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Organic coasts? Regulatory challenges of certifying integrated shrimp-mangrove production systems in Vietnam
... Therefore, to enhance the income for farmers, improving the value of shrimp products is a good option. The Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers initiated the development of organic certification in Ca Mau province (Ha et., 2012). By 2010, the German organic certification scheme Naturland has been applying to 1000 farms in IMSF Comparison Environmental Conditions and Economic Efficiency Between Organic and Non-Organic Integrated Mangrove -Shrimp Farming Systems in Ca Mau Province, Vietnam systems (Ha et al., 2012;Omoto, 2012). ...
... The Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers initiated the development of organic certification in Ca Mau province (Ha et., 2012). By 2010, the German organic certification scheme Naturland has been applying to 1000 farms in IMSF Comparison Environmental Conditions and Economic Efficiency Between Organic and Non-Organic Integrated Mangrove -Shrimp Farming Systems in Ca Mau Province, Vietnam systems (Ha et al., 2012;Omoto, 2012). The organic certificate has improved the revenue for households through the selling price of shrimp in the organic IMSF system was increased by 10% (Angus and Richard, 2015). ...
... The organic certificate has improved the revenue for households through the selling price of shrimp in the organic IMSF system was increased by 10% (Angus and Richard, 2015). Therefore, the Naturland certificate has been demonstrated as one of the promising solutions to improve household income and encourage reserving mangrove areas (Ha et al., 2012;Angus and Richard, 2015). Besides, it also contributed to green development and promoted ecological shrimp farming practices. ...
Mangrove forest protection is an essential solution for mitigating the impacts of natural disasters in coastal zones and climate change. Integrated mangrove-shrimp farming (IMSF) system has been promoted as a sustainable livelihood that can provide income for farmers and protect mangrove forests. However, the productivity of shrimp is limited. Therefore, to enhance the revenue for farmers, improving the value of shrimp products is a good option. Organic shrimp farming practices following the EU aquaculture organic standards have been previously applied in some areas of the Mekong delta. This study was conducted to compare technical, financial characteristics and environmental
parameters between the applied (i.e., organic farms) and non-applied (i.e., non-organic farms) standards of Naturland, aiming to support the development of ecological shrimp farming and contribute towards green development. The study was carried out in Nhung Mien mangrove forest, Ngoc Hien district, Ca Mau province, Vietnam. Fifty organic farms and 50 non-organic farms were directly interviewed using structured questionnaires. And then, three farms in each system were selected for monitoring water quality. Results
showed that the average mangrove coverage was 54.1% in the organic IMSF system and significantly different from the non-organic IMSF system (p<0.05). Total shrimp yield, total income and total profits tended to increase in organic IMSF system and the selling shrimp price increased by 10% compared to the conventional price. The study showed that following organic farming methods could provide higher income for farmers and a better chance to mitigate natural disasters and climate change impacts.
... In 2009, a second project was implemented also funded by SIPPO. In this project, certified organic shrimp are purchased and export by Nam Can Sea-product Import Export Join Stock Company (SEANAMICO) (Ha et al., 2012). In 2013, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and the Netherlands Development Organization started a third project, funded by BMUB, the German Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Building, and Nuclear Safety (IUCN, 2016). ...
... However, farm-gate prices of certified organic shrimp paid by the companies were lower than the prices of non-certified shrimp; this was applied to discourage mixing no-certified with certified organic shrimp. Thus, farmers received "the same (or a little more) from certified organic shrimp compared to non-certified products" (Ha et al., 2012). Also, farmers had to wait several months to receive the premium. ...
... Also, farmers had to wait several months to receive the premium. Because of these problems, many farmers withdrew from the program (Ha et al., 2012). In the third project, farmers are directly paid 3,000 VND/kg (0.13 USD/kg-approximately 1% of the shrimp price) as the price premium per kilogram of organic shrimp by the Minh Phu Seafood Corporation. ...
... As with organic agriculture, a third-party certification is required to guarantee organic aquaculture practices, along the entire production chain, from farm to markets. The certification process itself is an additional bureaucratic, logistic, and financial burden and is often significantly expensive for organic fish production, which present a central obstacle to the development of organic seafood markets (Biao 2008;Ha et al. 2012). Certification is costly in organic fish cultivation, and coupled with the fact that most producers aspiring to be organic certified are typically small-scale producers, it results in being a substantial financial barrier (IFOAM EU Group 2010; Ha et al. 2012). ...
... The certification process itself is an additional bureaucratic, logistic, and financial burden and is often significantly expensive for organic fish production, which present a central obstacle to the development of organic seafood markets (Biao 2008;Ha et al. 2012). Certification is costly in organic fish cultivation, and coupled with the fact that most producers aspiring to be organic certified are typically small-scale producers, it results in being a substantial financial barrier (IFOAM EU Group 2010; Ha et al. 2012). Moreover, third-party certification is based on techno-scientific values and norms of Western societies, and thus, it has been proven to be difficult to implement in the Global South, due to cultural and structural differences (Hatanaka 2010). ...
... Nevertheless, the annual yield of shrimp (P. monodon) is 1783-4178 kg/ha in semi-intensive cultivation systems (Ramaswamy et al. 2013) and 4366 kg/ha in intensive production (Ha et al. 2012). In organic aquaculture, the maximum annual production of shrimp is limited, and should not exceed 1600 kg/ha (Naturland 2020), which indicates that organic shrimp productivity is 11-161% lower than semi-intensive farming and 173% lower than intensive farming. ...
Organic aquaculture originated from the organic agriculture movement. Organic fish farming is an ecosystem-based management system, which was developed as a potential substitute to address environmental constraints faced by intensive aquaculture. However, the transformation from conventional aquaculture to organic aquaculture is a multidimensional, complex, and expensive process. The further development of organic aquaculture can be enhanced by establishing uniform organic aquaculture standards. Converting to organic aquaculture brings a wide range of environmental advantages. Nevertheless, organic yields are significantly lower than those of modern aquaculture, which will reduce its contribution to global food security. To meet global demand for fish and seafood from an increasing human population, food production from aquaculture must be enhanced since production from capture fisheries has remained stagnant. Because aquaculture is associated with various environmental constraints, a further increase in fish production will encounter diverse environmental challenges. Greater use of organic aquaculture practices will help to diminish environmental footprints of aquaculture. We propose that fish production could increase through the sustainable intensification of a combination of production systems, including polyculture, integrated aquaculture, and organic aquaculture.
... To combat the rapid loss of mangroves while balancing development needs, governments and development organizations have encouraged the spread of IMA to enhance smallholder livelihoods and promote sustainable development, through projects such as "Mangroves and Markets" in Vietnam and Thailand (SNV, 2019). These projects mandate minimum percentages of mangrove cover to be maintained or established in shrimp ponds (Ha et al., 2012a). As IMA systems typically require limited nutrient inputs compared to semi-extensive or intensive systems, extensive systems can be a more financially feasible production option for smallholders, which in part drives their adoption (Joffre et al., 2015). ...
... As much of the past research has focused on small-holder producers or on discrete geographical scales (e.g., Ha et al., 2012a;Ahmed et al., 2018), it is important to recognize that the research reviewed to date demonstrates considerable loss of ecosystem function when IMA is practiced compared to leaving mangrove forests intact (see Table 1), and more notably, no research has explicitly demonstrated that IMA retains any functionality of intact mangrove stands. To balance future demand for shrimp with global mangrove conservation, we recommend the following to those considering supporting IMA projects: 1) Prioritize durable protection for mangrove forests in places where they remain, and avoid IMA encroachment into intact mangrove systems. ...
Aquaculture production is projected to surpass wild-capture fisheries as the primary source of aquatic animal protein in the near future. Farmed shrimp-which are amongst the most valuable aquaculture commodities-are raised predominantly in Southeast Asia and Latin America in a variety of production systems, spanning from extensive to intensive farming. Shrimp aquaculture has been widely criticized for causing mangrove forest degradation and loss, leading to calls for more sustainable aquaculture approaches that protect mangroves. Here we examine an approach promoted as more sustainable-integrated mangrove aquaculture (IMA): a type of farming where mangroves are planted in or alongside shrimp ponds. We argue that mangroves within IMA shrimp systems provide biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services that are, at best, compromised, especially when compared to intact mangrove forests. Given the rapid adoption of IMA approaches, including advocacy for uptake from many governments and non-governmental organizations, there is an urgent need to ensure that these and other aquaculture systems do not result in any conversion of intact mangrove ecosystems into aquaculture ponds, and to identify any benefits (or lack thereof) provided by IMA systems. The increasing adoption of IMA may offer false promises for managing trade-offs between increasing aquaculture productivity and mangrove forest conservation.
... According to the WWF, "acceptable" products are not sustainable. On pressure from members of the Seafood Group, 14 however, WWF Switzerland had allowed members to advertise such products as sustainable in the past, an exception that ended on December 31, 2020. Starting in January 2021, WWF recommendations in Switzerland were aligned with communication from other WWF offices, and certain fish that could be sold as "sustainable fish" in 2020 are no longer considered sustainable in 2021, 10 See Finding "WWF's influence on the definition of sustainable fish". ...
... Second, established means for product differentiation fail to be inclusive, a drawback that has already been well covered by academic studies for certification schemes and ecolabels [2,10,14,16,19,29,36]. ...
Background
Unsustainable production practices and increased demand for fish have aggravated negative social, ecological, and environmental impacts in fisheries and aquaculture. Measures to correct bad practices have mainly been introduced by private actors. However, there is increased demand for state intervention, particularly regarding trade regulations for fish and other agricultural products. Building on discussions about product differentiation through trade measures that favour sustainable products, this study looked at how sustainable and unsustainable fish has been distinguished in Switzerland. In interviewing experts in the fish trade and sales business in Switzerland, the research aimed at understanding the actors and forces that shape the concept of sustainable fish in the country.
Results
Three ways of product differentiation for sustainable fish by private actors were identified in Switzerland: ecolabels, “Swiss produce”, and recommendations in the form of a “consumer guide for fish”. Currently, price is the main constraint on consumption of sustainable products in the country. Defining “sustainable fish” is challenging and subject to interpretation. All existing measures to differentiate sustainable from unsustainable fish products in Switzerland have shortcomings, particularly in terms of discrimination and inclusiveness. Fish ecolabels play a key role in product differentiation, but experts believe that they fail to accommodate all aspects of sustainability.
