG of molecular weight-4000. Food intake, diet utilization and growth rate of weaning kids fed a diet containing 52% carob pods were decreased considerably in comparison to kids fed the control commercial diet. Supplementing the kids fed the carob-based diet with PEG increased feed intake, crude protein digestibility and growth to the rate obtained with the control diet. The nutritional experiment highlights the following aspects relevant to all mammals consuming carob pods rich diets: (i) tannins increased the variability in feed intake between days, (ii) hypocholesterolemic effect of carob pods is related to lipid binding capacity of nonextractable condensed tannins in the digestive tract, (iii) supplementing high level of carob pods to animals with normal blood cholesterol level may induce hypocholesterolemia. D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
... However, concentration of blood urea nitrogen decreased significantly with increasing tannin in the diet. Blood glucose depends on the state of energy balance and the type of diet (Silanikove et al., 2006). ...
... Also, Yildiz et al. (2005) using oak leaves in the diet of lambs did not observe a change in ruminal pH compared to the control. The pH of the rumen depends on feeding time and production of volatile fatty acids (Silanikove et al, 2006). Studies have shown that tannins reduce the concentration of volatile fatty acids in the rumen and therefore can affect ruminal pH (Silanikove et al., 2006). ...
... The pH of the rumen depends on feeding time and production of volatile fatty acids (Silanikove et al, 2006). Studies have shown that tannins reduce the concentration of volatile fatty acids in the rumen and therefore can affect ruminal pH (Silanikove et al., 2006). However, it has also been reported that the rate of effective degradation and degradability of proteins could decrease in the rumen of tannin-fed animals leading to a decrease in ammonia concentration (Bhatta et al., 2004). ...
The aim of this experiment was to study the effect of pure saponin and tannic acid on feed intake, weight gain, immune metabolites, blood lipids, and fatty acid profiles of lamb carcass. In this experiment, 18 lambs with an average weight of 17±1.5 kg were used in a completely randomized design (3 treatments with 6 replications) for 60 days. Treatments consisted of a basal diet consisting of forage (30%) and concentrates (70%), and diets containing saponin (150 mg/kg dry matter) or tannic acid (15 g/kg dry matter). Dry matter intake, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, packed cell volume and blood concentrations of hemoglobin, glucose, urea nitrogen, total proteins, and triglycerides were not affected by the experimental treatments. Concentration of saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids with a double bond did not show a significant difference between the experimental treatments, but the sum of unsaturated fatty acids with several double bonds was highest in the tannic acid treatment (P<0.05).
... Since they are mostly cultivated in dry areas with low rainfall, they require little attention and live up to 150 years [42,67,99]. Nowadays, carobs are used in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries [54,114] and in the fast-growing health food industry, since carob products have important nutritional and medicinal properties for humans [24,106]. The BP of carob (CaBP) described herein concern the seedless carob fruit, called "pulp", which is crushed and traditionally added to animal feed. ...
... This has been debated by Priolo et al. (2000Priolo et al. ( , 2002 [94,95], who claimed that the pods have low content of CT, but exceptionally high biological activity. Silanikove et al. (2006) [106] demonstrated that the yield of CT is considerably affected by the extraction method applied (from 5.0 g/100 g DW with acidic methanol to 17.2% with urea-buffer solution), suggesting that carob pods are a rich source of CT. Similarly, Saratsi et al. (2020) [103] reported 5.84 g CT/100 g DW with acetone-HCl/butanol extraction method and 7.20 g CT/100 g DW based on the thiolysis method. ...
... This has been debated by Priolo et al. (2000Priolo et al. ( , 2002 [94,95], who claimed that the pods have low content of CT, but exceptionally high biological activity. Silanikove et al. (2006) [106] demonstrated that the yield of CT is considerably affected by the extraction method applied (from 5.0 g/100 g DW with acidic methanol to 17.2% with urea-buffer solution), suggesting that carob pods are a rich source of CT. Similarly, Saratsi et al. (2020) [103] reported 5.84 g CT/100 g DW with acetone-HCl/butanol extraction method and 7.20 g CT/100 g DW based on the thiolysis method. ...
Previous studies have illustrated that different bioactive legume fodders containing condensed tannins might represent one of the options for integrated sustainable control of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in ruminants, which may help address the worldwide development of resistance to synthetic anthelmintics. More recently, impetus has been given to assess the potential antiparasitic activity of less conventional resources, represented by different agro-industrial by-products (AIBPs). This review presents in vitro and in vivo results obtained with a range of tannin-containing AIBPs of various geographical and botanical origins, namely AIBP of nuts, temperate and tropical barks, carob, coffee and cocoa. They tend to confirm the “proof of concept” for their antiparasitic effects and also for other aspects of ruminant production in an agro-ecological context. Socio-economic aspects of the exploitation of such non-conventional resources are also discussed as potential models of the circular economy, by using waste. The different modes of use of these resources are presented in this review, as well as strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analyses to illustrate the advantages and limitations of on-farm use.
... There were no significant differences among the treated groups with regard to feed intake. The carob byproduct contains high levels of tannins (Alumot et al., 2006;Karabulut et al., 2006), which can reduce feed intake and body weight of goat kid (Silanikove et al., 2006). The sweet taste of the CB (Silanikove et al., 2006;Kotrotsios et al., 2010). ...
... The carob byproduct contains high levels of tannins (Alumot et al., 2006;Karabulut et al., 2006), which can reduce feed intake and body weight of goat kid (Silanikove et al., 2006). The sweet taste of the CB (Silanikove et al., 2006;Kotrotsios et al., 2010). In the current experiment, quail fed supplemented diets consumed more feed than the control group and this increased feed intake may have been a result of the sweet taste of the CB supplement (Table 3). ...
... The pulp of the CB also contains significant amount of tannin. The tannins in CB have a detrimental effect on the growth of goat kid; however, they have triglycerides and a cholesterollowering effect in blood (Silanikove et al., 2006). Yıldırım and Kaya (2011) determined that supplementation of 0, 5, 10, and 20% CB decreased body weight gain, but increased feed intake and feed conversion ratio of broilers. ...
This study was carried out to determine the effects of a carob (Ceratonia siliqua) byproduct (CB) supplement in diets for laying Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) on performance and egg internal-external quality traits, fatty acid profile, and cholesterol content. A total of 225 female quail at 12 weeks of age were distributed into five treatment groups with three replications (15 birds in each replication). The following treatments were tested: 0% (control, no CB supplementation); 3% CB; 5% CB; 10% CB; and 15% CB in the diets. Feed and water were provided ad libitum to quail. The lighting program was 16 h light and 8 h dark. The experiment lasted 60 days. Treatments had no significant effects on final weight, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, egg production, and mortality. The external egg quality characteristics, shape index, shell weight, shell thickness, albumen index, yolk index, yolk weight, yolk fat, yolk color, yolk cholesterol, stearic acid, oleic acid, and heptadecanoic acid concentrations were not significantly influenced by CB supplementation to quail diets. Haugh unit, egg yolk total saturated fatty acids, total mono or polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid, gamma linolenic acid, palmitic, and palmitoleic acid contents were significantly influenced by the treatments. Carob byproduct can be used up to 15% in laying quail diets without any negative effects on performance, mortality, or internal egg quality traits.
... There were no significant differences among the treated groups with regard to feed intake. The carob byproduct contains high levels of tannins (Alumot et al., 2006;Karabulut et al., 2006), which can reduce feed intake and body weight of goat kid (Silanikove et al., 2006). The sweet taste of the CB (Silanikove et al., 2006;Kotrotsios et al., 2010). ...
... The carob byproduct contains high levels of tannins (Alumot et al., 2006;Karabulut et al., 2006), which can reduce feed intake and body weight of goat kid (Silanikove et al., 2006). The sweet taste of the CB (Silanikove et al., 2006;Kotrotsios et al., 2010). In the current experiment, quail fed supplemented diets consumed more feed than the control group and this increased feed intake may have been a result of the sweet taste of the CB supplement (Table 3). ...
... The pulp of the CB also contains significant amount of tannin. The tannins in CB have a detrimental effect on the growth of goat kid; however, they have triglycerides and a cholesterollowering effect in blood (Silanikove et al., 2006). Yıldırım and Kaya (2011) determined that supplementation of 0, 5, 10, and 20% CB decreased body weight gain, but increased feed intake and feed conversion ratio of broilers. ...
The objective of this study was to examine the utilization of sunflower acid oil in the broiler diets. The sunflower acid oil was used at five different levels; 0% (control), 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% in the broiler diets. The experiment was conducted as completely randomized design. In the study, some carcass characteristics and blood parameters were investigated. Total live weight gain, feed consumption and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were found not to be significantly (P>0.05) different compared to control. The carcass weight and carcass yield were affected significantly (P<0.05) by sunflower acid oil. Carcass water ratio and crude protein measurement were found to be significant (P<0.01), crude fat, abdominal fat and the ash of the carcass were not significant (P>0.05). Plasma glucose levels found to be also statistically significant (P<0.05), but not plasma total protein and plasma total lipoprotein (P>0.05) compared to control. In this study, the sunflower acid oil used in ratios of up to 8% did not cause any negativity in the broiler chicks.
Key words: Sunflower acid oil, Broiler, Diet, Performance, Carcass and Plasma parameters.
... verified 24 November 2014). Carob pulp presents a high sugar content [~44% of the dry matter (DM); Calixto and Cañellas 1982; Marakis et al. 1997], a low protein content (3–5% DM; Avallone et al. 1997; Marakis et al. 1997) and a variable amount of tannins (3–20% DM; Avallone et al. 1997; Priolo et al. 2000; Silanikove et al. 2006). Carob pulp and pods can be potentially used as a source of energy for growing lambs and kids but the low protein content and the presence of tannins could limit their extensive use (Guessous et al. 1989; Karabulut et al. 2006; Silanikove et al. 2006). ...
... Carob pulp presents a high sugar content [~44% of the dry matter (DM); Calixto and Cañellas 1982; Marakis et al. 1997], a low protein content (3–5% DM; Avallone et al. 1997; Marakis et al. 1997) and a variable amount of tannins (3–20% DM; Avallone et al. 1997; Priolo et al. 2000; Silanikove et al. 2006). Carob pulp and pods can be potentially used as a source of energy for growing lambs and kids but the low protein content and the presence of tannins could limit their extensive use (Guessous et al. 1989; Karabulut et al. 2006; Silanikove et al. 2006). Obeidat et al. (2012 reported that the inclusion of carob pods up to 25% in lamb diets did not affect nutrient intake and digestibility in Awassi lambs whereas Priolo et al. (2000) showed that lambs given a diet containing 56% of carob pulp exhibited lower performance with the halving of the feed efficiency index compared with lambs fed with a conventional diet based on cereals. ...
... The above extraction procedure was repeated and the supernatant collected. The residue from the acetone extraction was subjected to a further extraction using a modification of the method described by Silanikove et al. (2006). Briefly, 9 mL of citrate-phosphate buffer containing 0.5 mg/mL of urea (pH 4.7) was added to the residue and samples were incubated at 90 C for 2 h. ...
Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is commonly found in the Mediterranean region and may be used as an alternative feed resource in livestock production. However, carob contains plant secondary compounds, such as polyphenols, which limit its use due to potential toxicity problems. This study aimed to investigate whether the substitution of barley by carob pulp at a relatively high level of up to 35% causes production-level reduction and has detrimental effects on animal welfare. Lamb performance parameters such as feed intake, liveweight and carcass weight were recorded and feeding behaviour was monitored. Blood metabolites and protein profiles were determined to detect signs of metabolic distress. The inclusion of carob pulp resulted in similar level of performance by animals in all the experimental diets. However, the feeding pattern was different with feed intake being significantly lower during the first 90 min post feed supply in the carob-fed lambs compared with the Control animals, although total daily intake was similar. In terms of welfare indicators, the inclusion of carob pulp in the lambs' diet reduced blood cholesterol while increasing both non-esterified fatty acid and urea levels. These indicate that the animals were probably under some form of metabolic stress but not at a level to cause concerns, as confirmed by the similar serum protein profile especially in terms of albumin to globulins ratio.
... The above extraction procedure was repeated. The residue from the acetone extraction was further extracted using a modification of the method described by Silanikove et al. (2006). Briefly, 9 ml of citrate-phosphate buffer containing 0.5 mg/ml of urea (pH 4.7) was added to the residue, and samples were incubated at 90°C for 2 h. ...
... The intramuscular fat content was not affected by the dietary treatment, which could be partially explained considering that the diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous and isoenergetic and that the animal growth performances were unaffected by substituting part of the barley in the diet with up to 35% carob pulp. It has been reported that the inclusion of carob pulp into a concentrate-based diet at higher levels than those used in the present experiment (45-56%) can compromise the growth performances of lambs and kids, resulting in the reduction of the intramuscular fat content (Priolo et al., 2000;Silanikove et al., 2006;Vasta et al., 2007). The intramuscular fatty acid composition was clearly affected by the inclusion of carob in the diet, whereby higher concentrations of PUFA, lower concentrations of SFA and a lower (more beneficial) ratio n-6/n-3 PUFA were found in the muscle from the carob-fed lambs as compared to the Control group. ...
... Considering that in the rumen, the bacteria that convert LA to rumenic acid are also responsible for the further conversion of rumenic acid to vaccenic acid, the second hypothesis appears to be more likely. A possible effect of dietary carob pulp on the ruminal biohydrogenation of PUFA could be justified taking into account that carob has been reported to contain phenolic compounds, including condensed tannins (Vasta, Makkar, Mele, & Priolo, 2009;Vasta et al., 2007;Silanikove et al., 2006), which is in agreement with the fact that, in our study, the content of total phenols and tannins in the diets increased with increasing proportion of carob among the ingredients of the diet. Several results from in vivo and in vitro studies provided evidence of the inhibitory effect of purified tannins and of tannin-rich plant extracts upon the ruminal biohydrogenation, which leads to the accumulation of PUFA in animal tissues (Vasta & Luciano, 2011). ...
... Similarly, Obeidat et al. (2011) found that DM and OM intakes were not affected when fattening Awassi lambs were fed with carob pods at 0, 125, and 250 g/kg levels. In addition, Silanikove et al. (2006) observed that DM intake did not change when carob pods were fed at level of 520 g/kg to growing Anglo-Nubian kids' goats. Benchaar et al. (2008) found no differences in DM intake when lactating dairy cows were supplemented by 150 g/d CT in their lactating diets (equal to 4.5 g/kg in diet). ...
... In the fact, even though there was an increase in CT consumption but still this level did not induce any kind of toxicity. These results are consistent with Silanikove et al. (2006) when Anglo-Nubian kids consumed CT at level of 50 g/d. ...
... Silanikove et al. (1994) observed similar decreases in fiber digestibility in ewes fed carob leaves containing high CT concentrations. Similarly, Silanikove et al. (2006) who found that the digestibility a Diets were (1) no carob pods (CARP0), (2) 200 g/kg carob pods (CARP200), and (3) 400 g/kg carob pods (CARP400). b Body weight change = final weight − initial weight. ...
The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of feeding carob pods (CARP) on performance of nursing Awassi lambs and their lambs. Thirty ewes with their single lambs were assigned randomly into three dietary diets. Diets were 0 (CARP0), 200 (CARP200), and 400 (CARP400) g/kg of dietary dry matter (DM). The study was lasted for 8 weeks (i.e., week used as adaptation followed by 7 weeks used for data collection). Dry matter and organic matter (OM) intake was similar among all animals. However, crude protein (CP) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) intake was lower (P < 0.05) for ewes fed on CARP400 than ewes fed on CARP0, while CARP200 not different from the other two treatments. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) intake decreased (P < 0.05) in the CARP400 diet when compared to CARP0 and CARP200 diets. Condensed tannins intake was the highest (P < 0.01) for the CARP400 diet followed by the CARP200 and CARP0 diets. Digestibility of OM, CP. and ADF was the lowest (P < 0.05) for the CARP400 diet and highest (P < 0.05) for the CARP0 diet, whereas the CARP200 diet was intermediate. Ewes in both diets containing carob pods had lower (P < 0.05) DM digestibility than in ewes fed CARP0 diet. Neutral detergent fiber digestibility was lower (P < 0.05) for the CARP400 diet than the other both diets. At the end of the study, ewes fed the CARP400 diet lost (P < 0.05) more weight when compared to the CARP0 and CARP200 diets. No significant differences were observed in the performance of lambs among all treatment diets. Similarly, milk production and composition not affected by the inclusion of the carob pods. However, ewes fed on carob pods containing diets were more efficient (DM intake: milk production) when compared to the control diet (CARP0). Furthermore, cost of milk production ($/kg milk) was lower (P < 0.05) for the CARP400 and CARP200 diets than for the CARP0 diet. Results indicate that feeding carob pods at higher levels (i.e.. 400 g/kg or above) may impact the performance of nursing Awassi ewes in terms of nutrient intake and digestibility. However, it may benefit the livestock producers because it did not affect the milk production and decreased cost of milk production.
... The response to PEG supply in terms of intake, digestion and production varied with the mode of PEG application. PEG is used as a tannin blocking agent to enhance the intake of tannin rich plants (TRP) and/ or to alleviate the tannin detrimental effects in ruminants (Silanikove et al., 2006). ...
... In general, positive results, with regard to improved intake, were found when tannin content in the diet or plant (as a sole feed) was above 50 g/kg DM (Makkar, 2003) or when a single source of tannins was offered to small ruminants (Silanikove et al., 2006). ...
The study was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary inclusion of leaves of the condensed
tannin-rich trees(Albizia schimperiana (AS)and Ficus ovata (FO)) in grass-based hay with or
without polyethylene glycol (PEG (4000 & 6000)) on nutrient intake and digestibility, weight
change, feed conversion and economic efficiency of 8 intact male Bonga sheep and 8 kaffa
goats( 12+0.46 months old, weighing initially 22.2+2.9 kg and 23.1+1.5kg (mean +SE)
respectively). Experimental animals randomly assigned to 4 dietary treatment groups
sequentially in separate periods. The experiment was arranged with four treatments in a 4 ×
4 randomized crossover design. A 15-day adaptation and 7-day data collection conducted for
each treatment. The dietary treatments consisted of grass based hay alone (=T4, control); AS
(36%) +FO (9%) +control diet (55%)=T3; T3+PEG6000 (=T2); T3 +PEG4000 (=T1). Animals
were individually fed at 50g DM/kg live weight and had free access to clean drinking water
and mineralized salt licks. Nutrient intake and Apparent digestibility coefficients were
determined for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fat (EE) acid detergent fiber
(ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF). Partial budget analysis was conducted after the
end of each period. Condensed tannin contents of AS and FO were 110 and 191 g/kg DM,
respectively. Nutrient intake was higher (P<0.001) in goats than sheep. Sheep and goats in
the control treatment lost BW (2.2 & 2.1 g/day), while in T2 supplemention they gained
37g/day & 41g/dayBW , respectively (p<0.001). The feed DM intake of sheep ranges (625-
960 g/d), goats (631-976 g/d) where as apparent digestibility of sheep (46-65 %), goats(48-
67%) while FCR goats were significantly higher (P<0.01 ) than sheep. The improvement in
nutrient intake, digestibility, weight gain, feed conversion rate and profitability after PEG
supplementation emphasizes the negative effect of CTs on feed utilization. Feeding local grass
hay would be inadequate as the sole source of nutrients for Bonga sheep and Kffa goats. For
each Ethiopian birr invested on test browse feeds with T2, farmers would have to obtain
additional 2.3211 0.42 and 1.7038 0.63 ETB from Kaffa goat and Bonga sheep respectively
.The control treatment resulted in a negative return while high level of tannin source
supplementation with PEG6000 (T2) resulted in the best return (2.32 ETB/Kaffa goat &
1.7ETB/Bonga sheep). 36% AS + 9% FO + PEG6000
Keywords: Albizia
supplementation could maintain the
optimum utilization of the grass based hays for sheep and goats. The overall improvement in
nutrient utilization, weight gain and feed conversion was more pronounced for goats with or
without PEG suggested that goats could be able to utilize tannin rich diets. Bonga sheep
could only be efficiently use mixes of tannin rich diets either as maintenance or production
ration with the presence of tannin binding agents such as PEG.In general Bonga sheep and
Kaffa goats would need to be appropriately supplemented to achieve profitable production.
... It is an evergreen tree that is widespread in the Mediterranean basin. The species is mainly used for animal feeding and pharmaceutical and food industries (Yousif & Alghzawi, 2000;Silanikove et al., 2006). ...
... Carob pods provide two important products: carob kernels from which carob or locust bean gum (LBG) is extracted, and carob kibbles or the remaining pulp obtained after the removal of the kernels. This can be used directly in animal and human nutrition (Mhaisen, 1991;Silanikove et al., 2006) or as a raw material for industrial processing (Carlson, 1986). ...
... Similarly, Gobindram et al. (2016) found that dry matter intake was not significantly affected by the incorporation of 35% of the carob pulp. However, Guessous et al.(1988) and Silanikove et al. (2006) reported that the inclusion of 30% and 50% of carob pulp decreased significantly the dry matter intake. The difference between the results of the different studies could be related to the variation in the diet composition, level ...
... In addition, no effect on lamb performance were registered when treatment diet contained 250g/kg of CP (Awawdeh et al.2019, Obeidat et al.2011 andPriolo et al.1998) and 350g/ kg Gobindram et al.(2016). On the other hand, Guessous et al.(1988) and Silanikove et al.(2006) showed that incorporation of CP at levels 30% and 50%, respectively had a negative effect on lamb growth performances. Similarly, Awawdeh et al. (2019) observed that at the high inclusion level (500g/kg) of CP reduced lamb performances. ...
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of incorporating different levels of carob pulp (CP) on fattening performance, carcass characteristics and meat qualityof the Moroccan sheep breed Deroua. Thirty-six entire maleMoroccan breed Deroua lambs with aninitial body weight of 23.5±3.1 kg and age 120±10 days, were randomly divided into three diet’streatmentsof 12 animals: T0(0%CP), T1(10%CP) and T2(20%CP) containing 0, 10 and 20 % of CP, respectively. The experiment lasted 80 days, including 5 days of adaptation to different diets. Lambs were weighed every 15 days, while feed intake was determineddaily. At the end of the experiment, 27 lambs (9per treatment) were slaughtered to determinecarcass characteristics and meat quality. Final body weight and average daily gain (P<0.05) were affected by treatment diet. The inclusion of 10% CP led to a decrease in feed conversion ratio and feeding costs. Carcass characteristics were not affected by diets (P>0.05),except, in case of mesenteric fat (P<0.05) with superiority recorded in treatment diet T1(10%CP). Meat quality parameters were not affected by diets. The meat of lambs feddiets T1 and T2 tended to be lighter in color and less red than those fed diet T0. The results of this work showed that carob pulp can be used as an alternative feedstuff from fattening lambs to reduce feeding costs without affecting fattening performance.
... Similarly to our results (1 and 2), Tufarelli et al. [32] did not find any differences in intake of DM and CP when lambs were fed diets with different levels of partly destoned exhausted OC (0, 100, or 200 g/kg DM). Furthermore, Silanikove et al. [33] observed no change in DM intake when feeding 520 g/kg DM CARP to Anglo-Nubian goats, and Benchaar et al. [34] reported similar DM intake when supplementing dairy cows with 150 g CT/kg. Reed [35] and Silanikove et al. [36], however, reported that feed intake decreased due to the high levels of CT present in the CARP reducing palatability. ...
... Similarly, Benchaar et al. [34] found that a diet supplemented with 150 g/kg CT produced no differences in apparent DM, OM, CP, NDF, and ADF digestibility. Silanikove et al. [33] and Obeidat et al. [8], however, found that CARP had an adverse effect on DM digestibility and the digestibility of other nutrients compared to a control diet. These effects could be attributed to the high CT levels in CARP, which can diminish proteolysis rate, restraining the development of rumen proteolytic microorganisms and reducing the digestibility of nutrients, especially CP. ...
Two experiments were done to assess the effects of alternative feeds (AF; dried distillers grains with solubles, carob pods, olive cake, and bread by-product) on lactating performance of ewes and digestibility and nitrogen (N) retention of lambs. Diets were: no AF (CON); 200 g/kg AF (AF200); and 400 g/kg AF (AF400). In Experiment 1, 27 Awassi ewes were randomly distributed into three groups, and each was fed one of the diets described before (9 ewes/diet). Evaluation of milk composition and yield was performed at the beginning of the experiment and on days 18, 36, and 54. In Experiment 2, 18 Awassi lambs were allocated to the same diets (6 ewe lambs/diet) during a 21-day trial (14 days housed individually in shaded pens and 7 days in metabolic cages). In Experiment 1, no differences in body weight (BW) of the ewes and their lambs were detected. With the exception of neutral detergent fiber intake, which was lower in the AF-containing diets compared with CON, dry matter, crude protein, and acid detergent fiber intake were not affected by dietary treatment. Milk yield and composition was comparable among diets, and the cost of milk production was lower in AF compared to CON diet. In Experiment 2, nutrient digestibility and N retention were not affected by the diet. Results showed the possibility of including different AF in ewe and lamb diets to mitigate production cost without negatively affecting intake, milk yield, and composition, digestibility, and animal welfare and health.
... In general, polyphenols were reported to have preventive roles against the harmful effects of stress-related diseases (Weinreb et al. 2004). Ceratonia siliqua L. (Fabaceae), which is widely grown in Jordan, is a large perennial slow-growing evergreen tree (Shawakfeh 2005;Silanikove et al. 2006). The bean like fruit (pods) of carob, composed of sweet edible pulp and seeds (Abu Hafsa et al. 2017;Rtibi et al. 2017), is also known as Balgarroba,^Blocust bean,^and BSt. ...
... The methanolic extract of the plant showed high values of total phenolic content with high antioxidant activity (Alali et al. 2007). The chemical constituents of carob pods include low-molecular-weight carbohydrates, protein and lipids, a trace amount of theophylline, dietary fiber and polyphenols, especially highly condensed tannins, some hydrolysable tannins represented by ellagitannins and gallotannins, and different forms of gallic acid, in addition to flavonoids such as quercetin and myricetin (Silanikove et al. 2006;Biner et al. 2007;Bengoechea et al. 2008;Klenow et al. 2008). In this study, the methanolic extract of the pods of carob was tested for prevention of stress-induced impairment of hippocampal memory. ...
Long-term exposure to stressful conditions could impair the normal brain structure and function, specifically the hippocampus-dependent memory. This impairment could be attributed to a decrease in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels during chronic stress. Knowing that carob [Ceratonia siliqua L. (Fabaceae)] is rich in a wide variety of polyphenols with a high antioxidant value, we hypothesized that the methanolic carob extract (C. siliqua) pods will prevent stress-induced memory impairment. Hence, the methanolic extract of carob pods was investigated for its ability to enhance learning and memory as well as to protect from memory impairment in normal stressed animals. Rats were chronically stressed for 7 weeks via the intruder stress model. Carob extract was administered to animals via intraperitoneal (i.p.) route at a daily dose of 50 mg/kg. Radial arm water maze (RAWM) was utilized to test for spatial learning and memory. In addition, brain tissues were dissected to determine BDNF levels. Chronic stress (CS) impaired short-term spatial memory (number of committed errors: P < 0.05, days to criterion (DTC): P < 0.001). Animal treatment with carob pod extract prevented the short-term memory impairment induced by CS (P < 0.05), while such treatment showed no effect on memory functions of unstressed rats. Moreover, carob pod extract prevented the reduction in the hippocampal BDNF (P < 0.05) induced by chronic stress exposure. In conclusion, CS impaired short-term memory function, while methanolic extract of carob pods prevented this impairment, probably as a result of preventing reduction in BDNF levels in the hippocampus.
... Animals do not like to eat tannin-rich feed, they lose live weight and productivity [14,15]. In non-ruminants, tannins reduce absorption of essential amino acids (especially methionine), lipids in intestines and reduce body weight gain [14,16,17]. The reduction of tannins with polyethylene glycol (PEG) in animals' feedstuff improves the growth of lambs, piglets and kids, thus improving the quality of lambs' meat [17]. ...