Conclusion
Our findings imply that the Swiss state should play a more important role if it aims to fulfil the promise of article 104a of the Swiss Constitution, which seeks to foster sustainable production and cross-border trade relations that contribute towards this goal. Preferred trade treatment for sustainable fish products is a potential option to increase the production and consumption of sustainable fish. When designing measures for product differentiation, a careful choice is paramount to address sustainability in a holistic, inclusive, and transparent way and in order not to violate existing trade obligations. Due to similarities between the Swiss and other fish markets, we assume that governments in general and members of the European Union in particular must play an active role in shaping the definition and trade of sustainable fish products if they seek to comply with their sustainability commitments.
... Certified products need to be labeled as organic according to organic aquaculture standards (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). The certification procedure is often costly for organic aquaculture, presenting an obstacle to the organic market ( Biao, 2008;Ha et al., 2012). The cost of third party organic certification is the disproportionate high cost element in the form of certification costs ( Washington and Ababouch, 2011). ...
... The certification procedure is often costly for organic aquacul- ture, presenting an obstacle to the organic market (Biao, 2008;Ha et al., 2012). The cost of third party organic certification is the disproportionate high cost element in the form of certification costs ( Washington and Ababouch, 2011). ...
Although giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man) farming is widely practiced in southwest Bangladesh due to favorable biophysical resources and agro-climatic conditions, organic prawn culture has not yet taken off. However, the culture of wild prawn postlarvae and the use of snail meat and farm-made feeds with cow dung in many respects are considered as semi-organic. A considerable number of extensive and improved-extensive farmers practice this form of organic culture in southwest Bangladesh. Transformation to truly organic prawn culture, however, faces various environmental, socioeconomic, and technical challenges. We review the opportunities and challenges associated with a transformation towards fully organic prawn farming. We suggest that institutional support and technical assistance may enable prawn farmers to be engaged in fully organic culture that could bring widespread social, economic, and environmental benefits in Bangladesh.
... The empirical research of this thesis was conducted in Ngọc Hiển and Năm Căn district in Cà Mau province, Vietnam (Paper II) and in Stockholm, Sweden (Paper IV-V). Cà Mau is the leading province for Vietnamese shrimp production and currently holds about half of the remaining mangrove forest the Mekong delta (Ha et al. 2012a) (Fig. 5). Mangrove-integrated farms, operating with a minimum or no input of feed and fertilizer, produce around 5% of the total volume of shrimp from the province and have received increased attention the last years. ...
... For instance, ecological information could help overcome disputes on the extent of mangrove forest that should be preserved on a given farm area (e.g. Ha et al. 2012a;Hatanaka 2010) by providing a landscape perspective on preservation and restoration of man-grove ecosystem services. Nonetheless, in order for ES-information to be broadly used in creation and enforcement of standards, it needs to be produced and become accessible for potential users such as producers, consultants (e.g. ...
Aquaculture and fisheries hold promise for supplying a growing world population with healthy food produced without undermining the earth’s carrying capacity. However, just as livestock production and agriculture, seafood production can have negative environmental impacts and if a continuous or even increased supply is to be guaranteed, the pressure on affected ecosystems needs to be limited. Due in part to a perceived failure of other governance mechanisms in improving the environmental performance of the sector, a large number of voluntary market based standards for farmed and wild caught seafood have been developed. Nonetheless, the knowledge base on the extent to which implementation leads to environmental improvements remains limited. Moreover, the role of consumers in driving demand for eco-labeled seafood is presently an under-researched area. This thesis aims at reducing this knowledge gap through an examination of the potential environmental effectiveness of aquaculture eco-certification and internal, psychological variables predicted to be of importance for sustainable seafood consumption. Put differently, what is the potential of eco-certification in greening the blue revolution and fuel ‘turquoise growth’, and how can consumer demand be spurred?
In Paper I, the role of eco-certification in improving the growing aquaculture sector at large was explored. Results
showed that environmental effects at global scale likely will be limited due to e.g. partial coverage of species groups and environmental impacts, and a lack of focus on Asian markets and consumers. In Paper II the environmental performance of eco-certified and non-certified mangrove-integrated shrimp farms in Vietnam was compared by using Life Cycle Assessment and put in relation to conventional, more intensive farms. While there was no substantial difference between certified and non-certified farms in terms of environmental impacts, emissions of greenhouse gasses were higher for mangrove-integrated than conventional farms due to mangrove land use change. The results from Paper III demonstrated that the body of literature investigating ecological effects of seafood eco-certification is limited. ‘Spatially explicit ecosystem service information’ (ES-information) on e.g. key ecosystem services and biodiversity in a given area is suggested to have potential to improve sustainability standards. Taking guidance from the pro-environmental behavior literature, consumers in Stockholm, Sweden were consulted on awareness of and attitudes towards eco-labeled seafood (Paper IV-V). Two variables, concern for environmental impacts and knowledge about seafood eco-labels were the best predictors for stated eco-labeled seafood purchasing. Moreover, there seemed to be a misalignment between consumers’ expectations on eco-labeled food in general and certification requirements for eco-labeled seafood.
From this set of findings, a number of improvements of current seafood eco-certification are suggested. First, include an LCA-perspective in standards to a higher degree than presently done and provide readily available ES-information in the implementation and evaluation phase of certification. Second, introduce standardized mechanisms for capturing potential environmental improvements over time. And finally, stimulate demand by targeting Asian consumers and markets as well as strengthen consumer eco-label awareness and emotional involvement.
... These authors also found urbanization with migration from rural to urban areas reducing pressures on mangrove forests. In addition, international demand for ecofriendly products, such as certified seafoods that meet environmental requirements like mangrove protection, has also made government agencies and local people more aware of the need to protect mangrove forests (Ha et al. 2012). ...
... The exclusion of small ale intermediaries from the value chain is likely to have occurred because the traditional value chain comprised several intermediaries which caused traceability issues for certified prawn from farms to intermediaries then to (Duijn et al., 2012). As Ha et al. (2012) found in their study of the organic certification value chain, prawn came through several intermediaries before it was received by seafood processors, leading to f mislabeling between certified and noncertified prawn. ...
The Global Value Chain (GVC) approach was used to analyse the integration of different prawn production stakeholders in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam into the global value of the buyer-driven chain in which international markets and major retailers use third as the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC), to form an entry barrier for producing countries. U the ASC value chain, each stakeholder used their own governance tool to contribute to the production of prawn products that met recognised sustainable standards in response to environmental and social concerns. The GVC analysis suggested that adoption of ASC certification benefited small establishing contract farming between ASC farmers and seafood processors and input contracts between seed and chemical suppliers with ASC farmers. The presence of contract far farm gate to seafood processors by reducing the number of intermediaries involved in the chain; therefore, contributing to increased share of the revenue for farmers. However, the ASC value chain is likely to exclude and compromise the livelihood of small in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam.
... Extensive shrimp farming systems raise shrimps in earthen monoculture ponds without vegetation and have low initial stocking densities of 1-3 post larvae per square meter (Tran et al., 2012a). They have supplementary stocking during the culture period, limited additional feeding, irregular sediment dredging, and a low survival rate (Phuong et al., 2004). ...
Balancing economic, environmental and social objectives usually challenges policymakers, but it is feasible. Using a unique household survey dataset with 98 households in Ca Mau Province, Vietnam, we found that integrating mangroves with shrimp farming, in a mangrove-aquaculture system (MAS), can support multiple objectives. The MAS provides the highest average benefit-cost ratio (BCR), from 2.7 to 2.9, while the BCR of surveyed intensive shrimp farms ranged from 1.1 to 1.2, and that of the traditional extensive shrimp farming systems was from 1.7 to 1.8. MAS was also the least expensive in terms of investment and suitable for people with limited financial capacity. MAS can also produce other economic and environmental benefits, such as from carbon mitigation, with less overall risk than the other systems. Our survey data show that mangrove coverage may contribute to economic efficiency; and the optimal mangrove coverage from the perspective of individual farmers (30%) was lower than what is demonstrated by empirical data (60%). While our findings draw from survey data in a specific location, they highlight the benefits of MAS as a possible triple-win approach towards sustainable development and also emphasise the importance of complementary programs, such as awareness enhancement, communication, and training.
... Similarly, for the places where a combination of mangrove-shrimp farming is permitted (e.g. Ca Mau province) (Ha et al. 2012), the rule of keeping a minimum 60 percent of land plots covered by mangroves 13 is poorly implemented by contracted enterprises due to economic pursuits, and the subsequent wastewater pollution from excessive shrimp farming harms the health of local residents. Under this circumstance, however, the non-compliant contractors still remain contracted. ...
This article proposes a framework for reviewing to what extent laws and policies of a legal system support climate resilience. This article adopts the social ecological system (SES) theory and translates its core features into an operational framework which consists of four legal dimensions crucial for promoting climate resilience – adaptiveness of law, distributive justice, broad participation, and cross scale interactions, and further identifies several indicators below each dimension. Then this article operationalizes the four legal dimensions via reviewing current Vietnamese climate adaptation laws and policies to assess to what extent they promote a climate-resilient Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD). While various barriers can be found in the current legal framework and policies which impede climate resilience, the latest National Climate Change Adaptation Plan demonstrates great improvement in facilitating climate resilience in a just, participatory and coordinated manner
... For example, during 2003For example, during -2013 in Ca Mau province, approximately 13,600 ha of mangroves were recovered (Son et al. 2015), of which about 50% was mangrove-shrimp farms with forest cover rate ranging from 10 to 60% (Lam-Dao et al. 2011). Recently, the government introduced a new market-based approach (i.e., payment for ecosystem services) to conserve coastal landscapes by promoting an organic production scheme in integrated mangrove-shrimp aquaculture systems (Ha et al. 2012a;Tran et al. 2020). Under the scheme, shrimp farmers will be guaranteed a premium shrimp price in exchange for maintaining a minimum mangrove cover of 50% in their ponds (i.e., natural land certificate for organic shrimp) or those whose forest coverage is over 40% committing to achieve 50% mangrove coverage within 5 years after certification. ...
Shrimp aquaculture is the biggest source of export income in Vietnam. However, the development of the shrimp poses a serious threat to coastal mangroves by converting coastal mangroves into shrimp farms. Much effort has been made to replant mangroves and reduce the impacts of shrimp farming on the environment, and maintaining mangrove coverage at 30-50% of total farm area has provided the highest benefits in the integrated mangrove shrimp model. In this study, we reexamine the benefits of forest cover on the survival and yield of tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) in the integrated mangrove shrimp farming systems in Ca Mau province, Vietnam. The study found positive linear correlations of log transformed survival and yield of tiger shrimp with forest cover of the forms: Ln (survival) = − 1.39 + 0.038 × forest coverage (r 2 = 0.22; p value = 0.0007); Ln (yield) = 3.55 + 0.026 × forest coverage (r 2 = 0.16; p value = 0.004). The households with high forest cover (i.e., > 45%) also had 1.07 ± 0.29 and 1.39 ± 0.36 (CI 95%, p value = 0.000) kg ha −1 higher yield per night harvest than those with medium and low forest cover, respectively. As a result, households with high forest cover have higher benefits than those with lower forest cover. Our findings together with previous published studies lead to the recommendation that farmers maintain mangroves in farming systems for better economic and environmental benefits.