... In non-ruminants, tannins reduce absorption of essential amino acids (especially methionine), lipids in intestines and reduce body weight gain [14,16,17]. The reduction of tannins with polyethylene glycol (PEG) in animals' feedstuff improves the growth of lambs, piglets and kids, thus improving the quality of lambs' meat [17]. ...
... It is an evergreen tree that is widespread in the Mediterranean basin. The species is mainly used for animal feeding and pharmaceutical and food industries (Yousif & Alghzawi, 2000;Silanikove et al., 2006). ...
... Carob pods provide two important products: carob kernels from which carob or locust bean gum (LBG) is extracted, and carob kibbles or the remaining pulp obtained after the removal of the kernels. This can be used directly in animal and human nutrition (Mhaisen, 1991;Silanikove et al., 2006) or as a raw material for industrial processing (Carlson, 1986). ...
... Mediterranean conditions [36] provide an excellent environment for wild and cultivated trees [1,41]. These trees serve as shelter and food to many species of animals which feed on its nectar, pollen, leaves and fruits [34,28]. The value of the carob tree has increased as a result of its multipurpose use such as Arabic confectionery and drinks, animal feed and human food, microbial protein and as a raw material for industrial processing [39,34,28]. ...
... These trees serve as shelter and food to many species of animals which feed on its nectar, pollen, leaves and fruits [34,28]. The value of the carob tree has increased as a result of its multipurpose use such as Arabic confectionery and drinks, animal feed and human food, microbial protein and as a raw material for industrial processing [39,34,28]. ...
Yield instability is a common problem in Ceratonia Siliqua grown in Jordan. This study was conducted to evaluate the responsibility of the plant itself on pollination failure and to assess the compatibility of hermaphrodite flowers. Flowers of Ceratonia Siliqua were subjected to three flower removal treatments: 1) Removal of late flowers and 2) Removal of late and intermediate flowers and 3) Non-removed flowers (control). To assess self-compatibility of Ceratonia Siliqua pollen grains; self, cross and geitonogamy pollination treatments were conducted on Ceratonia Siliqua trees producing hermaphrodite flowers. Results of non-removal treatment indicated that the average number of matured pods of late flowers was significantly higher than that of center and base flowers. The removal of the apical flowers significantly improved the fruit set of both the intermediate and late flowers. Removal of the late flowers (Remove of the apex) did not significantly increase in both pod length, weight but increased the average seed number per pod. Removal of the late and intermediate flowers significantly increased 10 seeds weight and improved seed germination percentage. Hermaphrodite trees showed a complete self-compatible. There were no significant differences in average number of matured pods between bagged self-pollinated flowers, cross pollinated flowers, Geitonogamy and open pollinated hermaphrodite flowers. Cross and open pollinated flowers produced significantly higher pod length, weight, seed number per pod and seed germination rate.
... These were classified on the 7-point hedonic scale between 'indifferent' and 'liked moderately'. Regarding color, the formulation with 100% carob flour (T 4 ) had the lowest acceptability (3.37), a factor that may have been associated with the dark color caused by the carob flour (Silanikove et al., 2006). Regarding odor, the results obtained in the sensory analysis showed that, in general, all the formulations received scores between 4.47 and 5.00 and did not differ significantly from each other; with the exception of the formulation with 100% carob flour (T 4 ), which received a score of 3.52 that classified it between 'disliked' and 'indifferent'. ...
... According to Silva (2011), when wishing to fully replace cocoa powder by carob flour, as was the case of this formulation, it is possible to use cocoa flavoring to improve the taste of the product. According to Silanikove et al. (2006), carob is rich in condensed tannins, which, when used in excess, tends to give an astringent aftertaste to products. ...
This study evaluated the effect of replacing cocoa powder by carob flour in gluten-free cakes. Five cake formulations were prepared: standard (100% cocoa powder); T1 (25% carob flour), T2 (50% carob flour), T3 (75% carob flour) and T4 (100% carob flour). The following were analyzed: moisture, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, dietary fiber, ash and energy. The physical analysis of height and weight, pre-and post-cooking, and the heat factor were performed. The sensory analysis of color, odor, taste and texture was performed by affective test, and color was assessed using a Minolta colorimeter. The replacement of cocoa powder by carob flour gave the cakes a higher level of dietary fiber (16.42 the 2.89 g%), a lower lipid (6.89 the 5.27 g%) and carbohydrate content (20.65 the 8.42 g%), and lower calorie content (208.89 the 148.07 kcal%). The cake made with 100% carob flour was darker in color than the others. The increasing substitution of cocoa powder by carob flour resulted in decreased cohesiveness (0.51 the 0.46), elasticity (0.95 the 0.79) and resilience in the cakes (0.26 the 0.24). The cakes with greater substitution of cocoa powder were heavier in weight. With respect to sensory attributes, the cakes with replacement of up to 75% of cocoa powder by carob flour showed no significant difference. The results indicate that it is possible to prepare gluten-free cakes from soy and banana flours, using carob flour to replace cocoa powder, which are rich in protein, fiber, low in calories and with pleasant sensory characteristics for people with celiac disease.
... Feeding a CT-containing diet decreased ruminal NH 3 -N and PUN concentrations in Angora does (Puchala et al. 2005). In kids fed with carob pod, PEG supplementation increased ruminal NH 3 -N, but had no effect on PUN concentration (Silanikove et al. 2006). Similar PUN concentration in −PEG and +PEG groups may not essentially indicate no effect of CT on ruminal protein degradability and NH 3 -N concentration; however, these parameters were not determined in our study. ...
... Plasma concentration of glucose was not affected by dietary treatments in the present study, but there was a tendency for plasma concentration of cholesterol to be lower in lambs receiving diets without PEG. Silanikove et al. (2006) suggested that non-extractable carob pods CT had a lipidbinding capacity and may induce hypocholesterolemia in animals fed high level of carob pods. ...
The protein-sparing effect of condensed tannins (CT) was investigated in growing lambs fed a low- or high-protein diet during a 50-day period. Isocaloric diets containing 106 g crude protein/kg dry matter (DM) (low protein; LP) or 138 g crude protein/kg DM (high protein; HP) were formulated using 70 % concentrate, 15 % corn silage, and 15 % dried licorice leaves, providing CT (4.1 g/kg DM). Twenty-four crossbred male lambs (3-4 months old, 23.9 ± 5.2 kg body weight) were assigned to one of four diets: LP with polyethylene glycol (PEG; 40 g/kg DM) supplementation (LP + PEG), LP without PEG supplementation (LP - PEG), HP with PEG supplementation (HP + PEG), and HP without PEG supplementation (HP - PEG). The effect of dietary crude protein level and CT on feed intake was not significant (P > 0.05). However, a positive effect on daily gain (P < 0.001) and feed conversion ratio (FCR; P < 0.01) was observed in lambs fed with HP diets. An interaction effect between crude protein level and PEG was observed, and consequently, FCR was higher in group LP + PEG (10.1; P < 0.05) than in groups LP - PEG (7.3), HP + PEG (5.3), or HP - PEG (5.4). There was also an interaction effect between crude protein level and PEG on kidney, pelvic, and heart fat, presenting a higher relative weight in group LP + PEG (12.6 g/kg) than in group HP + PEG (9.2 g/kg; P < 0.05), but no (P > 0.05) in groups without PEG supplementation. These preliminary results suggest that the use of CT can minimize the negative effect of low-protein diets on FCR in lambs.
... Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a tree native to the Mediterranean region that promotes the circular economy, as Spain is one of the main world producers (Pelegrin-Valls et al., 2022a). The pulp of the carob fruit, which is considered an agrifood waste, has been used specially in ruminant diets as a source of CT (Silanikove et al., 2006). Carob CT are predominantly prodelphinidins (96.7% prodelphinidins/3.3% ...
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of dietary carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) pulp and warm season on gastrointestinal morphological parameters, immune-redox defences and coccidiosis in concentrate-fed light lambs. Weaned lambs were assigned to one of three concentrate-based diets: C0 (without carob pulp), C15 (150 g/kg of carob pulp) and C30 (300 g/kg of carob pulp) from 40 to 80 days of age in two consecutive cold and warm batches. Blood samples were collected at Day 80 to determine the metabolic status. Rectal faeces were sampled at Days 50, 65 and 80 to determine consistency and oocyst count per gram. Inclusion of carob pulp in lamb diets did not affect lamb growth but reduced coccidia oocyst excretion, improved faecal consistency and gastrointestinal morphological parameters, enhancing the ruminal thickness of the papilla living strata and reducing the darkness of the epithelium colour. Moreover, carob condensed tannins in the lambs' diet enhanced the expression of antioxidant SOD2 in rumen, while down-regulated NRF2, SOD1, CAT and PPARG in ileum. There was no interaction between the treatments and season in the evaluated variables. Lambs from the warm season exhibited reduced growth performance, altered ruminal epithelium, lower circulating iron levels, increased protein concentrations and higher coccidiosis susceptibility. In addition, regulatory immune and antioxidant mechanisms to counterbalance reactive oxygen species production in gastrointestinal tissues were evident. Dietary inclusion of carob pulp (150 and 300 g/kg) in lamb diets improved gastrointestinal health and homeostasis but did not ameliorate the deleterious effects of warm season.
... The present results showed the effective role of carob as a lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels. What explains this is that carob contains a large amount of tannin, which is characterized by its effective seed and its effect as a lowering of both triglycerides and cholesterol-lowering effect [10]. ...
The current study was aimed to determining the effects of carob and vitamin E on liver functions and lipid profile in white rabbits. 20 male rabbits were used in this work, (age 5-6 month) get from local market in Kirkuk city. The rabbits were divided to the following groups (each group was content 5 male): Control group received standard diet, extract group that administrated (orally) with root extract 200mg/kg., extract group that administrated with root extract 400mg/kg., Vit. E group that administrated with vit. E 400mg/kg. Blood was drawn (cardiac puncture) monthly from each group for the duration of the study, which lasted for 5 months. the results showed significant (P<0.05) decreased in the lipid profile parameters (total cholesterol, triglyceride and HDL) especially in the third month after administration of 400mg/kg carob extract group. Also, the results of current study showed significant (P<0.05) decreased in the levels of liver enzymes especially in the third month after administration of 400mg/kg carob extract group. Therefore, it is concluded from the current study that carob play important as hypolipidermic effect and supports the functional aspect liver.
... The present results showed the effective role of carob as a lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels. What explains this is that carob contains a large amount of tannin, which is characterized by its effective seed and its effect as a lowering of both triglycerides and cholesterol-lowering effect [10]. ...
The current study was aimed to determining the effects of carob and vitamin E on liver functions and lipid profile in white rabbits. 20 male rabbits were used in this work, (age 5-6 month) get from local market in Kirkuk city. The rabbits were divided to the following groups (each group was content 5 male): Control group received standard diet, extract group that administrated (orally) with root extract 200mg/kg., extract group that administrated with root extract 400mg/kg., Vit. E group that administrated with vit. E 400mg/kg. Blood was drawn (cardiac puncture) monthly from each group for the duration of the study, which lasted for 5 months. the results showed significant (P<0.05) decreased in the lipid profile parameters (total cholesterol, triglyceride and HDL) especially in the third month after administration of 400mg/kg carob extract group. Also, the results of current study showed significant (P<0.05) decreased in the levels of liver enzymes especially in the third month after administration of 400mg/kg carob extract group. Therefore, it is concluded from the current study that carob play important as hypolipidermic effect and supports the functional aspect liver.
... The less increase in body weight of the high dose treated animals might be as a result of the presence of tannin, a phytochemical which is present in P. biglobosa [10,11] . According to a report by Silanikove and Serge [12] on the effect of Tannin on Feed Intake, Body Weight Gain and Health of Goats, high tannins concentration reduces voluntary feed intake and nutrient digestability. Tannins reduce body weight gain because of reduction in protein digestibility. ...
Background: Parkia biglobosa belongs to the plant family Fabaceae and is popularly known as the African locust bean tree is gotten from medium-sized, tree high (20-20 cm), whose leaves are edible and are used in many African local dishes. The phytochemical screening of the methanolic extracts of P. biglobosa revealed the presence of saponins, tannins, terpenes, and phenols, reducing sugars, sterols, flavonoids. Methods: 21 adult Wistar rats (100-120 g) were distributed into 3 groups (A, B and C) consisting of 7 in each. Group B and C were administered orally with aqueous seed extract of P. biglobosa at a dose of 300 mg/kgB wt and 500 mg/kg B wt, respectively for 30 days. Group A was normal control and received 300 mg/kgB wt of normal saline. After 30 days, the weights were recorded and the animals were sacrificed using cervical dislocation. The changes in body weight, liver histology and enzymes were evaluated. Results: This study shows a significant difference (p<0.01) in the body weight gain between animals in the low, high and control groups respectively. Photomicrograph of the liver tissue from animals in low dose reveals a liver cytoarchitecture with mildly dilated sinusoids, while the liver tissue from animals high dose group revealed a portal tract with dilated sinusoids. Results from histochemical observation of the liver of the control group showed marked periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) staining on predominant hepatocytes but little or no staining of cytoplasm, the low dose reveals a mild PAS staining while that of high dose shows moderate staining on tissue degeneration. Serum chemistry revealed a significant increase (p<0.05) AST and ALT in the test groups when compared to control group. Conclusion: Results from this study shows that the aqueous extract of P. biglobosa at a dose of 500 mg/kgB wt over 30 days may have adversely affected the morphology of the liver with the increase in serum levels.
... The crude ethanol extract showed higher anti-cholesterol activity compared to fractions and also had the highest total phenolic and flavonoid contents compared to other fractions. Flavonoids reduce cholesterol levels by reducing LDL [16,17]. Flavonoids also play a role in reducing triglycerides and increasing HDL. ...