... Whiteleg shrimp are an important aquaculture species, as they have a relatively high value and are internationally traded (FAO, 2020b). Considering the history of poor production practices (Holmstrom et al., 2003;Naylor et al., 1998Naylor et al., , 2000 and socio-environmental issues (Bailey, 1988;Ha et al., 2012) in shrimp aquaculture, there has been an increased push for accountability and consequently an increased demand for traceability in globally-traded shrimp products. One tool that has been proposed for improving the traceability of shrimp products is elemental profiling (Hassoun et al., 2020;Li et al., 2016), which could be used to identify country of origin based on tissue element concentrations (Davis et al., 2021). ...
Provenance of seafood items is a concern for consumers and importers alike. Elemental profiling has been put forth as a potential tool to improve seafood traceability. Whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei collected from farms in Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand were classified to country of origin based on element concentrations in muscle tissue. Shrimp were dried, digested, and analyzed via ICP-MS. Out of the 41 elements investigated, 33 are reported as being above detection limits. Twenty-eight elements were statistically different across countries, and of these 28, Ecuador had unique group membership in 7. A random forest classification model utilizing 16 elements had an overall accuracy of 91% of correctly classified samples to country of origin. A canonical discriminant analysis was conducted to understand the variation in the data and identify elements that were important to differentiation in multi-dimension space. Elements identified as important contributors were Al, As, B, Ca, Co, Cs, Sr, and V. This study shows that shrimp from Ecuador tend to be more mineralized than shrimp from Asia, and classification models can discern samples from these countries successfully. This demonstrates the potential of a traceability database for cultured shrimp products from predominant production countries.
... In this system, shrimp ponds are organized together with mangrove forests in integrated farming systems, which make them different from other unsustainable aquaculture practices (i.e., deforestation of mangrove forests) (Baumgartner and Nguyen 2017). Such integrated mangrove-shrimp farming systems has gained popularity in the Ca Mau Province in the Mekong Delta of the Southern Vietnam (Ha et al. 2012). ...
Maturity Index, which categorizes nematode taxa into five groups, represents different life strategies and ecological requirements, ranging from colonizers (r - strategists) to persisters (k - strategists). Maturity Index of nematode assemblages has been widely used as bioindicators in environmental assessments. This study was conducted to understand how the Maturity Index provides sensitive adaption with environmental disturbances (emphasis on effects of organic enrichment) in tropical mangrove ecosystems. Sampling was carried out in the rainy season of 2015, nematode communities were sampled and environmental variables were measured at the eight integrated mangrove - shrimp ponds in the Ca Mau mangrove forests in Southern Vietnam. Correlation and regression analyses were applied to explore the relationship between the Maturity Index and environmental variables. The Maturity Index of nematode communities differently responded depending on the environmental conditions. Maturity Index was positively correlated with salinity and, on the other hand, was negatively correlated with organic enrichment (total nitrogen and total organic carbon). These findings suggest potential application of the Maturity Index in biomonitoring studies of tropical mangrove ecosystems.
... In turn, responses aimed at mitigating these shared risks have emerged that fall under the broad headings of 'beyond-farm' or 'area-based' aquaculture management (Bush et al., 2019;Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 2017). While considerable attention has been given to private forms of area-based aquaculture management, including farmer collectives and market-driven initiatives (Kassam et al., 2011;Ha et al., 2012), less attention has been given to public, state-led, approaches involving spatially explicit programs and instruments. It therefore remains unclear whether state-led beyond-farm aquaculture governance can overcome individualistic behavior and foster the collective management of risks linked to the management of public resources such as land and water (Beitl, 2014;Galappaththi and Berkes, 2014). ...
The Thai aquaculture sector faces a range of production, market and financial risks that extend beyond the private space of farms to include public spaces and shared resources. The Thai state has attempted to manage these shared risks through its Plang Yai (or ‘Big Area’) agricultural extension program. Using the lens of territorialization, this paper investigates how, through the Plang Yai program, risk management is institutionalized through spatially explicit forms of collaboration amongst farmers and between farmers and (non-)state actors. We focus on how four key policy instruments brought together under Plang Yai delimited multiple territories of risk management over shrimp and tilapia production in Chantaburi and Chonburi provinces. Our findings demonstrate how these policy instruments address risks through dissimilar but overlapping territories that are selectively biased toward facilitating the individual management of production risks, whilst enabling both the individual and collective management of market and financial risks. This raises questions about the suitability of addressing aquaculture risks by controlling farmer behavior through state-led designation of singular, spatially explicit areas. The findings also indicate the multiple roles of the state in territorializing risk management, providing a high degree of flexibility, which is especially valuable in landscapes shared by many users, connected to (global) value chains and facing diverse risks. In doing so we demonstrate that understanding the territorialization of production landscapes in a globalizing world requires a dynamic approach recognizing the multiplicity of territories that emerge in risk management processes.
... Shrimp farms occupying former mangrove areas can be converted to organic culture if deforested mangrove area is less than 50% of the total farm area, and if all former mangrove area is reforested to at least 50% within five years (Naturland, 2016). The Vietnamese government is keen to expand organic aquaculture through integrated mangrove-shrimp cultivation for mangrove restoration (Ha et al., 2012). Organic shrimp cultivation could reduce environmental degradation and water pollution because of no chemical inputs. ...
In order to meet the demand for food from a growing global population, aquaculture production must be increased as capture fisheries have stagnated. Rapid population growth with competition for land and water could affect aquaculture production. Although aquaculture uses non-consumptive water, there are significant water footprints for aquaculture due to water lost and water required for fish-feed production. Moreover, climate change affects water availability and demand for aquaculture, and poses a further threat to global fish production. Nevertheless, the efficient use of blue water (surface and groundwater) and green water (rain) in inland, coastal, and marine aquaculture could make a significant contribution to global fish production and climate change adaptation. Sustainable intensification of freshwater aquaculture, mangrove restoration with brackish water fish production, and the expansion of mariculture could increase global fish production with adaptation to climate change. Institutional support with technical and financial assistance is needed to implement the proposed adaptation strategies.
... Further challenges in accurate classifications of mangrove forests are raised by; (1) the fine-grained landscape mosaic with mangrove plots and aquaculture ponds often sized at sub-pixel (30 m × 30 m) measures, (2) the unknown implications of tidal effects on spectral signals and the high level of water vapor observed in these coastal regions, and (3) recent trends towards integrated mangrove-shrimp farming production systems which have made discrimination between mangrove, aquaculture paddy land use classes more ambivalent [9,13,15,52,53]. These challenges highlight the importance of making the most of the temporal information available to lower uncertainties in the final classification product. ...
Ecosystem services offered by mangrove forests are facing severe risks, particularly through land use change driven by human development. Remote sensing has become a primary instrument to monitor the land use dynamics surrounding mangrove ecosystems. Where studies formerly relied on bi-temporal assessments of change, the practical limitations concerning data-availability and processing power are slowly disappearing with the onset of high-performance computing (HPC) and cloud-computing services, such as in the Google Earth Engine (GEE). This paper combines the capabilities of GEE, including its entire Landsat-7 and Landsat-8 archives and state-of-the-art classification approaches, with a post-classification temporal analysis to optimize land use classification results into gap-free and consistent information. The results demonstrate its application and value to uncover the spatio-temporal dynamics of mangrove forests and land use changes in Ngoc Hien District, Ca Mau province, Vietnamese Mekong delta. The combination of repeated GEE classification output and post-classification optimization provides valid spatial classification (94–96% accuracy) and temporal interpolation (87–92% accuracy). The findings reveal that the net change of mangroves forests over the 2001–2019 period equals −0.01% annually. The annual gap-free maps enable spatial identification of hotspots of mangrove forest changes, including deforestation and degradation. Post-classification temporal optimization allows for an exploitation of temporal patterns to synthesize and enhance independent classifications towards more robust gap-free spatial maps that are temporally consistent with logical land use transitions. The study contributes to a growing body of work advocating full exploitation of temporal information in optimizing land cover classification and demonstrates its use for mangrove forest monitoring
... Shrimp farms occupying former mangrove areas can be converted to organic culture if deforested mangrove area is less than 50% of the total farm area, and if all former mangrove area is reforested to at least 50% within five years (Naturland, 2016). The Vietnamese government is keen to expand organic aquaculture through integrated mangrove-shrimp cultivation for mangrove restoration (Ha et al., 2012). Organic shrimp cultivation could reduce environmental degradation and water pollution because of no chemical inputs. ...
In order to meet the demand for food from a growing global population, aquaculture production must be increased as capture fisheries have stagnated. Rapid population growth with competition for land and water could affect aquaculture production. Although aquaculture uses non-consumptive water, there are significant water footprints for aquaculture due to water lost and water required for fish-feed production. Moreover, climate change affects water availability and demand for aquaculture, and poses a further threat to global fish production. Nevertheless, the efficient use of blue water (surface and groundwater) and green water (rain) in inland, coastal, and marine aquaculture could make a significant contribution to global fish production and climate change adaptation. Sustainable intensification of freshwater aquaculture, mangrove restoration with brackish water fish production, and the expansion of mariculture could increase global fish production with adaptation to climate change. Institutional support with technical and financial assistance is needed to implement the proposed adaptation strategies.
... Economic approaches emphasise that farmers, while critically evaluating risks, are more likely to make decisions that relate to 50 Theme TBC -inclusive business 'on-farm' production rather than to shared risk [20 ,21 ,22]. In some major producing countries, such as Vietnam, there is even evidence that intensive farmers, who tend to have greater financial resources and higher-level managerial competences, are more likely to engage in voluntary economic cooperation (independent of the state or contracting buyers) than small-scale and/or extensive producers [23]. In contrast to economic cooperation, the EAA aims to coordinate farmers across broad ecological units within which offfarm risks are unequally distributed. ...
This paper examines the potential for improved environmental performance of smallholder aquaculture production through 'beyond-farm' governance. Smallholder aquaculture farmers face a range of systemic environmental risks related to disease and water quality that extend beyond the boundary of their farms. Yet most governance arrangements aimed at mitigating risks, such as certification, finance and insurance, are focused on the farm-level rather than the wider landscape within which farming takes place. In this paper we propose an integrated approach to area-based management of aquaculture risks that integrates collective action, risk assurance and transfer, and inclusive value chains. In doing so, we set a new research agenda for the integrated governance of mitigating production risks and producer vulnerability in global food production. Addresses
... A series of social, ecological, epidemiological, and regulatory factors have been shown to influence the behaviour of aquaculture producers regarding their production system and farm management (Joffre et al., 2015a;Ahsan and Roth, 2010;Bush and Marschke, 2014;Ha et al., 2012aHa et al., , 2012bKusumawati et al., 2013;Tendencia et al., 2013). At the macro-scale, Hall (2004) discusses the social processes that have influenced shrimp farmer behaviour at the regional level across countries in Southeast Asia, namely; 1) government programs and State support for shrimp farming expansion in Thailand and Indonesia, 2) corporate involvement in training, research and the building of farm infrastructure (such as Charoen Pokphand Group (C.P.) in Thailand), 3) the role of collective farmer action to reduce problems, such as regulating water systems in Thailand and Indonesia, and 4) the influx of new shrimp producers in Java which destabilized traditional farm systems. ...
This study examines shrimp farmer behaviour in relation to production intensity along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Thailand, and its embeddedness in the wider socio-economic context of shrimp farming households. The integrative agent-centred (IAC) framework was used as a basis for designing a structured survey to collect semi-quantitative data for a range of explanatory variables that potentially drive shrimp farmer behaviour. The results show that shrimp farming intensity is associated with a combination of technical (e.g. farm area, pond size, stocking density and production), economic (shrimp selling price, production costs and farm revenue), social (e.g. farm operating years, the use of family labour, engagement in shrimp farming and with other shrimp farmers), and ecological factors (e.g. farmer reliance on natural pond productivity, and constraints brought about by environmental change and fluctuations in productive areas). In addition, the results indicate that a number of external and internal socio-economic factors are related to the decision to adopt a certain level of production intensity, including training received on farming practices, access to technical equipment, proportion of total income from shrimp farming, season-specific changes in production, risk perception, and subjective culture (social norms and roles). This study therefore illustrates that levels of shrimp farming intensity are in fact an indicator of a diversity of socio-economic conditions and behavioural choices, which need to be targeted by sustainability policies differentially and beyond the technical sphere. In showing this, we conclude that national standards aimed at achieving aquaculture sustainability should be designed to reflect the diversity needed to support such a diverse sector, and should be adjustable to better represent different socio-economic contexts.
... According to Greene (2012), the probability that an individual i selects an alternative among alternatives j = 0,1,…,J is expressed as follows: ...
Safe and environmentally friendly production has become an important trend in the aquaculture sector. Vietnam has successfully implemented a certified organic shrimp production project and is now planning to expand it. To successfully implement the certified organic shrimp production project in new areas, the ex ante evaluation of the factors influencing farmers’ decision to participate in this project is essential. Thus, this research determines factors affecting shrimp farmers’ decision to participate in a certified organic shrimp production project by analyzing a multinomial logit model. A survey was conducted in the Vietnamese part of the Mekong Delta and covered 220 shrimp farmers. The results show that farmers who have higher mangrove coverage in their shrimp farms are more likely to participate in the project. The likelihood of adoption also increases when farmers have a higher level of education. Interestingly, the premium commanded by the certified organic shrimp is not among the important factors affecting farmers’ decision to participate in the project.
... Aquaculture production in Vietnam is diverse in both scale and species (Nhan et al. 2007;Phan et al. 2009;Phuong and Oanh 2010)-there are both finfish and shellfish in freshwater and saltwater production systems, with farms operated by large corporations as well as small and medium enterprise farmers. The aquaculture industry in Vietnam has a global perspective, with farmers of all scales considering certification (e.g., VietGAP) to facilitate access to more lucrative, international markets (Belton et al. 2011;MARD 2011;Tran et al. 2012;Marschke and Wilkings 2014). Such certification 2 will require the reduction or elimination of antibiotics from the production system, necessitating effective alternatives, but also requiring knowledge and motivation from farmers to establish alternatives into their production cycles. ...
This study describes antibiotic use by small‐scale freshwater aquaculture farmers in the upper Mekong Delta in southwestern Vietnam and their knowledge and practices towards disease cause and prevention. Forty‐five farmers were included, of which 19 (42%) cultivated tilapia (Oreochromis sp.), 13 (29%) striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) and 13 (29%) freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). Antibiotics were used by tilapia and striped catfish farmers (84% and 69%, respectively), but not by any of the prawn farmers. Most farmers (72%) used antibiotics for around three days when treating diseases, depending on whether the fish recovered and the farmers' economic means. If farmers perceived that the antibiotic treatment had failed, the most common response was to change to another type of antibiotic. Some farmers also used antibiotics in the absence of clinical symptoms as a preventive measure. In the absence of rapid, cost‐effective diagnostics the likelihood for incorrect use of antibiotics is high, which has implications for antibiotic resistance. Moreover, the sequential use of different antibiotics following therapeutic failure is a risk factor for emergence of resistance. All farmers surveyed were aware of risks associated with antibiotic use. This may lead to successful intervention towards reduced antibiotic use in freshwater fish farming in Vietnam.
... Later, in mid-2008, Nam Can Seaproducts Import Export Joint Stock Company also joined this new direction. While these were important innovations, lessons were learned along the way about the obstacles that can weaken farmer enthusiasm Ha, Bush, Mol, & van Dijk, 2012). Most shrimp farmers in Ca Mau still operate in a low investment environment, and pursue conventional extensive, mangrove-shrimp, or rice-shrimp farming (Vu et al., 2013). ...
Research under the project: Global – Tenure and Global Climate Change (TGCC) - USAID
... Certification and labelling are presented as problematic also in North America, where it is considered as potentially confusing for consumers and not compatible with national standards [38]. Proposals for improving certification consider greater involvement of the farmers as active partners and more active roles played by the governments [31,35,39]. ...
The aim of this study was to analyse the economic aspects related to organic aquaculture through a systematic review of the scientific literature. Production from organic aquaculture has grown rapidly over the last few years, although it remains at low volumes worldwide. We followed the ‘Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses’ procedures for literature selection, and performed a qualitative review of the selected studies. The review is based on three research questions: “What are the main factors that affect the socio-economic development of organic aquaculture?“; “Is there evidence for better economic performance of organic aquaculture with respect to conventional aquaculture?“; “Do consumers show tangible preference for organically farmed seafood?” The main results show that profitability in organic aquaculture is not guaranteed for all aquaculture species, and the feed and fixed costs can be an issue if they are not balanced by adequate price premiums. Lack of homogenisation of organic standards for aquaculture is considered to be the main issue. Socio-economic aspects of organic aquaculture are particularly relevant in developing countries, where this farming practice can contribute to an improved livelihood and can integrate effectively with local farming practices. Consumers show a generally positive attitude towards organic seafood, although other aspects such as local origin might represent more relevant attributes. Consumer knowledge of organic aquaculture standards is also limited.
... Integrated mangrove-shrimp farming, known as silvoaquaculture or silvo-fisheries, is an environmentally friendly aquaculture practiced in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam Ha et al. 2012;Bosma et al. 2016). One of the adaptation strategies to compensate for mangrove deforestation by shrimp cultivation in Southeast Asian countries is to develop silvo-aquaculture for the conservation and rehabilitation of mangroves . ...
To meet the demand for food from a growing global population, aquaculture production is under great pressure to increase as capture fisheries have stagnated. However, aquaculture has raised a range of environmental concerns, and further increases in aquaculture production will face widespread environmental challenges. The effects of climate change will pose a further threat to global aquaculture production. Aquaculture is often at risk from a combination of climatic variables, including cyclone, drought, flood, global warming, ocean acidification, rainfall variation, salinity, and sea level rise. For aquaculture growth to be sustainable its environmental impacts must reduce significantly. Adaptation to climate change is also needed to produce more fish without environmental impacts. Some adaptation strategies including integrated aquaculture, recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), and the expansion of seafood farming could increase aquaculture productivity, environmental sustainability, and climate change adaptability.
... Processing factories and exporters keep the production risk at the producer level, as risk is too important, or the capability of farmers to upgrade their production system remains underdeveloped. The organization of the value chain also suffers from poor enforcement of contracts, disparity between farm gate prices and market prices (Bush and Belton, 2012), limiting contract farming and limited adoption by farmers of certification (Ha et al., 2012). Only groups of farmers are reported to have contractual relationship with processing companies (Bush and Oosterveer, 2007;Tran et al., 2013). ...
Shrimp farming is considered a “risky business” and often compared to gambling for farmers. It is associated with a diverse range of risks and uncertainties, including volatile markets, climate variability, and production risks. In order to mitigate the effects of unpredictability farmers may decide on a particular stocking density and adopt different risk management strategies. Aquaculture research has paid little attention to the influence played by the evaluation and selection of different farming practices, risk perceptions associated with shrimp farming, and the farmers' confidence in their own ability to mitigate risk. The objective of this paper is to analyze the case of shrimp farming in Vietnam's Mekong Delta, where different types of shrimp farms (extensive, semi-intensive and intensive) co-exist within the same landscape, to identify the underlying factors driving stocking behavior and the adoption of different risk management strategies.
A survey of 250 farms showed that perceptions toward different stocking behaviors (from extensive to intensive) varied according to the species raised (Penaeus monodon or P. vannamei) and the type of farm. At low density, farmers consider P. monodon as more productive and easier to adopt than P. vannamei. Adoption of intensive farming practices for both species is negatively associated with risk of disease emergence. However, expected productivity is not a predictor of adoption of intensive shrimp farming practices. Mediation analysis indicates that risk management strategies are significantly influenced by perceived market risk. The perception of this type of risk is a key predictor of risk management strategies. The farmers' lack of access to efficient market risk mitigation measures reflects inadequate or missing regulations or lack of specific value chain organization to mitigate this type of risk. Using a behavioral approach provides new insight on how farmers manage their farms, address risk and implement risk management strategies. It showed that farmers, unlike actual gamblers, adopt diverse management strategies after carefully evaluating species and stocking density as well as critically assessing different sources of risk.
... I argue that while there is certainly evidence to demonstrate these impacts, including the work of myself and my students on aquaculture in Southeast Asia (e.g. Anh et al., 2011;Ha et al., 2012;Bush et al., 2013), a singular attribution of environmental degradation to neoliberal globalism suffers from the same homogenising trap it seeks to address. This is because globalism risks feeding into a narrative of there being 'no alternative', which in turn risks devoiding societal actors of their agency to address environmental degradation. ...