Flacourtia rukam belongs to family Salicaceae and Indonesia is known as rukem. F. rukam is popular among people especially Musi Banyuas in South Sumatera, Indonesia for the treatment of hypertensive. Investigated effect anti-cholesterol and anti-hypertensive activity from extracts the stem bark of F. rukam have been done. The anti-cholesterol activity was measured by the photometric method by reaction cholesterol with Liebermann-Burchard reagent and anti-hypertensive activity using Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitory method. The crude ethanol extract showed the highest anti-cholesterol activity compared to the fractions with IC 50 value of 157.88 mg/L. Crude ethanol extract also contained the highest phenolic and flavonoid content compared to fractions. The anti-cholesterol activity of extracts is equivalent to the total phenolic and flavonoid contained. In an anti-hypertensive activity study, the crude ethanol extracts exhibited the percentage of ACE inhibitory activity with IC 50 119.82 mg/L. The results indicated that the stem bark of F. rukam might reduce or control the cholesterol levels and blood pressure. Anti-cholesterol and anti-hypertensive activity the stem bark of F. rukam is higher in extract form compared to fractions (synergistic).
... In terms of color, the control sample and formulations prepared with 20% carob powder illustrated the highest mean scores. The formulation with 100% carob powder recorded the lowest acceptability, an element that may have been related with the dark color caused by the carob powder (Silanikove et al. 2006). ...
In the current research, the possibility of using carob powder as a substitute for cocoa powder in milk and dark compound chocolates was investigated. Five chocolate samples containing carob powder (20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%) along with control were produced and the physico-chemical analyzes were measured. Chocolate samples were assessed for sensory acceptance by a hedonic scale. The outcomes indicated that chocolate formulations with lower content of carob powder presented higher quality in terms of color parameters, mean particle size and hardness (values close to control). The addition of carob powder resulted in decreased yield stress in dark chocolates. Also dark chocolate formulations containing high levels of carob powder recorded Casson viscosity values similar to control. Moreover, the milk chocolates containing 40% carob powder illustrated no significant differences in sensory properties with control. However acceptance of the dark chocolate samples was similar to control in all attributes. The results proved that it is possible to utilize carob powder to replace cocoa powder in chocolate production in order to improve nutritional values (higher fiber and fewer calories) with agreeable sensory attributes.
... Carob flour may substitute up to 30% of the cocoa powder in biscuits without appreciable change in flavour (Manley, 2000). Similar to cocoa, carob flour contains various phytochemicals but is also rich in condensed tannins which tend to give an astringent aftertaste to products (Loullis and Pinakoulaki, 2018;Silanikove et al., 2006). Thus, finding a cocoa substitute with better sensory characteristics is needed. ...
By-products of fruit processing, such as grapes and aronia pomace, are rich in fibre and polyphenols, and their application in bakery products could significantly improve nutritional value, bioactive potential and shelf life of final product. This research aimed at optimising wholemeal biscuit formulation with grape and aronia pomaces as partial substitutes for cocoa powder, using the desirability function. Ten formulations with the mixture of cocoa powder, grape and aronia pomace powders in different ratios (0-100%) were tested. The physical properties (texture, colour, thickness, diameter, spread factor), the sensory acceptability of biscuits, and microbiological safety were investigated. The interaction of all three mixture components significantly affected the instrumentally measured redness a* and liking of texture. Biscuit diameter, yellowness b*, and liking of flavour were affected by the interaction of aronia and grape pomace. Biscuit height, spread ratio, hardness, flexibility, toughness, appearance, and odour were not significantly influenced by the mixture composition. The optimized mixture composition contained cocoa, grape pomace, and aronia pomace in the ratio 76.4 : 17.5 : 6.1 (respectively), with the desirability of 0.78. After confirmation, biscuits with that mixture were proven better than the control, that contained 100% cocoa, in terms of decreased hardness (-23%) and toughness (-19%), having the same sensory acceptability, and were microbiologically safe for 5 months. The findings of this study indicate that aronia and grape pomace could be used as partial substitutes for cocoa powder up to 24.3% in the production of wholemeal biscuits.
... This has been debated by Priolo et al. (2000Priolo et al. ( , 2002 who claimed that the pods have low content of CTs, but with exceptionally high biological activity. Silanikove et al. (2006) have demonstrated that the yield of CTs is considerably affected by the extraction method applied (from 5.0 % with acidic methanol to 17.2 % with urea-buffer solution), suggesting that carob pods are a rich source of CTs. The high CT concentration in by-products from carob pod processing justifies researching its value as a feed additive with possible effect against GIN species. ...
The present study explored the anthelmintic effects of condensed tannins (CT) in carob (Ceratonia siliqua) pods fed to sheep against gastrointestinal nematodes. Three independent in vivo trials tested whether i) carob pod (CaBP)-containing feed had an anthelmintic effect and if yes, which was the optimal concentration in the diet; ii) whether this effect could be attributed to tannins through the polyethylene glycol (PEG) test and iii) whether there were any synergistic effects when combined with another tannin-containing feed (e.g. sainfoin). In all trials 6-month old nematode-naive lambs, experimentally infected with both Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis, were used. Faecal egg counts (FEC) were performed regularly and at the end of each trial adult worm counts (AWC) and female worm fecundity were recorded. In trial 1, 35 lambs (five groups of seven lambs) were fed different CaBP concentrations ranging from 0% to 12% w/w. FEC declined up to 39.2% only in the group fed with 12%CaBP, while a declining trend (P < 0.06) was demonstrated for the AWC of T. colubriformis, which was associated with the increasing concentration of CaBP in feed. Female worm fecundity was reduced in groups fed CaBP for both parasites, however this was only significant for H. contortus (P < 0.001), in a dose dependent manner. In trial 2, four groups of six infected lambs each were used, which received the carob diets CaBP or CaBP + PEG, and the tannin-free diets with or without PEG (C or C + PEG). Results showed that FEC of Groups C, C + PEG, and CaBP + PEG were comparable throughout the trial, while the group receiving only CaBP showed lower FEC from DAY 25 onwards. AWC showed a reduction (67.7%) only for H. contortus (P < 0.03). Reversal of the anthelmintic effect of CaBP after PEG administration suggested that CT contributed to the anthelmintic action. However, no effect of CaBP was observed on T. colubriformis AWC and on female worm fecundity for both species. Finally, for trial 3 four groups of six lambs each received a diet based on CaBP, sainfoin (S) or a combination (CaBP + S) and were compared to a control (C) diet of lucerne. On DAY 37 FEC values in groups CaBP + S and S tended to be lower compared to the two other groups (C, CaBP), while for AWCs no significant differences were observed for both parasites. The fecundity of H. contortus and T. colubriformis demonstrated significant differences between the treated and control groups, with lower values in the animals receiving CaBP + S. Overall, the results supported the hypothesis that carob had an anthelmintic effect due to its CT, but there was no clear indication of a synergistic effect with sainfoin.
... The decrease of VFA concentration in vivo when TRP were included in the diet is the general trend , with a quebracho tannin supplement), with no changes in the molar ratios of acetate, propionate, and butyrate (Waghorn and Shelton, 1997). Other in vivo studies with sheep and goats (Silanikove et al., 2006) reported that CT did not affect the VFA concentration in the rumen compared to animals receiving the same diets but supplemented with polyethylene glycol. Carulla et al. (2005) observed no change in total VFA concentration in sheep supplemented with Acacia mearnsii extract, but molar proportion of acetate decreased and that of propionate increased in sheep fed diets supplemented with CT, in line with a decrease in CH 4 . ...
En zone tropicale, la production de lait et de viande par les ruminants est limitée par une faible disponibilité et une qualité médiocre des fourrages. A ces contraintes alimentaires s’ajoute l’impact environnemental lié en particulier aux émissions de méthane entérique par les ruminants. L’objectif de cette thèse était de comparer la production de méthane en milieu tempéré et en milieu tropical, puis de valoriser des fourrages tropicaux connus pour leur richesse en tanins dont les propriétés anti-méthanogènes sont reconnues, et qui peuvent réduire l’impact environnemental sans compromettre la productivité animale. Cette thèse comporte trois expérimentations distinctes. La première consistait en une étude in vivo visant à déterminer si les différences de digestibilité, de production de méthane, de fermentation et d’écosystème microbien du rumen observées entre les zones tempérées et tropicales proviennent de l’environnement (site d’expérimentation en milieu tempéré ou tropical), du fourrage (produit en zone tempérée ou tropicale), ou du génotype ovin (race de zone tempérée ou tropicale). Les résultats ont montré que les différences sont liées en priorité à la nature du fourrage, et sont influencées par les interactions entre génotype, caractéristiques du fourrage et environnement. La seconde expérience consistait à étudier l’effet de plantes riches en tanins condensés (feuilles de Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Manihot esculenta) sur la production de méthane, l’ingestion et la digestibilité de la ration, les fermentations et l’écosystème microbien du rumen. Un essai in vivo a montré que l’incorporation de ces plantes à raison de 40% du régime d’ovins sous forme de granulés permettait de réduire le méthane entérique sans effets indésirables sur la digestibilité et la fermentation ruminale. Un essai in vitro a montré que le principal facteur de la réponse a été la dose de tanins condensés plutôt que la source. La troisième expérience consistait en l’étude in situ et in vitro du pouvoir anti-méthanogène et de la dégradation dans le rumen de plantes riches en tanins hydrolysables (feuilles et gousses d’Acacia nilotica) ou en tanins condensés (feuilles de Calliandra calothyrsus, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Manihot esculenta, Musa spp). Les résultats obtenus suggèrent que les tanins hydrolysables conviennent mieux à la réduction des émissions de méthane que les tanins condensés car ils inhibent fortement la production de méthane sans effets négatifs marqués sur la fermentation ruminale. Les effets des tanins sur la production de méthane et la fermentation dans le rumen ont été en partie expliqués par le devenir des différentes fractions des tanins (libres, associés aux protéines ou aux fibres) dans le rumen. L’association de plantes riches en tanins hydrolysables et en tanins condensés ne parvient pas à dégager de possibles synergies entre ces de types de molécules. Ce travail a permis de montrer qu’il était possible de réduire les émissions de méthane entérique par les ruminants en milieu tropical par la consommation de fourrages riches en tanins hydrolysables sans compromettre les processus digestifs dans le rumen ; la diminution de la méthanogenèse avec les tanins condensés présente plus de risque de réduire les fermentations.
... However, high tannin contents in nutritionally important forage trees, shrubs, legumes, cereals and grains often limit their utilization as feedstuffs (Kumar and Vaithiyanathan, 1990). The high levels of condensed tannins in the three mentioned substrate are consistent with other studies pointed out in the literature (Priolo et al., 2005;Silanikove et al., 2006;Kamalak et al., 2012). According to Mc Sweeny et al. (2001), condensed tannins reduce cell-wall digestibility by binding bacterial enzymes and (or) forming indigestible complexes with cell-wall polysaccharides. ...
The chemical composition and digestibility of twelve plant samples (Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Atriplex canescens, Artemesia herba-alba, Astragalus gombo, Calobota saharae Ceratonia siliqua, Gleditsia triacanthos, Hedysarum coronarium, Medicago sativa, Ononis natrix L, Hordeum vulgare and Stipa tenacissima L.) grown in arid and semi-arid areas of Algeria were evaluated (in 2010). Feed components were determined by proximate analysis whereas phenolic and tannin compounds were analyzed by colorimetric procedures. Digestibility was assessed by conventional gravimetric in vitro and in situ methods. In general, crude protein content in dicotyledon (dicots) species was always greater than that in monocotyledon (monocots) grass showing higher Neutral and Acid Detergent Fiber (NDF and ADF) and lower lignin contents than dicots. The tannin concentration varied considerably between species, but in general, the plants investigated in this study had low tannin contents (except for Ceratonia siliqua, Gleditsia triacanthos and Hedysarum coronarium). Monocots showed lower in vitro and in situ, fermentation rate and cumulative gas production than dicots species. This study indicated that a large reserve of plant species in the local flora is available that could be potentially used for livestock feeding. These feeds, if fully exploited, could assist in increasing the level of production and productivity of the livestock resources in the region.
... The effect of tannins from CT on ruminal fermentation was investigated in vivo (8) , showing that a diet based on CT leaves (tannins 50 g/kg DM) decreased the VFA production and impaired ruminal metabolism in goats. Subsequent in vivo studies on sheep (38) and goats (39) reported that tannins from CT pods or leaves did not affect the VFA production in the rumen compared with animals receiving the same diets but supplemented with PEG. The branched-chain iso-and anteiso-fatty acids and oddchain fatty acids arise from a peculiar metabolism of ruminal bacteria (for a review, see Vlaeminck et al. (37) ). ...
The aim of the present work was to study the effects of tannins from carob (CT; Ceratonia siliqua), acacia leaves (AT; Acacia cyanophylla) and quebracho (QT; Schinopsis lorentzii) on ruminal biohydrogenation in vitro. The tannins extracted from CT, AT and QT were incubated for 12 h in glass syringes in cow buffered ruminal fluid (BRF) with hay or hay plus concentrate as a substrate. Within each feed, three concentrations of tannins were used (0.0, 0.6 and 1.0 mg/ml BRF). The branched-chain volatile fatty acids, the branched-chain fatty acids and the microbial protein concentration were reduced (P < 0.05) by tannins. In the tannin-containing fermenters, vaccenic acid was accumulated (+23 %, P < 0.01) while stearic acid was reduced ( - 16 %, P < 0.0005). The concentration of total conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers in the BRF was not affected by tannins. The assay on linoleic acid isomerase (LA-I) showed that the enzyme activity (nmol CLA produced/min per mg protein) was unaffected by the inclusion of tannins in the fermenters. However, the CLA produced by LA-I (nmol/ml per min) was lower in the presence of tannins. These results suggest that tannins reduce ruminal biohydrogenation through the inhibition of the activity of ruminal micro-organisms.