Overcoming the environmental challenges of the next century requires new modes of globalisation. To contribute, social scientists need to move beyond a constraining focus on the ills of ‘neoliberal capitalism’. Instead we need to understand how environmental reform can be achieved through the design of reflexive practices, relations and institutions that contribute to socially inclusive environmental reform under conditions of global modernity.
... Extensive mangrove-integrated shrimp farms in Ca Mau, Mekong Delta (investigated by Jonell and Henriksson 2015 andJärviö et al. 2017) have been in operation since the early 1980s (Ha et al. 2012). These systems produce only 250-300 kg shrimp ha −1 yr −1 (Phan et al. 2011), resulting in large areas of land devoted to each kilogram of shrimp. ...
... Not only do retailers demand sustainable seafood, they establish contracts in order to deliver high volumes with the lowest possible unit cost (Bjørndal et al., 2015;Fernández-Polanco & Llorente, 2015). It remains unclear whether any market premiums are observed for those products certified, and there is even less clarity as to whether these premiums are passed up the chain to producers (Ha et al., 2012;Marschke & Wilkings, 2014;Blomquist, Bartolino & Waldo, 2015). What instead appears to be happening is that the cost of certification is pushed back up the chain to producers, placing a disproportionate burden on small-holders who are less able to absorb these costs. ...
... the yield of integrated mangrove-shrimp system is 228 kg/ha/yr(Ha et al., 2012), and Nga(2011)recorded 170 ±11 kg/ha/yr. Pascal Raux and Denis Bailly (2008) reported mangrove-shrimp yields of 66, 77, 170 and 83 kg/ha/year in Binh Dai (Ben Tre), Can Gio (HCM city), Duyen Hai ...
This study aims to assess the sustainability of the integrated mangrove shrimp system and livelihood improvement opportunities for farmers in the coastal areas. A baseline assessment (focus group discussion-3 groups of 24 participants and households’ interviews of 35 farmers) and on-farm studies were carried out. Data and indicators related to sustainability including natural, financial and environmental aspects were gathered and analysed. Study results show that the integrated mangrove shrimp was sustainable system overtime. It has very low production costs and investment that suits to farmers’ existing resources. Farmers invested 3.6 ±0.9 million vnd per hectare of water surface a year, which could earn a net revenue approximately 24 million vnd/year. Beside shrimp as a primary main harvested product, the system also harvests several second products such as crab and other aquatic animals. Farmers in coastal areas could improve their livelihoods and income sources through intervening farming techniques and diversifying livelihood activities. Along with above achievement, the system is currently facing problems and challenges. On top of that, inaccessibility to good quality shrimp seeds, diseases on shrimp, sedimentation, climate change impacts, and policies limit to timbering, were key limiting factors to the integrated mangrove shrimp system. So far, technical intervention and flexible management on mangrove forest need to be considered and adjusted.
... Conversion of mangrove areas to shrimp ponds also causes carbon dioxide losses larger than most other types of agricultural land conversion (Sidik and Lovelock 2013). Although largely not implemented in Sundaland countries, methods to sustainably integrate mangrove forests and aquaculture that better preserve mangrove nursery functionality do exist, and are practised elsewhere, as in the Philippines and Vietnam (Primavera 2005;Primavera et al. 2007;Ha et al. 2012). ...
This book informs readers on the ecology, ecosystem services, and management of Sundaland wetland ecosystems, discussing the concepts and tools necessary to conserve these imperiled habitats. Sundaland is a biogeographically defined area of South East Asia characterised by an exceptional concentration of endemic species. The unprecedented loss of wetland habitats within Sundaland warrants urgency in implementing conservation actions. The authors are both researchers who have witnessed the ongoing losses of wetland habitats in Sundaland.
The first chapter introduces fundamental concepts of ecosystems, ecological processes and ecosystem services of coastal and inland wetlands. The second chapter provides an overview of the global and regional conservation status of these ecosystems. The third chapter advances the importance of wetlands management at the landscape level (drainage basins), and proposes to adopt the concept of Ecotonal Networks (ENTs) as a sustainable management method, within the theoretical framework of Resilience Theory. The fourth chapter showcases potential flagship species that can aid in raising awareness on these endangered but poorly-known ecosystems. The fifth chapter discusses sustainable ecotourism as a viable and profitable industry to manage non-urban wetland areas of Sundaland, while providing specific suggestions for future developments.
The book is written for ecosystem managers, conservation scientists, ecologists, and nature enthusiasts. It consists of a coherently arranged set of scientifically accurate tools that consider societal, cultural, and economic factors to succeed in the conservation of the Sundaland wetlands, as well as other wetland habitats in the world.
... In addition, both government institutes and development agencies (SNV, IUCN and GIZ) have promoted the integrative forest farming methods and certification systems in recent years (Anh, Bush, Mol, & Kroeze, 2011). For instance, Naturland certification was introduced in Ngoc Hien in 2009 (Thi, Ha, Bush, Mol, & Dijk, 2012). The requirement for certification is at least 50 percent mangrove coverage. ...
Mangrove forests provide vital ecosystem services for millions of people living in coastal communities. The expansion of aquaculture production and urbanization have been identified as major causes of mangrove clearance in South-East Asia. The Ca Mau peninsula in Vietnam is leading the country in shrimp aquaculture and at the same time, the region is home to the largest remaining mangrove forests. This study aims to assess the spatial and temporal mangrove forest dynamics in Ngoc Hien district in Ca Mau. Land cover change and fragmentation are quantified using remote sensing imagery consisting of a series of SPOT5 scenes from 2004, 2009 and 2013. The results indicate a high turnover of land cover change, with close to half of the mangrove forests being affected by land cover changes between 2004 and 2014. Net changes in mangrove forest are found to average −0.34% annually, characterized by deforestation between 2004 and 2009 and afforestation of between 2009 and 2013. Fragmentation remains a plausible threat; approximately 35.4% of the mangrove forests in Ngoc Hien are part of interior ‘core’ forests. Forest zones with different regulation regimes play a significant role in shaping the geographic distribution of mangrove forest changes. The insights into recent mangrove forest dynamics facilitate the informed discussion on improving future protection of the mangrove forests abiding anthropogenic pressures.
... The 'Mangrove to pond area ratio regulation' by the Vietnamese government and certification standards, a negative driver, was given an average weight below 10% in the case of shifting to an integrated mangrove-shrimp system. As outlined by Ha et al., (2012), to qualify as an organic shrimp producer farms must have a mangrove to pond area ratio higher than 50%, while government standards require only a ratio of 40% for farms smaller than 3 ...
... It remains unclear whether any market premiums are observed for those products certified, and even less clarity as to whether these are passed up the chain to producers. 5,6 Instead, it is the cost of certification that is pushed back up the chain to producers, placing a disproportionate burden on smallholders. In classical Marxist terms, by instituting diminishing returns to their suppliers these lead firms risk undermining the very producers upon whom their own supply of seafood is based. ...
Available online: https://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/article/reversing-burden-proof-sustainable-aquaculture/
Nongovernmental private organizations have used certification as a governance instrument to advance the socioenvironmental and ethical sustainability of industrial aquaculture. Though started by organic pioneers, the landscape of aquaculture certification has rapidly altered since the late 1990s with the emergence of nonorganic initiatives accelerated by socioeconomic and environmental crises affecting aquaculture production. However, evidence regarding when, how, and why various schemes have emerged and evolved is scarce. Informed by the path-dependence perspective, this study chronicles the emergence and evolution of four organic and six nonorganic transnational nongovernmental aquaculture certification schemes. Drawing on archival records, this study notes that the dynamics of markets, politics, and ideas have played a decisive role in the creation and proliferation of schemes, species-specific standards, and certification programs. By dividing the evolutionary period into two timescales, 1970–1999 and 2000–2021, this study documents the intense competition among certification agencies spurred by the demand for farmed seafood in international markets. A nonorganic certification scheme was dissolved because of a credibility crisis and criticisms, whereas other schemes continue to thrive. However, the recent consolidation of major nonorganics and their growing involvement in the wild fishery industry put the aquaculture certification field in a state of uncertainty. This study provides important insight into the advancement of program-level harmonization initiatives and how the limits of those measures can be overcome to resolve confusion and duplication of certification schemes.
This research was carried out with the aim of analyzing the institutional and legal components of the system for providing organic standardization services. This study was descriptive-correlation. The statistical population of the research were 250 knowledgeable experts in relation to the production and supply of organic products (organizations such as Agricultural Jihad, Agricultural Engineering Organization, National Iranian Standards Organization and Organic Association of Iran) out of which a sample size of 154 was selected in accordance with Glenn De Esmerald's (2013) sampling table. Sampling technique adopted in this study was random sampling technique. Validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by some experts of organic production and faculty members of Tehran University. The reliability of the main scale of study was assessed by using Cronbach's alpha coefficient . The factor analysis of the institutional-legal component of the organic products standardization system indicated that government's monitoring of the organic production chain was the most effective indicator and the standard of storage and storage of organic products was the most effective indicator of the legal component of the product standardization system.
This research was carried out with the aim of analyzing the institutional and legal components of the system for providing organic standardization services. This study was descriptive-correlation. The statistical population of the research were 250 knowledgeable experts in relation to the production and supply of organic products (organizations such as Agricultural Jihad, Agricultural Engineering Organization, National Iranian Standards Organization and Organic Association of Iran) out of which a sample size of 154 was selected in accordance with Glenn De Esmerald's (2013) sampling table. Sampling technique adopted in this study was random sampling technique. Validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by some experts of organic production and faculty members of Tehran University. The reliability of the main scale of study was assessed by using Cronbach's alpha coefficient . The factor analysis of the institutional-legal component of the organic products standardization system indicated that government's monitoring of the organic production chain was the most effective indicator and the standard of storage and storage of organic products was the most effective indicator of the legal component of the product standardization system.
ABSTRACT
Demand for healthy food consumption is a basic right for a person. For covering this demand, several alternative farming systems, especially organic farming, are developed. Relations of organic farming with local culture and space are research gap. For filling research gap this thesis is conducted in Aydın and Van Provinces (Turkey). A mixed method including survey and in-depth interview technics which are applied on stakeholders in organic farming sector are carried out. Research mainly focuses on explanation of relations between organic farming and culture, space and development (CSD) dynamics. CSD Model is developed to understand this relation in holistic perspective. The model is put forwarded as basic argument for having a clear understand about organic farming. The findings clarify that there is a link between organic farming and local culture in research areas. This link is shown through farming practices and transmission of local farming knowledge. Also organic farming spaces are conceptualised under six subjects. Organic farming contributes to rural development via farming incentives, contrary to production sell. Organic farming sector in Turkey have not able to access desired trend yet. Basic reason for it is that knowledge and consciousness level of farmers and consumers are not enough. Also there are a issue of trust against to organic food. However; it is possible to overcome these mistakes in organic farming sector, thanks to suitable political strategies.
Keywords: Organic Farming, Culture, Space, Sustainable Rural Development, Organic Farming Policy, Farming Resilience, CSD Model.
ÖZET
Sağlıklı gıda tüketim talebi bir bireyin en doğal hakkıdır. Bu talebin karşılanması amacıyla başta organik tarım olmak üzere alternatif yetiştiricilik sistemleri geliştirilmiştir. Organik tarımın yerel kültür ve mekan ile ilişkisi literatürde üzerinde durulmayan konulardır. Bu araştırma, literatürdeki bu boşluğu doldurmak amacıyla Aydın ve Van illerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmada organik tarım sektöründe faaliyet yürüten paydaşlara yönelik anket ve derinlemesine görüşmeleri içeren karma yöntem uygulanmıştır. Araştırma organik tarım ile kültür, mekan ve kalkınma (KMK) dinamikleri arasındaki ilişkinin açıklanması üzerine odaklanmaktadır. Bu ilişkinin bütüncül perspektiften açıklanmasında KMK Modeli geliştirilmiştir. KMK Modeli organik tarımın anlaşılmasında temel bir argüman olarak ileri sürülmektedir. Elde edilen bulgular ortaya koymaktadır ki organik tarım ile her iki yörenin kültürü arasında bir bağlantı vardır. Bu bağlantı tarımsal pratiklerde ve bilgi aktarımında ortaya çıkmakta ve tarımsal dirençle ilişkilidir. Ayrıca organik tarım mekanları altı başlık altında kavramsallaştırılmıştır. Organik tarım kırsal kalkınmaya ürün satışından ziyade devlet teşvikleri aracılığıyla katkı sunmaktadır. Türkiye’de organik tarım sektörü henüz istenilen gelişimi yakalayamamıştır. Bunun temel nedeni üretici ve tüketicinin organik tarım konusundaki bilgi ve bilinç düzeyinin yetersizliği ile organik ürüne ilişkin güven sorunudur. Ancak belirlenecek doğru politik stratejilerle sektördeki yanlışlıkların düzeltilmesi şimdilik mümkün görünmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Organik Tarım, Kültür, Mekan, Sürdürülebilir Kırsal Kalkınma, Organik Tarım Politikası, Tarımsal Direnç, KMK Modeli
The aim of the study was to identify key factors of water environmental parameters affect shrimp productivities in the mixed mangrove‐shrimp system using multivariate approach. Water quality assessment was conducted at four mangroves stand ages (MAs) of 2–4, 5–7, 9–12 and >12 years old, with two water level (WLs) regimes in the ponds at 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm, and at every interval of 15‐day grow‐out cycle of shrimp in the systems based on the moon. Water quality in the study farms was within the appropriate range for shrimp growth. Mangrove ages affected alkalinity, pH, COD, N‐NO2, N‐NO3 and H2S, but did not influence the rest of water quality parameters. Shrimp productivity had moderate‐to‐fair positive correlation (rp = >0.36 and <0.5; and rp > 0.5) with N‐NH4, N‐NH3, water level on the platform and water level regimes management in the shrimp ponds respectively. The stepwise multiple regression model fitted very well with 19 independent variables (p = 0.0000; R2 = 0.63) and shrimp productivity. The equation of the fitted model is given as: Shrimp productivity = 18.4552 + 2.34394*DO ‐ 1.01044*Salinity ‐ 1.49646*H2S + 2.97012*Water level.
Background
Unsustainable production practices and increased demand for fish have aggravated negative social, ecological, and environmental impacts in fisheries and aquaculture. Measures to correct bad practices have mainly been introduced by private actors. However, there is increased demand for state intervention, particularly regarding trade regulations concerning fish and other agricultural products. Building on discussions regarding product differentiation through trade measures that favor sustainable products, this study looked at how sustainable and unsustainable fish has been distinguished in Switzerland. In interviewing experts in the fish trade and sales business in Switzerland, the research aimed at understanding the actors and forces that shape the concept of sustainable fish in the country.
Results
Three ways of product differentiation for sustainable fish by private actors were identified: ecolabels, “Swiss produce,” and recommendations in the form of a “consumer guide for fish”. Consumption of sustainable products is currently constrained mainly due to price. Defining “sustainable fish” is challenging and subject to interpretation. All existing measures to differentiate sustainable from unsustainable fish products in Switzerland have shortcomings, particularly in terms of discrimination and inclusiveness. Fish ecolabels play a key role in product differentiation, but experts believe that they fail to accomodate all aspects of sustainability.
Conclusion
Our findings imply that the Swiss state should play a more important role if it targets to fulfill the promise of article 104a of the Swiss Constitution, which seeks to foster sustainable production and cross-border trade relations that contribute toward this goal. Due to similarities between the Swiss and other European fish markets, we assume that governments in general must have an active role in shaping the definition and trade of sustainable fish products. Preferred trade treatment for sustainable fish products is a potential option to increase the production and consumption of sustainable fish. When designing measures for product differentiation, a careful choice is paramount so as not to violate existing trade obligations.
Ecotourism is a practice of utilizing natural ecosystems to support education and conservation efforts. In the Special Region of Yogyakarta (SRY), Indonesia, two mangrove ecosystems have been designated as protected areas and ecotourism sites. However, it is undeniable that the need for space for infrastructure development has been detrimental to these areas. This research set out to identify changes occurring nearby mangrove ecosystems and the impacts they would potentially have in the future. It used a triangulation method that combined secondary data analysis, observation, and primary data collection through in-depth interviews. The observed coastal environments experienced, among others, extensive conversion of agricultural land for the Yogyakarta International Airport (YIA) construction, increased tourism growth and pressures, and varying artificial modifications in parts of mangrove ecosystems utilized for mass tourism; all of which could disrupt sustainability and reduce the ecological functions of mangroves. Intensive aquaculture and iron sand mining in the vicinity could also negatively affect the mangrove ecosystem and ecotourism. Within a certain period, these anthropogenic activities are most likely to pose significant threats to the preservation of mangrove ecotourism. Regional spatial plans are an example of instruments required to regulate sustainable spatial planning and protect mangrove ecosystems.
This article investigates collective action dynamics and local politics amidst Philippine seaweed‐growing communities. Government agencies and civil society organizations generally encourage collaboration at village level through the formation of cooperatives and associations, often on the assumption that it facilitates the translation of economic growth into rural poverty reduction. Here, we explain how the formation of associations is entangled with the local and central state politics. We argue that civil society initiatives cannot be analysed separately from local and community‐level politics. This contribution reveals a gap between the objectives of rural, coastal associations, and the organizational capacities of communities to sustain such initiatives. Utilizing community support as a means to compensate for market and government failures does not only depend on a facilitative policy environment and start‐up support but also on household‐level capabilities. It also demonstrates that in addition to the interests of big business and national‐level politics, village‐level politics can obstruct effective and sustained implementation of value chain interventions.
Tropical coastlines are regions of extraordinary productivity and host a diversity of
interlinked ecosystems which are vital for humanity, including mangrove forests. These
environments provide a clear example of how societies and natural ecosystems interact
to form complex ‘social-ecological systems’. Yet, although humans depend on
mangrove forests in so many ways, these ecosystems are proving to be highly
vulnerable under increased human pressures. This research focuses on the rapid social
and ecological change brought about by the expansion of shrimp aquaculture in coastal
mangrove areas of Thailand. Like in many other parts of the world, the intensification
of shrimp aquaculture along the coast of Thailand over the past few decades has come
with high social and ecological costs, including widespread conversion of mangrove
forests, negative biophysical changes, and loss of coastal livelihood. The overarching
aim of this research was to show how studying shrimp farming in mangrove areas as a
social-ecological system can advance understanding of some selected drivers of resilient
social-ecological systems, and how they are related. Integrating approaches from the
natural and social sciences, the research draws on mixed methods combining
biophysical sampling of mangrove ecosystem change, semi-quantitative household
surveys, and qualitative participatory approaches.
The first research chapter of this thesis (Chapter 4) assesses the influence of
mangrove to shrimp pond conversion on ecosystem carbon storage on the southern
Andaman sea coast of Thailand. The assessment was based on field inventories of forest
structure and soil carbon stocks in mangrove forests and abandoned shrimp pond sites.
While the results showed that mangrove conversion for shrimp farming results in a large
land-use carbon footprint, the observed pattern of mangrove recovery in abandoned
shrimp ponds demonstrates the high resilience capacity of mangrove forests. The
second research chapter (Chapter 5) analyses shrimp farming diversity along the Gulf of
Thailand coast. The research examines shrimp farmer behaviour in relation to
production intensity, and its embeddedness in the wider socio-economic context of
shrimp farming households. Shrimp farming intensity was found to be associated with a
combination of technical, social, and ecological factors, and a range of different
combinations of variables were important in influencing the adoption of farming at a
particular intensity, relating to subjective culture and values, risk perceptions, and
socio-economic conditions. The final research chapter (Chapter 6) uses participatory
methods to explore the different forms of knowledge and perceptions of ecosystem
health and ecosystem service delivery among mangrove-dependent communities on
Thailand’s Andaman sea coast. The communities were shown to have high dependency
on mangroves and hold a wealth of local ecological knowledge. Strong cultural and
religious links among user-groups have facilitated greater communication and social
cohesion and this could have a positive effect on community resilience by enabling
collective synthesis and use of their ecological knowledge. The research also shows
how periods of abrupt environmental change can bring coastal communities together,
creating opportunity for self-organisation, environmental education, and capacity
building, which plays a significant role in the sustainability of natural resources,
livelihoods and social resilience.
This thesis generates important contributions to the study of social-ecological
systems and provides new findings that are relevant to inform sustainability and natural
resource management decisions. The findings of this research are also timely to inform
implementation of Thailand’s National Economic and Social Development Plan (2017-2021), which calls for developing environmentally-friendly coastal aquaculture, and
encouraging community forest management though creating participatory networks of forest restoration and protection.
Aquaculture improvement projects (AIPs) have emerged as a novel form of market-based sustainability governance. Recognizing that aquaculture production is dependent on public resources, AIPs have been promoted as a mechanism for addressing shared or area-level production risk between farms. However, it remains unclear how different AIP models manage shared risk and at what scale. This article contributes an improved understanding of how AIPs led by NGOs and buyers address risk management at different scales by comparing a ‘top-down basic’ AIP in Vietnam and a ‘bottom-up comprehensive’ AIP in China. The results indicate that AIPs struggle with institutionalizing risk management at an area-level because of the difficulties both NGOs and buyers face in inducing horizontal cooperation to address shared risk between farmers. This is attributed to the poor capacity of these actors to align either top-down or bottom-up comprehensive AIPs with the social and environmental conditions of production. AIPs are more likely to be successful in institutionalizing shared area-level risk management if they build on the existing social networks of farmers. Such an approach means moving beyond dualistic top-down basic and bottom-up comprehensive models to more socially integrative area-based AIP models.