... Legumes (temperate) Terrill et al. [32], Jackson et al. [33] Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) 0.7 to 4.0 CT Terrill et al. [32] Crownvetch (Coronilla varia) 1.6 CT Terrill et al. [32], Schreurs et al. [34] Greater birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus pedunculatus) 6.1 to 9.9 CT Berard et al. [35] Purple prairie clover (Dalea purpurea) 3.8 to 9.3 CT Jackson et al. [33], Berard et al. [35] Red clover (Trifolium pratense) 0.04 to 1.53 CT Berard et al. [35], McMahon et al. [36] Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) 1.6 to 9.4 CT Terrill et al. [32] Serradella (Ornithopus sativus) 0.4 CT Terrill et al. [32], Jackson et al. [33], Waghorn et al. [37] Sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) 3.3 to 6.8 CT Schreurs et al. [34], Berard et al. [35] White clover (Trifolium repens) 0.1 to 1.2 CT Legumes (tropical) Jackson et al. [33], Hove et al. [38] Calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus) 11.6 to 19.6 CT Priolo et al. [39], Silanikove et al. [40] Carob tree (Ceratonia silique) 3.0 to 17.0 CT Jackson et al. [33], Barahona et al. [41] Desmodium (Desmodium ovalifolium) 9.4 to 23.8 CT Jackson et al. [33], Hove et al. [38] Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) 5.4 to 13.4 CT Smith et al. [42], Norton [43] White ball acacia (Acacia angustissima) 0.7 to 17.4 CT Trees (Tropical) Gemeda and Hassen [44] African milkbush (Euphorbia tirucalli) 7.6 HT Gemeda and Hassen [44] African sumac (Rhus lancea) 13.9 HT Tahrouch et al. [45] Argan tree (Argania spinose) 14.0 CT Gemeda and Hassen [44] Northern red oak (Quercus rubica 8.8 HT Gemeda and Hassen [44] Sacred fig (Ficus religiosa) ...
There is a need to reduce enteric methane (CH4) to ensure the environmental sustainability of ruminant production systems. Tannins are naturally found in both tropical and temperate plants, and have been shown to consistently decrease urinary nitrogen (N) excretion when consumed by ruminants. However, the limited number of in vivo studies conducted indicates that the effects of tannins on intake, digestibility, rumen fermentation, CH4 production and animal performance vary depending on source, type, dose, and molecular weight (MW). There are two main types of tannin in terrestrial plants: condensed tannin (CT; high MW) and hydrolysable tannin (HT; low MW). Consumption of CT and HT by ruminants can reduce N excretion without negatively affecting animal performance. High MW tannins bind to dietary protein, while low MW tannins affect rumen microbes, and thus, irrespective of type of tannin, N excretion is affected. The structure of high MW tannin is more diverse compared with that of low MW tannin, which may partly explain the inconsistent effects of CT on CH4 production reported in in vivo studies. In contrast, the limited number of in vivo studies with low MW HT potentially shows a consistent decrease in CH4 production, possibly attributed to the gallic acid subunit. Further in vivo studies are needed to determine the effects of tannins, characterized by MW and structural composition, on reducing CH4 emissions and improving animal performance in ruminants.
... Elevated protein percentage in milk produced during the second period. This was due to the fact that the carob pods contain a high protein content (16.7%) as supported by the researcher (15) and therefore it considered a good source of protein to meet the need for lactation and general growth for sheep and reflected in turn on protein of Milk, or may be due to the presence of high sugars in the pods of carob, which helps to prevent the activity of protein analysis by microorganisms in the rumen, which therefore encourages the increase in the composition of microbial protein and amino acids, and also carob pods have a high proportion of calcium element estimated (493 Mg/100 M) at the proportion of 0.5% (15) which have an important role in improving the digestion of protein in the diet and helps in further absorption and thus raising the protein rate in milk (16).The milk sugar lactose (C12 H22 O11) is a binary sugar consisting of two molecules of mono glucose and galactose. The sugar in the carob pods was 48-56% and consists of 32-38%, 5-6% and 5-7% Sucrose, glucose and fructose respectively (8,18). ...
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of adding two levels of CerotoniaSiliqua L. powder to the after birth sheep on the specific characteristics of the produced milk and some vital blood characteristics (albumin, glucose and cholesterol) for the mothers and lambs during three periods: the first period (P1) two weeks after birth, the second period (P2) four weeks after birth, the third period (P3) six weeks after birth. The experimental treatments were as follows: The first treatment (A) was used as a comparison treatment (control), the second and third treatment (B and C) were basal diet plus 30 and 60 g/kg of CerotoniaSiliqua L. powder respectively. The obtained results showed that a significant increase in milk quality (protein, lactose and non-fat solids) as well as an increase in some vital blood characteristics of the female ewes (albumins and glucose) were noted. Significantly, cholesterol proportion was decreased when the CerotoniaSiliqua L. powder added to the diets (P1, P2, P3), respectively. However, there was a significant increase in both glucose and cholesterol levels during the three periods.Additionally, a positive relationship between the amount of glucose for the blood of ewes and the glucose of the lamb blood for the three consecutive periods. The decrease percentage of milk lactose on the amount of blood glucose was noted as well as the appearance of a negative relationship between blood cholesterol for ewes and the blood cholesterol of the lambs for period P3. In conclusion, addition of CerotoniaSiliqua L. powder to the diet has improved the quality characteristics of the produced milk in sheep.
... The researchers concluded that with regard to color, the cake with 100% carob flour had the lowest acceptability, a factor that may have been associated with the dark color caused by the carob flour. With regard to aftertaste, there were differences in the control and sponge cake with 25% carob syrup which could be explained by the fact that carob is rich in condensed tannins, which, when used in excess, tend to give an astringent aftertaste to products (Silanikove et a., 2006). The sample with 25% carob syrup had the least aftertaste (2.87±0.70). ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical and sensory characteristics of sponge cakes enriched with carob flour and carob syrup as functional ingredients and partial substitutes for wheat flour and sugar. Five formulations were prepared: a control cake, sponge cake with 25% carob flour, sponge cake with 50% carob flour, sponge cake with 25% carob syrup and sponge cake with 50% carob syrup. The replacement of wheat flour with carob flour resulted in a higher level of dietary fiber (2.45→ 18.28 g/100 g dry weight), protein (8.44 → 23.93 g/100 g dry weight) and carbohydrate content (65.40±5.20 → 86.10±2.70 g/100 g dry weight). The substitution of sugar with carob syrup increased the level of protein content (8.44 → 12.57g/100 g dry weight). Sensory evaluation of shape, color, cell size and uniformity, odor, sweetness, aftertaste, crumb tenderness was also performed.
... However, it is difficult to extrapolate general conclusions from experiments in which animals were fed with specific plants because a number of botanical and environmental factors affect the content and chemical composition of tannins in plants. Also, differences in analytical methods may impair the comparability between studies in which tannin-rich plant materials were fed to animals (Silanikove et al., 2006;Gravador et al., 2015). Furthermore, when it comes to the effects of these plant metabolites on the quality traits of food products (meat and milk), the knowledge is even more contradictory. ...
Little information is available on the effects of different sources of tannins on ruminant product quality. Nowadays several tannin-rich extracts, produced from different plants, are available and contain tannins belonging to different chemical groups, but most of these have not been used so far as feed supplements. The present study aimed at comparing the effects of feeding three tannin extracts (one containing condensed tannins and two containing hydrolysable tannins) to lambs on growth performances and meat oxidative stability. Comisana male lambs were divided into four groups ( n =9 each) and were fed for 75 days: a concentrate-based diet (CON), or CON supplemented with 4% tannin extracts from either mimosa ( MI ; Acacia mearnsii , De Wild; condensed tannins), chestnut (CH; Castanea sativa , Mill; hydrolysable ellagitannins) or tara (TA; Cesalpinia spinosa , (Molina) Kuntze; hydrolysable gallotannins). Only CH reduced growth rate, final weight, carcass weight and feed intake ( P <0.05). Tannins did not affect the concentration of the main fatty acid classes and the peroxidability of the intramuscular fat ( P >0.05). The TA diet increased ( P <0.001) the concentration of γ -tocopherol in muscle and tended to increase that of α -tocopherol ( P =0.058). Oxidative stability of raw and cooked meat, or of meat homogenates incubated with pro-oxidants, was not affected by the extracts. These results, compared with those reported in the literature, highlight that some effects of tannins cannot be easily generalized, but may strictly depend on their specific characteristics and on conditions inherent to the basal diet and the metabolic status of the animals.
... Legume trees or shrubs, such as C. siliqua and G. triacanthos can be used to supplement the available feedstuff during the periods of feed scarcity that are common in Mediterranean areas (Chassany and Flamant, 1996). In the present study, CP content was particulary low (80 g/kg DM) in carob pods in agreement with data reported by other authors (Silanikove et al. 1996;Silanikove et al. 2006). It is well known that carob pods, although rich in water soluble sugars (WSS), has a very low crude protein content, and contains hight levels of tannins, mainly of the condensed type, which minimize its nutritional value (Marakis et al. 1997). ...
The nutritive value of Ceratonia siliqua and Gleditsia triacanthos pods was determined on the basis of their chemical composition, in vitrogas production and rumen fermentation end-products. Medicago sativa was used as a reference feed material. The studied samples showed differences in chemical composition and phenolic compounds. Crude protein (CP) content was particulary low (80 g/kg DM) in carob and higher in Medicago sativa and G. triacanthos pods with (159.79 and 121.56 g/kg DM, respectively). Inclusion of Polyethylene glycol (PEG) in fermentation medium results in a significant increase (P<0.05) of gas production in Ceratonia siliqua and Gleditsia triacanthos and no effect was observed with M. sativa. The highest values of gas production were observed for C. siliqua and G. triacanthos, whereas Medicago sativa had significantly low values. The highest asymptotic gas production was observed in Ceratonia siliqua and Gleditsia triacanthos (296.80 and 289.55 mL g-1DM, respectively), whereas Medicago sativa
recorded the lowest value (243.64 mL g-1DM). The concentration of acetate differentiated two groups: Medicago sativa and Gleditsia triacanthos (86.58 and 66.32% respectively), while the fermentation of Ceratonia siliqua resulted in a lower acetate concentration (59.84%). Although there were noticeable differences among the three studied samples, Ceratonia siliqua and Gleditsia triacanthos pods showed better nutritional quality, indicating that they could be considered promising and interesting sources of feed for sheep during the dry season or as supplement to low quality diets.
... Τέλος, σύμφωνα με τους Silanikove et al. (2005), η προσθήκη χαρουπιών στο σιτηρέσιο παχυνόμενων εριφίων σε ποσοστό 52% επέφερε δραστική μείωση στις αποδόσεις των εριφίων σε σύγκριση με την ομάδα μαρτύρων που διατράφηκαν με βάση το καλαμπόκι και τα πίτυρα. ...
The carob tree belongs to the nutrient plants and it is known since antiquity as a native plant of Greece. Its scientific name Ceratonia siliqua, originates from the Greek word "keraton" which means "horn", and which indicates the shape of its fruit. The carob tree is an evergreen, long-lived, polygamous, monoecious or dioecious. It is easily cultivated and thrives in all types of soil, except the humid and non-affluent. The wood, the bark and the leaves of carob have different uses. The fruit of the carob tree, the carob, is a lobe and it is 10-30 cm long and 2-3 cm wide with a brown and leathery exocarp and a fleshy and juicy mesocarp, in which 8 to 16 oval, flattened, hard and shiny reddish seeds are enclosed. The collection of the fruits must be finished before the winter rains. The fruits fall from the tree by themselves or by caning. A 6 years old carob tree can produce 2.25 kg carobs, while a 12 years old tree can produce 45 kg or more. The annual Greek carob production for the year 2005 was 14,816 tons, while the average yield was 9.8 kg/tree. The world carob production is about 315,000 tons/year. The carobs have low total fat and crude protein content, but high sugar content. The carobs' characteristic odor is due to their isobutyric acid content (1.3%). Furthermore, they include an unusually large amount of tannins, 16-20% of which are polyphenols and 27-50% of which are bound with cellulose. The tannins are a complex group of secondary metabolites of plants and are separated from other polyphenol compounds due to their ability to create sediment with proteins. The presence of tannin in feed reduces the nutrients' digestibility and has a negative effect on body weight gain. However, tannins can also have positive effects depending on their biological potency, because they have the ability to prevent bacterial, fungal and yeast growth. Carobs and their by-products have a considerable fibre content (average 8%) and therefore they can be included in supplementary ruminant rations up to 20% - 30%. Experiments carried out by adding carobs in broiler feeds resulted in decreased body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio, probably because of the high cellulose and tannin content of the carob. Nevertheless, if the broiler's ration is enriched with fats or oils and synthetic amino acids, these birds show normal weight gain, but with a high feed conversion ratio. The carobs can be included up to 10% - 20% in the ration of pigs. Also, since the carobs have high sugar content, they can increase the feed consumption of the piglets and they can replace other sugar feeds with high sugar content (dextrose, starch, milk powder) without adversely affecting the feed intake. Greece produces a considerable quantity of carobs every year, therefore a part of this production could be utilized as animal feed
... Lowering of cholesterol level was significant. 146 Sancks that conatined Carob with the same amount of available carbohydrates as chocolate snacks were compared in terms of glycemic index (GI). Carob snacks resulted in much lower GI. ...
... amount of pH is dependent to time of feeding and volatile fatty acids concentartion in the rumen. tannins rumen volatile fatty acid concentrations are reduced, so it can be effective on rumen pH (5). ...
Tannins could affect rumen parameters such as pH, NH3-N and microorganisms. The low rate and extent of protein degradation in the rumen by feeding tannin-rich feeds could lower rumen ammonia concentration. Therefore, a reduction of protein degradation in the rumen will increase the quantity of protein digested in the small intestine. Increased flow of protein from rumen depends on decreased proteolysis by rumen microorganisms reduce of ammonia nitrogen and increased efficiency of microbial protein synthesis. Also there are many reports indicating inhibitory effect of tannins on rumen protozoa and decrease protozoa-associated methanogenesis, but the mechanisms of inhibition of rumen protozoa are not known.
... This could be due to intestinal stability tanninprotein complex that it is not able to disintegrate in abomasum. Formation of tannin-digestive enzymes complex or new complex of tannin-protein in ration or changes in intestinal absorption is the result of the interaction between tannins and intestinal mucosa [15] [24]. Mbatha et al. (2002) reported that, the width of epithelial layer of the abomasum increased significantly with tannin (P< 0.05). ...
... Recent results revealed no differences in body performances, voluntary intake and body gain rate for adult lambs fed with carob pods, in contrast to control groups [28]. This contrasts with previous results where body performance was compromised, by carob pulp feeding [32] due to the possible adverse effects of CTs in carob pods [36,37]. These differences may depend on qualitative and/or quantitative differences of carob fruits (example: pulp, pod or flour) [28]. ...
... Recent results revealed no differences in body performances, voluntary intake and body gain rate for adult lambs fed with carob pods, in contrast to control groups [28]. This contrasts with previous results where body performance was compromised, by carob pulp feeding [32] due to the possible adverse effects of CTs in carob pods [36,37]. These differences may depend on qualitative and/or quantitative differences of carob fruits (example: pulp, pod or flour) [28]. ...
The aim of the study was to compare the in vivo anthelmintic activity of sainfoin hay (Onobrychis viciifolia) and carob pod meal (Ceratonia siliqua) against gastrointestinal nematodes. Seven days before infection, 64 naive lambs were assigned to four different groups: Group S received sainfoin hay and group CAR was fed with carob pods. The remaining lambs received lucerne hay (Medicago sativa) and were assigned to positive (non-treated, NT) and negative (treated, T) control groups (treatment with albendazole). On day 0, lambs were artificially trickle infected for 6 weeks, with a mixture of infective larvae of Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis. Parasitological and pathophysiological parameters were measured repeatedly during the 2-month study. Compared to the NT group, decreases in egg excretion were observed in the CAR and S groups with significant differences only found for sainfoin (p
... A total phenol was determined with the Folin-Ciocalteau reagent . Condensed tannin was measured by the HCl-butanol method (Nissim et al, 2006). All analyses will be carried out in triplicate. ...
Five combinations of Moth and Khejri were processed according common recommended forage for camel in Bikaner (Mix-1, Mix-2, Mix-3, Mix-4 and Mix-5) at 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30% on DM bases, respectively. The combination was tested by using In vitro gas production technique. The content of NDF and ADF for Khejri was higher than that in Moth, but others of components for mixing between them were closed.
Scientific monograph about taxonomy, ethnobotany, ecology, genetic variability, phytochemical characteristics and utilization of carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) and bay laurel in Croatia.
Carob flour is produced from carob seeds and can be widely utilized in the food industry. It is mainly used as a thickener or stabilizer, and in certain conditions can have gel-forming abilities and is used as a medium (mainly for flavour). Many consumers consider carob flour as a cocoa substitute thanks to its flavour and aroma. In Mediterranean climates, which is the carob’s natural growth environment, carob flour is utilized in sweets production. The aim of this study was to point out possibilities of utilizing carob as a product that is beneficial to health, which should therefore be considered as a valuable resource in producing functional food.
To investigate the effect of various levels of Wheat-based Dried Distillers Grain with Solubles (DDGS) on the apparent ration digestibility, pass rate, solid waste scores and ruminal parameters in transition period of the dairy Holstein Cattles, 12 dairy Holstein parity Cattles were studied and their weights and similar indices were recorded for eight weeks in a completely random design. The cows were subjected to experimental treatments including the use of 0%, 7.5% and 15% wheat-based distillers dried grain with solubles in their rations three weeks before parity, three weeks afterwards and two extra accustoming weeks. The rations applied in the current research paper were based on pure carbohydrate and protein diets as recommended by Kernel University (Fox et al, 2000). The results indicated that there is no significant difference in the dairy cows in terms of apparent ration digestibility within the framework of the studied treatments postpartum. The samples' solid waste stability has been found normal in all the studied treatments and the samples were realized normal in terms of fluidity in treatments 1 and 2 postpartum but in the treatment 3 the samples showed smooth fluidity. Consuming dried distillers grain with solubles caused an increase in material pass speed through the digestive tract. There was no significant difference found in the acidity and the ammoniacal nitrogen of the ruminal liquid in Holstein dairy cows in all the three studied treatments in both of the pre-and postpartum stages. Volatile fatty acids total mean in the ruminal liquid pre-partum was smaller in treatment 3 in comparison to the treatments 1&2. The acetate to propionate ratio was larger in treatment 1 in comparison to treatments 2&3. Moreover, no significant difference was found between acetate, propionate and butyrate amounts in Holstein dairy cows in all the treatments pre-partum. The postpartum total amount of volatile fatty acid in rumen liquid was significantly higher in treatment 1 than treatment 2 and it was also significantly higher in treatment 3 than treatment 2; furthermore, acetate mean rate was significantly smaller in treatment 1 in respect to treatments 2&3. Statistical tests were not indicative of postpartum significant differences in terms of propionate and butyrate amounts as well as acetate to propionate ratio in the experimental cows' rumens in all three treatments, but these changes did not significantly influence the quantity of the milk yielded by the studied cows. It appears that wheat-based dried distillers grain with solubles can be applied within a 15% level of the ration (on a dry matter basis) for Holstein dairy cows during the transition period without it exerting any adverse effect on the yield rate. Introduction:
هدف از انجام این آزمایش، بررسی اثر استفاده از پوسته پسته و مکمل پلی اتیلنگلیکول (PEG) بر مصرف خوراک، قابلیت هضم مواد مغذی، تولید و ترکیبات شیر، فرآسنجههای چربی خون و پروفیل اسیدهای چرب شیر در بزهای سانن شیرده بود. بدین منظور از ۹ رأس بز سانن شیرده چند شکم زایش در قالب طرح مربع لاتین تکرار شده ۳ × ۳ با سه تکرار استفاده شد. آزمایش در سه دوره ۲۱ روزه با ۱۴ روز عادت پذیری و ۷ روز نمونه-گیری انجام شد. تیمارهای آزمایشی شامل : ۱) شاهد (بدون پوسته پسته) ۲) ۳۰ درصد پوسته پسته و ۳) ۳۰ درصد پوسته پسته + ۱ درصد PEG بر اساس ماده خشک جیره بود. نتایج نشان داد که خوراک مصرفی بین تیمارهای آزمایشی اختلاف معنی داری نداشت. قابلیت هضم ظاهری ماده خشک، الیاف نامحلول در شوینده اسیدی (ADF) و الیاف نامحلول در شوینده خنثی (NDF) بین تیمارهای آزمایشی اختلاف معنی داری نداشت، اما قابلیت هضم ماده آلی و پروتئین خام با افزایش تانن در تیمار ۲ به طور معنی داری کاهش و در تیمار ۳ افزایش یافت (۰۵/۰>P). تولید و ترکیبات شیر تحت تأثیر تیمارهای آزمایشی قرار نگرفتند. غلظت تری گلیسیرید در تیمارهای دارای پوسته پسته به طور معنی داری بالاتر بود (۰۵/۰>P)، اما سایر متابولیتهای چربی تحت تأثیر تیمارهای آزمایشی قرار نگرفتند. استفاده از پوسته پسته سبب افزایش واکسنیک اسید، رومنیک اسید و میزان اسیدهای چرب غیر اشباع با یک باند دوگانه (MUFA) و کاهش اسیدهای چرب اشباع (SFA) در شیر شد.
Locust (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is an evergreen tree which is widely cultivated or naturally grown in the Mediterranean area. The species belongs to the Cesalpinaceae subfamily of the family Leguminoseae (syn Fabaceae). The fruits are normally used after crushing to separate seed and pulp, and the seed endosperm is processed to obtain a mucilaginous gum, which is then used in a wide range of commercial food products as a thickener and stabilizer. Contrary to other traditional crops, there is now an increasing demand for the carob dérivâtes produced in the Sicilian province of Ragusa and Siracusa, which represents a potential benefit to farmers and a diversification of farm incomes. Cesalpinia Food preserves and enhances locust crop in Sicily, giving several carob products and byproducts obtained industrially from its beans (pulp, flour from pulp, seed gum, natural carob) and interesting for several purposes, particularly in confectionery, as thickeners and alternative to cacao. This study presents a detailed description of carob processing and its role in product formulation, with particular attention to the traceability system applied to food safety by Cesalpinia Food.
A grazing experiment was undertaken to evaluate the effect of PEG supplementation on the fatty acid composition of milk from Sarda sheep grazing sulla. Twenty-four late-lactating sheep (12 per group), were paired and split into two groups: group control (CON), dosed daily with a quenching gun with 200 ml of water, and group PEG, dosed with 200 ml of a 50/50 w/v water solution of PEG. The sheep grazed two 0.8 ha plots of sulla under a rotational grazing scheme. The contents of c-9, t-11 CLA and t-11 C18:1 in milk fat were on average 40% higher (P < 0.01) in the PEG group than in the CON group. This can be explained by the higher biohydrogenation activity of ruminal bacteria in the PEG group, due to the partial inactivation of the tannins. Odd-branched chain fatty acids (OBCFA) were higher in PEG than in the control group (+ 20%; P < 0.01) and this confirms the hypothesis that tannin in sulla reduced ruminal microbial activity. Both linoleic (C18:2 c-9 c-12) and linolenic (C18:3 c-9 c-12 c-15) fatty acids were lower (P < 0.05) in milk from PEG, than in the CON-group (- 12% and - 30% for linoleic and linolenic acids, respectively). The mitigating effect on tannins of PEG increased the ratio of ω6/ω3 by 24%; (P < 0.01) and total trans FA content in milk by 20% (P < 0.01). In conclusion, condensed tannins in sulla at flowering are conducive to lower c-9, t-11 CLA and t-11 C18:1 but also lower total trans FA, ω6/ω3 ratio and higher linoleic and linolenic acid.
The carob tree belongs to the nutrient plants and it is known since antiquity as a native plant of Greece. Its scientific name Ceratonia siliqua, originates from the Greek word “keraton” which means "horn", and which indicates the shape of its fruit. The carob tree is an evergreen, long-lived, polygamous, monoecious or dioecious. It is easily cultivated and thrives in all types of soil, except the humid and non-affluent. The wood, the bark and the leaves of carob have different uses. The fruit of the carob tree, the carob is a lobe, and it is 10-30 cm long and 2-3 cm wide with a brown and leathery exocarp and a fleshy and juicy mesocarp, in which 8 to 16 oval, flattened, hard and shiny reddish seeds are enclosed. The collection of the fruits must be finished before the winter rains. The fruits fall from the tree by themselves or by caning. A 6 years old carob tree can produce 2.25 kg carobs, while a 12 years old tree can produce the 45 kg or more. The annual Greek carob production for the year 2005 was 14,816 tons, while the average yield was 9.8 kg / tree. The world carob production is about 315,000 tons / year. The carobs have low total fat and crude protein content but high sugar content. The carobs’ characteristic odor is due to their isobutyric acid content (1.3%). Furthermore, they include an unusually large amount of tannins, 16-20% of which are polyphenols and 27-50% of which are bound with cellulose. The tannins are a complex group of secondary metabolites of plants and are separated from other polyphenol compounds due to their ability to create sediment with proteins. The presence of tannin in feed reduces the nutrients’ digestibility and has a negative effect on body weight gain. However, tannins can also have positive effects depending on their biological potency, because they have the ability to prevent bacterial, fungal and yeast growth. Carobs and their by-products have a considerable fibre content (average 8%) and therefore they can be included in supplementary ruminant rations up to 20% - 30%. Experiments carried out by adding carobs in broiler feeds resulted in decreased body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio, probably because of the high cellulose and tannin content of the carob. Nevertheless, if the broiler’s ration is enriched with fats or oils and synthetic amino acids, these birds show normal weight gain, but, with a high feed conversion ratio. The carobs can included up to 10% - 20% in the ration of pigs. Also, since the carobs have high sugars content, they can increase the feed consumption of the piglets and they can replace other sugar feeds with high sugar content (dextrose, starch, milk powder) without adversely affecting the feed intake. Greece produces a considerable quantity of carobs every year, therefore a part of this production could be utilized as animal feed.
Fourteen male Comisana lambs were divided into two groups of seven at age 45 days and were fed a diet containing 56% of dried carob pulp ( as fed basis). One group (P10) received a supplement of 10 g of polyethylene glycol ( PEG) for each kg of diet, while the second group (P40) received a supplement of 40 g of PEG for each kg of diet. Both diets were ground and supplied ad libitum. The experimental diet contained 2.1% of condensed tannins (CT) on a dry matter basis. The lambs fed the P40 diet had higher average daily gain than the P10 lambs (P < 0.05) and obtained higher live weights at slaughter (P = 0.08) although the dry matter intake was not different between the treatments. The increased level of PEG (P40 vs. P10 lambs) increased dry matter digestibility (P = 0.07) and nitrogen (N) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) digestibility (P < 0.01). The carcasses from the P40 lambs were heavier and fattier than those from the P10 lambs (P < 0.05). Meat ( l. dorsi muscle) from the P10 lambs showed higher (P < 0.05) values of lightness (L*) compared to the P40 lambs. No differences in eating quality were registered among the groups. These results indicate that in a diet based on carob pulp (56%), 10 g of PEG per kg of diet are not sufficient to eliminate the effects of CT.
High concentrations of condensed tannins in browse impair brush clearing by goats. We studied the effect of polyethylene glycol (PEG, MW 4000), a polymer that binds condensed tannins, on the feeding behavior of Damascus goats (Capra hircas) on a range dominated by tannin-rich lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus L.). This was done with or without a nutritious alternative to browse (alfalfa hay) available at pasture. In phase 1, no hay was-provided to goats; in phase 2, hay was distributed daily in the field. In both phases, 6 goats had free access to PEG while at pasture, while 6 goats that grazed separately on another paddock did not. All goats received each night an allowance of concentrate (400 g day(-1) of 40% ground corn grain, 40% ground barley, 17% soybean meal and 3% of a mineral-vitamin premix, and contained as fed 16% crude protein (CP) and 2.66 Mcal kg(-1) of Metabolizable Energy). The 2 groups of goats alternated daily between paddocks. Goats supplemented with PEG spent more time browsing lentisk than goats in the control group (73 and 41%, respectively, P < 0.0001). Goats in the control group spent more time foraging on dry grasses than their PEG-fed counterparts (28 and 12%, respectively, P < 0.0001). Goats from the PEG group gained body weight at a higher rate than controls. The daily intake of PEG was 450 g, with an intake rate of 1.2 g sec(-1). Supplemental alfalfa hay substituted partly for dry grasses in goats' diets, but did not modify the percent of time goats in either treatment spent browsing lentisk. Our data suggest that PEG has the potential to increase intake of tannin-rich species, even where alternative fodder of better nutritional quality is present. However, self-feeding of PEG may not be the best way to provide PEG because goats may ingest more PEG than needed to annul the aversive effects of tannins on food intake.