Globally, shrimp farming has had devastating effects on mangrove forests. However, mangroves are the most carbon-rich forests, with blue carbon (i.e., carbon in coastal and marine ecosystems) emissions seriously augmented due to devastating effects on mangrove forests. Nevertheless, integrated mangrove-shrimp cultivation has emerged as a part of the potential solution to blue carbon emissions. Integrated mangrove-shrimp farming is also known as organic aquaculture if deforested mangrove area does not exceed 50% of the total farm area. Mangrove destruction is not permitted in organic aquaculture and the former mangrove area in parts of the shrimp farm shall be reforested to at least 50% during a period of maximum 5 years according to Naturland organic aquaculture standards. This article reviews integrated mangrove-shrimp cultivation that can help to sequester blue carbon through mangrove restoration, which can be an option for climate change mitigation. However, the adoption of integrated mangrove-shrimp cultivation could face several challenges that need to be addressed in order to realize substantial benefits from blue carbon sequestration.
Despite being a leading shrimp exporter in the world market, shrimp farming in Vietnam is carried out by many small-scale farmers who face constraints in complying with increasingly stringent food safety and sustainability standards. The best way for such small farmers to circumvent this paradox is to make effective integrations both horizontally and vertically. Using value chain and institutional economics approaches, this study determines the factors that influence the probability of horizontal and vertical integrations between the production and processing stages in the shrimp industry in Vietnam. Analysis results confirm that integrated shrimp aquaculture is much more effective than the traditionally small-scale- and individual-production mode. In addition, logit estimation results identify the key factors affecting integration, including effectiveness of the legal framework, production scale, infrastructure development, and farmers' skill and awareness. Several policy recommendations proposed to encourage the development of integration in shrimp farming in Vietnam could also be useful for other similar developing countries.
A broad overview of the conservation status of mangrove, and peat, forests, as well as other associated wetland habitats is provided. The consequences of deforestation and habitat fragmentation to native organisms are discussed in the context of historical habitat management attempts.
The meteoric growth of both the shrimp and salmon farming industries has had noticeable adverse global environmental and social impacts. Shrimp aquaculture represents a powerful global industry that has an annual retail value of over $50–60 billion dollars. Meanwhile, vital coastal mangroves are being cleared to make way for expanding shrimp farming. Coastal poor fishing and farming communities are losing their once sustainable food sources as their traditional agriculture and fisheries are being steadily despoiled by the shrimp industry’s operations, whose profits concentrate in the hands of wealthy investors. The shrimp produced have never become a food source for those who are truly hungry in the producer nations. The great majority of the farmed shrimp are exported to the wealthier nations. There is an urgent need to counter these market forces that are devastating mangrove forests and ruining the lives and livelihoods for tens of millions of indigenous peoples and traditional community residents who rely on healthy coastal environments for their lives and livelihoods. This chapter will focus mainly on shrimp aquaculture, but will also highlight some important and related aspects of salmon farming. Implications of the environmental, social and legal aspects of modern industrial aquaculture will be explored and the serious repercussions engendered by the present course of open, throughput systems of aquaculture will be presented. The power and effect of consumer choices and more sustainable, ecologically- and socially-friendly, closed-system aquaculture alternatives will be discussed.
Using a case study of Fairtrade Basmati rice cultivation in the Laksar region in Northern India, we provide an empirical illustration of institutional work carried out in embedding new
cultivation practices, standards, certification systems and demands of buyers associated with Fairtrade into the local settings. Specifically, in our research, we empirically illustrate
'heterogeneity' between farmers when selling their final agricultural produce, as few farmers may be more successful than others in receiving higher benefits for their products, thus resulting in further inequality. This study enriches our understanding of institutional work in the context of
developing countries. Finally, this research contributes to the emerging research on institutional work and poverty alleviation by acknowledging the importance of local ecological conditions
development of localised organisational models sensitive to existing local power structures.
Market-based instruments of fishery governance have been promoted in the past two decades
on the basis of two widespread expectations: that complying with sustainability standards
will lead to environmental benefits; and that certifications will not discriminate against
specific social groups, countries or regions.This paper assesses whether these assumptions hold
through the analysis of how the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) label for capture
fisheries has managed ‘supply’,‘demand’ and ‘civic’ concerns in the market for sustainability
certifications. The MSC has created and now dominates the market for ‘sustainable fish’,
but success has been accompanied by serious challenges. The MSC has so far failed to
convincingly show that its certification system has positive environmental impacts, and it
has marginalized Southern fisheries, especially in low-income countries. As an institutional
solution to the global fishery crisis, the MSC seems to be better tuned to the creation of a
market for ‘sustainable fish’ rather than ‘sustainable fisheries’.
We contend there are currently two competing scenarios for the sustainable development of shrimp aquaculture in coastal areas of Southeast Asia. First, a landscape approach, where farming techniques for small-scale producers are integrated into intertidal areas in a way that the ecological functions of mangroves are maintained and shrimp farming diseases are controlled. Second, a closed system approach, where problems of disease and effluent are eliminated in closed recirculation ponds behind the intertidal zone controlled by industrial-scale producers. We use these scenarios as two ends of a spectrum of possible interactions at a range of scales between the ecological, social, and political dynamics that underlie the threat to the resilience of mangrove forested coastal ecosystems. We discuss how the analytical concepts of resilience, uncertainty, risk, and the organizing heuristic of scale can assist us to understand decision making over shrimp production, and in doing so, explore their use in the empirical research areas of coastal ecology, shrimp health management and epidemiology, livelihoods, and governance in response to the two scenarios. Our conclusion focuses on a series of questions that map out a new interdisciplinary research agenda for sustainable shrimp aquaculture in coastal areas.
With the advent of widespread ecological and socioeconomic concerns over the model of "green revolution" agriculture in the global South, social movements emerged in the 1970s and 1980s to work with farmers to develop "alternative" agricultural practices. In the case of Southeast Asia, these were the seeds of current-day organic production, which has become increasingly subject to certification in order to market products in corporate-controlled supply chains. These shifts in Southeast Asia's agrifood system have paralleled growing concerns by consumers— subsequently played up in retailer advertising—in the global North and South about the quality and safety of the food system. Discriminating consumers have increasingly demanded environmentally friendly produc-tion that is respectful of animal welfare, labor, and social standards. This in turn has led to the introduction of a plethora of ecolabels and stan-dards, set by public-as well as private-sector agencies, including stan-dards for organic production. Other transformations in the agrifood system in recent years include shifts in the market power of agrifood corporations from manufacturing to retailing, a stricter regulatory envi-ronment, a stronger voice of consumers and civil society, and the glo-balization of supply and distribution systems (Fulponi 2007). These trends have understandably led to concerns over the corporate role in the food system, including retail power (Lang and Heasman 2004; Fuchs, Kalfagianni, and Arentsen, chapter 2, this volume), and to growing demands for transparency in food system governance (see Smythe, chapter 4, this volume). Many consumers, food activists, and academics have associated organic or similarly labeled foods with healthiness, envi-ronmental sustainability, and more broadly with a critique of conven-tional or industrial agriculture, as summarized by Julie Guthman (2004, 3–9; Pugliese 2001). More recently, however, agrifood scholars and Clapp_03_ch03.indd 61 11/25/2008 4:20:37 PM
In recent years, transnational and domestic nongovernmental organizations have created non–state market–driven (NSMD) governance systems whose purpose is to develop and implement environmentally and socially responsible management practices. Eschewing traditional state authority, these systems and their supporters have turned to the market’s supply chain to create incentives and force companies to comply.
This paper develops an analytical framework designed to understand better the emergence of NSMD governance systems and the conditions under which they may gain authority to create policy. Its theoretical roots draw on pragmatic, moral, and cognitive legitimacy granting distinctions made within organizational sociology, while its empirical focus is on the case of sustainable forestry certification, arguably the most advanced case of NSMD governance globally. The paper argues that such a framework is needed to assess whether these new private governance systems might ultimately challenge existing state–centered authority and public policy–making processes, and in so doing reshape power relations within domestic and global environmental governance.
Exemplification of informal credit and local financial systems since the 1940s has discredited the assumptions that these either do not exist or, if they do, that they impose harsh conditions on borrowers. Nevertheless, those erroneous ideas remain tenacious. A sample of 403 marine fisheries stakeholders in five provinces of Vietnam demonstrates that, lacking collateral acceptable to the formal sector, fisheries households depend on the informal financial system. Credit is pieced together generally from several formal and informal sources to finance fishing boats and operations. Credit demand and supply in capture fisheries communities still requires comprehensive examination, especially for countries like Vietnam, for which this is the first study. The role of informal credit systems is examined, the associated patron-client relationship revisited, and additional research needs suggested. Research on financial systems should be broad and integrated, focusing on the varied interlocking contexts of individuals and institutions and aimed at transcending misconceptions like the dichotomy between formal and informal.
Poor water quality is one of the key environmental problems associated with shrimp and pangasius aquaculture in Vietnam. Several studies exist on the causes and effects of poor water quality, and on possible solutions for effluent control in these two economically important production systems. However, only a small number of Vietnamese farms apply these reduction options, raising questions over the state-enforced compliance with legislated water-quality measures. Voluntary standards and certification networks have recently emerged as alternative forms of water-quality governance in Vietnamese aquaculture. This paper examines a number of ongoing and interlinked international, national and community level initiatives on (voluntary) standards and certification that aim to promote sustainable shrimp and pangasius aquaculture in Vietnam. The results indicate the potential, but also challenges, in the development and implementation of national and international standards and demonstrate the need for more attention to the role of local institutions like producer co-operatives in multi-level governance arrangements.
This article examines two examples of environmental governance led by non-governmental organizations (NGOs): forestry certification by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and fishery certification by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC). We use interviews with a range of actors in each certification network in the UK and the USA to examine how FSC and MSC use both space and science in similar (but not identical) ways. Drawing on diverse literature from geography, science and technology studies and political science, we show how certifications are spatialized differently on land (forests) and on water (ocean fisheries) and how certification units can be defined as socionatural hybrids, rather than tied to traditional territorial concerns and political boundaries, thus emphasizing the complexity and variation within putatively global governance. We also show how, without the benefit of governmental backing, NGOs seek credibility and legitimation particularly through diverse alliances with scientific authority. However, such attempts are not straightforward and NGO-led governance often continues to reflect the traditional geographies and uncertainties of environmental government.