Recently, insoluble fibre from carob pulp has been found to affect blood lipids in animals in a similar manner as soluble dietary fibre.
To investigate whether a carob pulp preparation containing high amounts of insoluble fibre has a beneficial effect on serum cholesterol in humans.
Volunteers (n = 58) with hypercholesterolemia were recruited to participate in a randomised, double- blind, placebo-controlled and parallel arm clinical study with a 6 week intervention phase. All participants consumed daily both, bread (two servings) and a fruitbar (one serving) either with (n = 29) or without (n = 29) a total amount of 15 g/d of a carob pulp preparation (carob fibre). Serum concentrations of total, LDL and HDL cholesterol and triglycerides were assessed at baseline and after week 4 and 6.
The consumption of carob fibre reduced LDL cholesterol by 10.5 +/- 2.2% (p = 0.010). The LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio was marginally decreased by 7.9 +/- 2.2 % in the carob fibre group compared to the placebo group (p = 0.058). Carob fibre consumption also lowered triglycerides in females by 11.3 +/- 4.5% (p = 0.030). Lipid lowering effects were more pronounced in females than in males.
Daily consumption of food products enriched with carob fibre shows beneficial effects on human blood lipid profile and may be effective in prevention and treatment of hypercholesterolemia.
Glucose metabolism was studied in ewes fed 800 g chopped alfalfa hay (H) or 400 g alfalfa hay and 400 g corn grain given in whole (HWC), ground (HGC) or extruded (HEC) form. Daily intake of metabolisable energy and crude protein were: 5.8 MJ, 109 g; 9.0 MJ, 84 g; 9.5 MJ, 84 g and 8.5 MJ, 88 g in H, HWC, HGC and HEC, respectively. In situ ruminal degradability ranked whole, ground, and extruded corn in ascending order. Ruminal pH and concentration of acetic acid were lower and of propionic acid higher (P less than 0.05) in HEC than in HGC and HWC groups. Plasma level of glucose (P less than 0.10), insulin (P less than 0.05), and the ratio of insulin to non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) (P less than 0.01) were higher in HEC than in other groups. Glucose irreversible loss (GILR) and entry rate (GER), recycling (GRec) and reentry (GRee) were determined by double isotope dilution procedure. GER, but not GILR, was higher in HWC than in H and HGC (6.98 mg/min/kg BW0.75 vs 3.97 and 4.24 mg/min/kg BW0.75, respectively; P less than 0.05) and than in HEC (4.84 mg/min/kg BW0.75; P less than 0.10). GRec and GRee were higher in HWC than in the other treatments. Grinding or extruding the grain increased ruminal degradability and decreased glucose entry rate.
Various tannin-complexing agents have been used to study the potential adverse effects of tannins on rumen metabolism. Using a method based on turbidity formation, the binding of various tannin-complexing agents (polyvinyl polypyrrolidone (PVPP), polyethylene glycol (PEG) of molecular weights 2000 to 35,000, and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) of molecular weight 10,000, 40,000 and 360,000) to tannins (tannic acid, purified tannins from quebracho (Aspidosperma quebracho) and leaves of trees and shrubs (Acioa barteri, Dichostachys cinerea, Guiera senegalensis, Piliostigma reticulatum)) was investigated at different pH values. The binding of all the tannins with PVPP was highest at pH 3-4 and lowest at pH 7. For all the pH range (3-7) studied, the binding of PEG was higher than that of PVP. For all the tannins except tannic acid, the binding to PVP was the same from pH 4.7 to 7. Similar results were observed for the PEG of molecular weight 6000 or higher for all the tannins except quebracho tannins for which the binding increased as the pH increased from 3 to 7. The binding with PEG 2000 decreased to a greater extent as the pH reached near neutral and for PEG 4000 this decrease was slightly lower. Addition of these tannin-complexing agents to the in vitro gas system resulted in higher gas production from tannin-rich feeds (increase varied from 0 to 135%). The PEG were the most effective followed by PVP and PVPP. The PEG 35,000 was least effective. The efficiency of other PEG was similar. The PEG 6000 was preferred to PEG 2000 or 4000 as its binding to tannins was higher at near neutral pH values. The gas production increased with an increase in the amount of PEG 6000 up to 0.6 g/40 ml rumen-fluid-containing medium containing 0.5 g tannin-rich feed, beyond which no increase was observed. The percentage increase in gas value at 24 h fermentation correlated significantly with tannin values, the highest correlation (r 0.95) being with protein precipitation capacity of tannins. The increase in gas production was associated with higher production of short-chain fatty acids with little change in their molar proportions, suggesting an increase in organic matter digestibility by inclusion of the PEG in tannin-rich feeds. However, apparent and true digestibilities were lower on addition of the PEG, due to the presence of PEG-tannin complexes in the residues. The use of this bioassay (percentage increase in gas production in the presence of PEG 6000) along with other tannin assays would provide a better insight into the nutritional significance of tannins.
We conducted an experiment to evaluate the effects that a diet containing condensed tannins with and without polyethylene glycol (PEG) has on lamb growth and meat quality. Twenty-three male Comisana lambs were introduced to the three experimental diets between 45 and 50 d of age. Eight were given a diet containing 56% of Ceratonia siliqua (carob) pulp (tannin group), another eight received the same diet with a supplement of 40 g of PEG for each kilogram of diet (PEG group), and the remaining seven lambs were given a conventional maize-based diet (maize group). Voluntary feed intake and live weights were measured until slaughter at 105 d of age, and digestibility measurements were undertaken toward the end of the feeding trial. Carcass yield, meat quality characteristics, and a taste panel evaluation were conducted. The tannin-based diet contained 2.5% condensed tannins (DM basis), and lambs given this diet had lower growth rates and poorer feed efficiencies (P < .01) compared with the other treatment groups. Daily gain was similar between the maize and PEG lambs, although the efficiency of feed conversion was highest in the maize group. The digestibility of DM, N, and fiber was reduced (P < .05) by the condensed tannins. Lambs fed the tannin diet had a lower carcass yield (P < .05) and had less fat (P < .05), and the meat had a higher ultimate pH (P < .01) than those given the PEG or maize diets. Condensed tannins affected meat color, which was lighter (L*) than meat from lambs given the PEG-containing diet (P < .01). Sensory evaluation showed that panelists preferred meat from lambs receiving PEG and maize treatments compared with those receiving the tannin diet, and this could be related to differences in meat ultimate pH and carcass fatness. These results show that condensed tannins from carob pulp are very detrimental to feed digestibility and lamb performance. Inclusion of 40 g of PEG/kg diet eliminated the effects of condensed tannins so that lamb performance and meat quality were similar to lambs given a maize-based diet.
Two trials were conducted with cows in commercial herds during midlactation to evaluate the effect of dietary crude protein (CP) concentration on the production, composition, and efficiency of milk production under hot ambient conditions. Cows were group-fed in trial 1, which was conducted in two herds, and were fed individually in trial 2. The respective average ambient temperature, relative humidity, and temperature-humidity index (THI) were 31 degrees C, 45%, and 78 in trial 1 and 27 degrees C, 70%, and 76 in trial 2. Cows were cooled by forced evaporative means six times daily in trial 1 and three times daily in trial 2. Dietary CP was 15.3 or 17.3% of dry matter (DM) in trial 1 and 15.1 or 16.7% of DM in trial 2. The respective ratios of rumen-degradable organic matter (RDOM) to rumen-degradable protein were 5.3 and 4.8 for the low CP (LP) and high CP (HP) diets. Average DM intake, milk yield, and milk fat and protein concentrations were 22 and 23 kg/d, 34 and 35 kg/d, 3.1 and 3.4%, and 3.2 and 3.1% in trials 1 and 2, respectively, and were similar among diets in both trials. The resultant calculated milk protein efficiency ratio and overall CP efficiency were 0.31 and 0.32 for the LP diets and 0.28 and 0.29 for the HP diets. In cows fed the LP diet, diet rumen ammonia was lower in trial 1, and milk urea N was lower in trial 2. The BW change was higher in trial 1, and tended to be higher in trial 2, with the LP diets. Changes in body condition score in trials 1 and 2 tended to be higher with the LP diets. It was concluded that a dietary CP content of 15.3% is adequate to maintain production in heat-exposed dairy cows producing 35 kg of milk/d, provided that the forced evaporative cooling and the ratio of RDOM to rumen-degradable protein is appropriate
A comparative study of the influence of two subproducts from carob, its pulp (PUL) and its natural fiber (FNA), on the dietary nutritive utilization was performed. The products were included in a semisynthetic diet (50 g/kg) and administered to rats. A group of animals which consumed cellulose (CEL) was used as a control. Cholesterol levels were monitored weekly during 28 days in normal and hypercholesterolemic rats that consumed FNA and CEL (supplemented with sterols 25 g/kg diet). The intake, weight increase and food efficiency ratio (CEA) obtained were not significantly influenced. By contrast, the fat digestibility coefficient (CDG) of the FNA group (0.97 ± 0.003) was significantly lower than the corresponding CEL (0.98 ± 0.00) and PUL (0.98 ± 0.00) groups. Accordingly, the nitrogen digestibility coefficients (CDN) were significantly different: CEL, 0.93 ± 0.003; PUL, 0.91 ± 0.003, and FNA, 0.90 ± 0.003. Serum cholesterol levels were not different between the non-hypercholesterolemic groups that consumed FNA or CEL. Concerning the evolution of the cholesterol blood level, the animals supplemented with cholesterol showed an increase that was always lower in the supplemented animals which were administered FNA compared with those that consumed CEL. This difference was statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) in the fourth week, when the cholesterol levels of the CEL and FNA groups were 235 ± 9 mg/dL and 167 ± 12 mg/dL, respectively.
A procedure was developed for extraction of ‘free’ condensed tannins (CT) using a mixture of acetone/water/diethyl ether (4.7:2.0:3.3), followed by extraction of protein-bound and fibre-bound CT using boiling sodium dodecyl sulphate containing 2-mercaptoethanol (SDS). CT concentrations in all three fractions were determined by a modified butanol-HCI procedure. Separate standard curves using purified CT in water or SDS solution were utilised for analysis of extractable CT (water standards) and protein-bound and fibre-bound CT (SDS standards). The method accurately predicted the concentration of CT added to forage extracts. CT extractable in acetone/water/diethyl ether comprised, on average. 68% of total CT in a range of freeze dried forage legume samples, with most of the remainder being bound to protein. When total CT concentration was low (0.6-3.0% DM), a lower proportion was extractable (33-35%). In protein concentrate meals containing CT, the extractable, protein-bound and fibre-bound components comprised 15, 60 and 25% respectively of total CT. Total CT concentration in the forages Lotus corniculatus and Coronilla varia was considered appropriate for ruminant nutrition (2.1 and 3.0% DM). whilst CT concentration in the forage of Dorycnium spp (13–19% DM) was more suitable for soil conservation purposes. The substantial CT concentration in cottonseed meal (1.6% DM) may be involved in the high resistance of proteins in this product to ruminal degradation. CT concentration was indistinguishable from zero in perennial ryegrass forage, in barley and triticale grains and in soya bean meal (0.1% DM).
Carob bean is the fruit of Ceratonia siliqua L, an evergreen sclerophyllous perennial and long-producing tree, which naturally grows on barren, rocky and dry regions of the Mediterranean basin and other parts of world, with similar climate. Deseeded carob pod (husk), although rich in water-soluble sugars (mainly sucrose), has a very low protein content and high levels of tannins (mainly condensed), which minimize the nutritional value of carob beans. The present review attempts to appraise the current status and future potentials of the carob bean in food as well as feed industry and environment upgrading.
Bovine serum albumin has been covalently labeled with Remazol brilliant blue R to provide a substrate for a convenient spectrophotometric assay for protein precipitants. The blue protein is especially useful for measuring protein precipitation by vegetable tannins because its absorption maximum is at a wavelength where plant pigments exhibit minimum absorption. Blue BSA has been used to determine, by competition experiments, the relative affinity of various proteins for tannins. A procedure for purifying condensed tannin from commercially available quebracho extract is described.
The extractability of tannin from fresh, lyophilized, and dried leaves collected at various times in the growing season was determined using the radial diffusion assay for protein-precipitating phenolics. The amount of tannin extracted depended on the method of leaf preservation and on the maturity of the leaf. Early in the season, more tannin was extracted from lyophilized leaves than from fresh leaves, but late in the season more tannin was extracted from fresh leaves. At all times, more tannin was extracted with aqueous acetone than with aqueous or acidic methanol.
A comparative study of the influence of two subproducts from carob, its pulp (PUL) and its natural fiber (FNA), on the dietary nutritive utilization was performed. The products were included in a semisynthetic diet (50 g/kg) and administered to rats. A group of animals which consumed cellulose (CEL) was used as a control. Cholesterol levels were monitored weekly during 28 days in normal and hypercholesterolemic rats that consumed FNA and CEL (supplemented with sterols 25 g/kg diet). The intake, weight increase and food efficiency ratio (CEA) obtained were not significantly influ enced. By contrast, the fat digestibility coefficient (CDG) of the FNA group (0.97 ± 0.003) was signifi cantly lower than the corresponding CEL (0.98 ± 0.00) and PUL (0.98 ± 0.00) groups. Accordingly, the nitrogen digestibility coefficients (CDN) were significantly different: CEL, 0.93 ± 0.003; PUL, 0.91 ± 0.003, and FNA, 0.90 ± 0.003. Serum cholesterol levels were not different between the non-hypercho lesterolemic groups that consumed FNA or CEL. Concerning the evolution of the cholesterol blood level, the animals supplemented with cholesterol showed an increase that was always lower in the supplemented animals which were administered FNA compared with those that consumed CEL. This difference was statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) in the fourth week, when the cholesterol levels of the CEL and FNA groups were 235 ± 9 mg/dL and 167 ± 12 mg/dL, respectively.
The effect of urea on the aggregation behavior of proanthocyanidin polymer from Pinus radiata(P.R .) extract has been studied by rheological measurements and photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS). The urea induced structural changes in the concentrated extracts that were accompanied by significant reductions of apparent viscosity. The size reduction of proanthocyanidin polymers upon addition of increasing amount of urea could also be observed by PCS. In a concentrated alkal+-sequential extract, addition of urea leads to a decrease in both the steady shear viscosity and the dynamic elastic modulus. Since the ureainduced structural changes of proanthocyanidin polymers are based mainly on the intermolecular colloidal association, the overall variation of reduced viscosity in the low concentration range of proanthocyanidin in the presence of various amount of urea was negligible. Thus it is suggested that addition of urea leads to the control of the noncovalent colloidal interactions among proanthocyanidin polymers from Pinus radiata. In the absence of urea, concentration of the P.r. extract to 40% tannin produced stable near-Newtonian solutions of low apparent viscosity. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The blood metabolic profile was examined in 2-3 year old non-lactating and non-pregnant Mamber goats consuming Quercus calliprinos (oak), Pistacia lentiscus (pistacia) and Cerafonia siliqua (carob) leaves to determine whether intake of tannin-rich fodder induces subclinical systemic toxicity. Total phenolic and condensed tannin content ranked in the order pistacia > oak > carob. Goats did not exhibit toxic effects following consumption of IO-23 g kg-' day-' of tannin-rich leaves. Metabolite blood concentrations did not differ from goats fed wheat straw, and were within the normal range. Certain serum metabolic indices that are known to be sensitive indicators of damage to the liver (gamma glutamyltranspeptidase, alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol) and kidneys (urea, uric acid, minerals) were within the normal range for goats. Thus, it appears that goats used in this study were well adapted to the nutritional environment and may consume large amounts of tannins (1.1-2.7 g per kg BW per day condensed tannins and 0.4-0.9 g kg-' BW day-' soluble phenolics) without suffering any ill effects.
Three compartmental models were developed to evaluate the suppressive effects of tannins on the extent and rate of degradation of tree foliage. The first model was based on the assumption that tannins modify the parameters of the degradation kinetics, the second was based on the assumption that tannins bind material, independent of the basic degradation kinetics, and the third combined these two assumptions, i.e., that tannins both suppress degradation and bind free material. Degradation was measured by suspending the samples in dacron bags in the rumens of Ž . goats, with or without the inclusion of polyethylene glycol PEG . It was assumed that PEG annuls the suppressive effect of tannins on degradation of plant components, and hence that the difference between the curves that describe degradation with or without PEG indicates the suppressive effect of tannins present in the foliage. The data on the observed degradation of dry matter, neutral detergent fibre and protein, in four typical Mediterranean forest tree species were fitted by these models. It was found that the combined model fits the data better than either of the other two models. Increasing content of tannins in the foliage was associated with an increase of the bound free material and a decrease in the degradation rate of the degradable matter, but not with an increase of the non-degradable fraction. q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.
A procedure to measure poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) binding to plant samples is described. The amount of PEG bound to a sample was found to be reproducible with a small coefficient of variation (0.5%). The PEG-binding capacity of plant samples was not affected by predrying of the samples at 90 °C, unlike the colorimetric methods for determination of tannins. Both the PEG-binding and the protein precipitation capacity of the plant samples were found to be useful in predicting the negative effects of tannins on ruminal degradation of the plant material. However, PEG binding to plant samples had an advantage over protein precipitation in samples in which formation of strong tannin−protein complexes results in low extractability of tannins. For this reason, the binding method was found to be preferable to the protein precipitation method in predicting the negative effect of tannins on ruminal degradation of forage plants. Keywords: Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG); tannin; rumen; digestibility; forage plants; herbivore diet
Intake and digestion of leaves of Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia lentiscus, and Ceratonia siliqua, with and without supplementation of various amounts of polyethylene glycol (PEG), were examined. The tannin contents in these species exerted a substantial negative effect on feed intake and digestion. The effects were species specific and related to tannin content. Once-daily Supplementation with PEG efficiently neutralized the negative effects of tannins. The amount of PEG needed to produce a maximal increase in feed intake was lower than the amount required to produce a maximal increase in digestibility. The intake of digestible crude protein and metabolizable energy was raised in PEG-supplemented animals from a submaintenance level to levels considerably exceeding the maintenance requirement of goats. The response was related to the tannin content of the plant. Keywords: Goats; tannins; polyethylene glycol; foliage digestibility
The nutritional value of carob leaves (CL) and the effectiveness of increasing amounts (12.5,25,32,
and 50 g/day) of polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG) supplemented once daily in overcoming the negative
effect of tannins in carob leaves, were examined in four Merino ewes. Ewes fed solely CL were not
able to sustain their body weights, and excreted in feces more protein than was consumed; the
digestibility of cell walls was very low (220 gkg). Supplementation with 25 g/day PEG increased
digestible organic matter intake by 2-fold. This increase was associated with a marked improvement
in protein and cell wall digestibility and recovery of weight loss. The present results provide evidence
for the first time that condensed tannins may induce a marked depressive effect on the intestinal
activity of trypsin and amylase in ruminating animals (as indicated by their activity in fecal samples).
Five trials were conducted to elucidate the cause of the growth-inhibitory effect of carob meal in chick rations, with special emphasis on estimating its productive energy value. The growth-depressing factor of carob meal could not be extracted with methanol, ethanol or ethyl acetate. Consecutive extractions with cold and hot water left a residue which did not affect growth. The cold-water extract had a slight, and the hot water extract a distinct, inhibitory effect on feed consumption, without affecting feed utilisation. This reduced feed intake may be due to the presence of tannin-like compounds, which seem to affect appetite.
Supplementation of diets containing carob with fat resulted in growth similar to that of the control. The data presented indicate that carobs do not contain any toxic factors and that their low caloric value is the major factor responsible for growth depression. The energy value of carobs should be calculated on the basis of their sugar content as the only nutrient available to the chicks.
Determination of the tannins, pectins, hemicellulose, cellulose, nitrogen, mineral elements, total and reducing sugars and fat contents was carried out on carob pods from Mallorca, Spain. The results are compared with data from the literature. A survey of papers on the composition and practical applications of carob pods is included.
Tannins isolated from ripe carob pods were subjected to thioglycolic acid degradation and mild and strong acid hydrolysis. Mild acid hydrolysis did not degrade the tannins, strong acid hydrolysis resulted in the production of delphinidin, cyanidin and pelargonidin. The ethyl acetate-soluble thioglycolic acid degradation products were identified by paper chromatography, UV and IR spectral analysis as (−) epigallocatechin, (−) epigallocatechin gallate and (−) epicatechin gallate. The minimum molecular weight of the polymers, 3200, was estimated on Sephadex columns. It is concluded that the polymeric condensed tannins from ripe carobs consist of subunits of flavan-3-ols and their gallate esters.
In vitro studies were made to determine the nature of complexes formed between the condensed tannins (i.e. pro-anthocyanidins or flavolans) of sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) and either the major soluble dietary protein, Fraction 1 protein, of green leaves, or bovine salivary mucoprotein. Fraction 1 protein, uniformly labelled with 14C, formed only insoluble complexes with these tannins. Bovine salivary mucoprotein produced insoluble complexes only at temperatures below 25°C. Fraction 1 protein complexes were stable between pH 3.5 and pH 7.0. At pHs below 3.0 greater than 90% of the protein was solubilised in the presence of PEG but at pH 8.0 only 30% of the protein was released from the complex. In vivo experiments with sheep fed sainfoin, confirmed the stability of the tannin-Fraction 1 complexes in the rumen (pH 6.5) and break-up of the complexes in anterior duodenal samples (pH 2.5) as shown by the extractability of condensed tannin from the complex. The significance of these results with respect to (a) bloat in cattle, (b) nitrogen metabolism of ruminants, is discussed. Polyethylene-glycol, mol.wt. 4000 (PEG) exchanged with protein in the complex releasing protein into solution. The effectiveness of PEG was dependent on the amount of tannin in the complex and the age of the complex at the time of addition of PEG. The results explain the observation that PEG is unsuitable as a marker for rumen volume determination when animals are fed herbage that contains condensed tannins. A method for determining any deleterious effects of tannins on nitrogen metabolism by ruminants, is suggested.
The phlobaphenes formation and precipation during sulphite/water extraction of pine tannins from pine bark was minimized by
blocking tannin self-condensation by the addition of small amounts of a strong nucleophile such as phloroglucinol, m-phenylenediamine
and urea, the latter due to its low cost for industrial application. These inhibitors reacted preferentially with the reaction
intermediates formed in the tannins self-condensation mechanism, stopping the reaction reaching the molecular rearranged precipates
known as phlobaphenes. The principle of inhibition appears to be effective at both the laboratory and industrial level. The
results of laboratory and industrial extractions and the results of the adhesives from the modified pine tannin extract/urea
adducts obtained are presented. The pine tannin/urea extracts proved to yield good thermosetting wood adhesives for panel
products. The minimization of phlobaphenes precipitation increased the yield from 19% to 25% industrial scale.
Die Bildung und Ausfällung von Phlobaphenen während der Extraktion von Kiefernrinde wurde verringert durch Blockieren der
Tanninkondensation durch geringe Zusätze stark nukleophiler Reagentien wie Phloroglucin, m-Phenylendiamin und Harnstoff (letzterer
wegen der geringen Kosten für die industrielle Herstellung). Diese Inhibitoren reagierten vor allem mit Zwischenprodukten
der Tanninkondensation. Dabei wird die Bildung der durch molekulare Umlagerungen entstehenden Phlobaphene gestoppt. Die Unterdrückung
der Phlobaphenbildung gelingt sowohl im Labor- als auch im technischen Maßstab. Die Ergebnisse der Extraktion und der Leimherstellung
aus diesen modifizierten Tanninen mit Harnstoffzusatz werden beschrieben. Diese Kleber eignen sich gut zur Heißverleimung
von Platten. Aufgrund der Unterdrükkung der Phlobaphenbildung erhöhte sich die Ausbeute der technischen Extraktion von 19
auf 25%.
The hydrolysis of proanthocyanidins to anthocyanidins in n-BuOH-HCl (95:5) has been shown to be an autoxidation, the yield of anthocyanidin being critically dependent on trace metal-ion impurities. Reproducible yields of anthocyanidin may be achieved if iron (III) salts are added to the reaction medium, and a standard method of analysis of proanthocyanidins based on use of an n-BuOH-HCl-FeIII mixture is given. The ratio of absorbance maxima of the cyanidin (550 nm) produced to that near 280 nm for the original procyanidin polymer solution was ∼ 3.5.
Browse and cereal stubble represent the two most important resources for grazing small ruminants in dry Mediterranean areas. The purpose of the present review is to provide updated information regarding their nutritional value. In a mixed Mediterranean environment, browse represents at least 40% of goat's diet. Most browse species in the Mediterranean are rich in tanniferous phenolic substances. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) can bind tannins irreversibly over a wide range of pH and is efficient in alleviating the negative effects of tannins. Supplementing with PEG improves intake and digestibility in grazing goats and sheep and has the potential to be economically profitable. The chemical composition of wheat stubble is affected by the cultivar of wheat and climate, but not tillage management. The quality of stubble from early maturing is lower than from late maturing cultivars. Stubble contains more protein in years of lower rainfall. If grains escaped from the harvest combine (2% of grain yield) are included, digestibility of OM from different components ranges between ±80% (grain) to ±40% (stem). Also, the energy requirement of sheep grazing on stubble may be 70% higher than in shaded feedlot. Therefore, the body condition changes of sheep grazing on stubble exhibit a cyclic pattern consequent with temporal changes in nutritive quality. Because stubble grazing is concurrent with the onset of oestrous season, supplementation with grains from legume species-rich in degradable protein-is needed to prevent impairment of body condition. Supplementing browsing goats with PEG, and sheep grazing cereal stubble with moderate amounts of legume grain, may enable the use of these traditional resources in the frame of sustainable production systems.
Synthetic polymers such as water-soluble polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), water-insoluble polyvinyl polypyrrolidone (PVPP), and water-soluble polyethylene glycol (PEG) contain sufficient oxygen molecules in a chain to form strong hydrogen bonds with the phenolic and hydroxyl groups in tannins. This review deals with the practical uses of tannin-binding agents, particularly PEG, in tannins assays and for determining the negative effects of tannins on feed intake and digestion in ruminants. A gravimetric method to assay tannins by precipitation with PVPP is specific for tannins and does not require standards. The extractability of tannins from plant tissues can be reduced by drying samples at temperatures above 50°C and is dependent on many other factors, such as content and types of plant proteins. Therefore, it is not feasible to recommend a single, optimal protocol for all plant samples. A method to assay tannins which is based on measuring the amount of binding of PEG to plant samples was shown to be simple and accurate. It can also overcome some of these extractability problems. The following biological effects of tannins were investigated in studies where tannin anti-nutritional effects were partially or completely neutralised by varying levels of PEG supplementation. (1) Effects on appetite: the negative effects of tannins on appetite can occur in the short-term (within 20-60 min) and the long-term (days and weeks), Astringency and adverse postingestive influences of tannins on the epithelium of the oral cavity and the foregut cause short-term effects on food intake. Long-term effects can be related to reduction in the concentration of ammonia and volatile fatty acids (VFA) in rumen fluids, which can in turn serve as metabolic cues for deficiency of nitrogen (ammonia), energy (VFA), or both. (2) Effects on digestion: increasing content of tannins in foliage can be associated with an increase in bound protein and with reduced degradation rate of the degradable matter in the rumen, but there is no corresponding increase of the non-degradable fraction. Consequently, organic matter, protein, and cell wall digestibility are inversely related to tannin concentrations. (3) Inducing digestive responses: if a significant amount of tannins reach the duodenum, they may markedly reduce the intestinal activity of pancreatic enzymes (trypsin and amylase) and amino acids absorption from the intestine. Condensed tannins can also reduce the content of fluid and particulate matter in the rumen, accelerate the passage of liquid from the abomasum, and delay the passage of digesta in the intestine. The overall effect is a delay in the passage of fluid and particulate matter throughout the entire gastrointestinal tract. It is hypothesised that these responses are largely the consequence of the interaction of tannins with digestive enzymes and the epithelium lining the digestive tract.