We review estimates of the spatial ecosystem support required to run a typical semi-intensive shrimp farm in a coastal mangrove area in Carribean Colombia, and to produce food inputs and process wastes for large-scale industrially managed tilapia cage culture and small-scale, semi-intensive tilapia pond farming in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. The tilapia farming is discussed in relation to the pelagic kapenta, Limnothrissa miodon (Boulenger), fishery and to inshore fisheries in the Lake.
The results show that a semi-intensive shrimp farm needs a spatial ecosystem support?the ecological footprint?35 to 190 times the surface area of the pond, mainly mangrove area. Based on the analysis, we conclude that shrimp farming in Colombia is already utilizing close to the full support capacity of its coastal environment. In intensive tilapia cage farming, the ecological footprint for feed production is 10 000 times larger than the area of the cages. In contrast, a tilapia pond farm maintained on offals from fisheries, agriculture and households depends very little on external ecosystem areas. As long as there is a direct market for human consumption of all kapenta caught in the Lake, fish cage farming based on fish meal from kapenta would be doubtful from ethical, ecological as well as resource management points of view, even if it was economically feasible.
The wide variety of goods and services provided by the coastal zone (food, medicines, nutrient recycling, control of flooding, typhoon protection) account for its many uses (fisheries, aquaculture, agriculture, human settlements, harbors, ports, tourism, industries). Aquaculture now provides a third of total fisheries production. Half of the total aquaculture yield comes from land-based ponds and water-based pens, cages, longlines and stakes in brackish water and marine habitats. But the opportunities for employment, income and foreign exchange from coastal aquaculture have been overshadowed by negative environmental and social effects. The environmental impacts include: mangrove loss, bycatch during collection of wild seed and broodstock, introductions and transfers of species, spread of parasites and diseases, misuse of chemicals, and release of wastes. The socioeconomic impacts include: privatization of public lands and waterways, loss of fisheries livelihoods, food insecurity, and urban migration. The paper gives recommendations on the attainment of responsible and sustainable aquaculture with emphasis on herbivorous and omnivorous species, polyculture, integration with agriculture and mangroves, and self-regulation in the form of codes of conduct and best management practices. Recommended approaches include holistic Integrated Coastal Zone Management based on stakeholder needs, mechanisms for conflict resolution, assimilative capacity of the environment, protection of community resources, and rehabilitation of degraded habitats, to improvements in the aquaculture sector pertaining to management of feed, water, and effluents. r 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Certification schemes have emerged in recent years to become a significant and innovative venue for standard setting and governance in the environmental realm. This review examines these schemes in the forest sector where, arguably, their development is among the most advanced of the sustainability labeling initiatives. Beginning with the origins, history, and features of schemes, the review synthesizes and assesses what we know about the direct effects and broader consequences of forest certification. Bearing in mind underlying factors affecting producers' decisions to certify, direct effects are examined by describing the uptake of schemes, the improvements to management of audited forests, and the ameliorative potential of certification for landscape-level concerns such as deforestation and forest protection. In assessing broader consequences, we look beyond the instrument itself to detail positive and negative unintended consequences, spillover effects, and longer-term and slow-moving effects that flow from the emergence of the certification innovation.
In the former age of national capitalism, the achievement of market fairness was embedded in a normative framework generated by government, labor unions, and perhaps religious authority. In the current age of global capitalism, new actors such as NGOs, industry associations and public–private partnerships provide the normative framework that corporations use for social legitimacy. In this context, standard-setting processes operate as new forms of social contract where the state, rather than being directly involved between the parties, provides a form of basic guarantee while (more or less accountable) NGOs and firms are in charge of hammering out the bargains. This article examines the dynamics of this new configuration through the case study of sustainability initiatives in the coffee sector. It addresses four questions: (1) Are these standards effective in communicating information and creating new markets? (2) To what extent do they embed elements of collective and private interests? (3) Is sustainability content actually delivered to their intended beneficiaries? and (4) What is the role of public policy in addressing their shortcomings?
Intensive shrimp farming arrived in Thailand during the 1980s and developed virtually unregulated until 1987. Subsidised by the government, it quickly became an important export industry and Thailand has been the world's largest producer of tiger shrimp since 1991. However, the development of the shrimp farming industry in Thailand over the last 20 years in relation to its use of mangrove ecosystems is an example of sequential exploitation of natural resources witnessed through the shift in farm development from one region to another. This sequential exploitation has caused widespread degradation of mangrove ecosystems, and the benefits of the industry may be less than perceived as a result of subsidies and environmental and social impacts. This study follows the development of shrimp farming in Thailand from the 1940s to 1997 and studies national legislation and associated government policy as examples of driving forces behind this development. From our findings it appears that the development of legislation has not followed the same pace as the development of the industry, neither temporally, nor in content nor implementation, and contradictory policies have arisen.
This study aims to update the typology of shrimp farms in a province of the Mekong Delta's coastal area. We analyzed technical and economic characteristics of 170 farms using factor and cluster analysis on the different variables collected during the survey. This allowed us to characterize four different shrimp production systems: intensive commercial and intensive family farms, and the more extensive brackish water polyculture and rice–shrimp farms. The systems differed in their level of intensification, diversification and origin of labor. Labor efficiency was higher in intensive than in extensive farms. The difference in technical practice affected the farm economy and specifically its operational monetary cost which was 25–45 times higher in intensive commercial farms than in brackish water polyculture and rice–shrimp farms, respectively. The intensive commercial farms were significantly less affected by virus outbreak than the extensive brackish water polyculture farms. This last shrimp production system presented a very low shrimp yield but a higher capital use efficiency than intensive commercial farms. Rice–shrimp farms, which are located in a specific agro-ecological environment, presented average sustainability characteristics and an average disease occurrence. Results show that technological investments can reduce the vulnerability to disease outbreak and thus reduce the risk usually associated with shrimp farming.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) influence social and environmental aspects of commodity production through certification schemes like organic and forest certification. As these become mainstream, however, they are often compromised by the interests of more powerful agents. Utilizing the concept of governance in global commodity networks, this article examines the mainstreaming of forest certification. By working with retailers, forest certification expanded rapidly. The retailer focus, however, limits the spread of forest certification among medium-sized, small, and community forest management operations. It also raises questions of fairness because it imposes costs on forest managers without providing compensation through higher prices. NGOs now implement programs to make Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification more accessible and more useful to forest managers, but these do not resolve the imbalance of power between the big retailers demanding certification and the small forest managers who must absorb increased costs. The dominance of big retailers in commodity networks provides an attractive route to rapidly mainstream certification schemes, but it also limits their reach and compromises their equity.
"We contend there are currently two competing scenarios for the sustainable development of shrimp aquaculture in coastal areas of Southeast Asia. First, a landscape approach, where farming techniques for small-scale producers are integrated into intertidal areas in a way that the ecological functions of mangroves are maintained and shrimp farming diseases are controlled. Second, a closed system approach, where problems of disease and effluent are eliminated in closed recirculation ponds behind the intertidal zone controlled by industrial-scale producers. We use these scenarios as two ends of a spectrum of possible interactions at a range of scales between the ecological, social, and political dynamics that underlie the threat to the resilience of mangrove forested coastal ecosystems. We discuss how the analytical concepts of resilience, uncertainty, risk, and the organizing heuristic of scale can assist us to understand decision making over shrimp production, and in doing so, explore their use in the empirical research areas of coastal ecology, shrimp health management and epidemiology, livelihoods, and governance in response to the two scenarios. Our conclusion focuses on a series of questions that map out a new interdisciplinary research agenda for sustainable shrimp aquaculture in coastal areas."
Shrimp aquaculture in Vietnam is in the process of being transformed into a major industry around the intensification of the production system. The experiences of other countries in the region, especially in Thailand where high input production systems dominate, suggests that now is a critical time for intervention to redirect industry into pathways that are more sustainable ecologically, socially, and economically. In Thailand, years of experience with intensified systems and a complex industrial organization has not led to sustainable solutions. The challenge here is for society to regain control and then to redirect the transformation along more efficient and benign pathways. Our analyses suggest that current pathways in both countries are unlikely to lead to a sustainable industry. A complete transformation of the way shrimp are grown, fed, processed, distributed, and regulated is needed.
This paper uses themes from political ecology to develop insights into the billion dollar shrimp aquaculture sector in Thailand. We find that corporations can exercise only limited control over shrimp production and that there is no clear trend toward larger operations. We explain the continued viability of small owner-operated farms by looking at how shrimp farming is located in physical and social space, and at the ability of owner-operators to work within the highly unstable socio-ecological processes of shrimp production. We also find that shrimp farming has induced a spatially-uneven increase in state territorial regulation. The spatial distribution of regulation is shaped by differences in how landscapes become politicized, and the degree of jurisdictional clarity. We conclude that industry self-regulation has limited prospects for containing the social and environmental problems of shrimp farming in Thailand, but that expanded state regulation that mobilizes the participation of local people might be effective.
Indigenas de la Sierra Madre de Motozintla (ISMAM), the world's foremost producer of organic gourmet coffee, is a prominent example of an associative corporation, an organizational form combining aspects of traditional Indian social organization and modern capitalist enterprises. The development of ISMAM's organic strategy is analyzed as acheiving multiple goals, including improving soils and improving marketing conditions by permitting greater value-added to growers through direct access to high-value markets. The role of external brokers and the impact or organic marketing on organizational structure are analyzed. Though not typical, ISMAM is an encouraging example of a viable small-farmer strategy for meeting the economic and political challenge of globalization.
Large parts of the world's remaining mangrove forest are lost due to the expansion of shrimp farming in coastal areas. Current forest allocation and subcontracting policies of the Vietnamese government with respect to the devolution of forest management and participation of local people in sustainable forest management reflect both environmental and economic concerns. The paper aims at investigating how the devolution of rights over forestland and benefit sharing mechanisms are related to actual rights and the distribution of benefits of forest management practices. The findings show that farmer's decision-making over mangroves is very much influenced by shrimp farming since the income from mangroves is very low compared to that from shrimp. Farmer's decision making over forest is very much influenced by the way in which the benefit sharing policy is implemented by the state-owned forestry companies and management boards. However, their attitudes towards mangrove plantation and protection are far from negative. The study supports the claim that shrimp farmers may well be able to plant, protect and manage mangroves if they have more rights and responsibilities over forests and are able to benefit more from the production of mangroves. In this way more sustainable management of mangrove forests may be promoted.
Can we describe third party eco-certification by transnational organizations like the Forest Stewardship Council, Marine Stewardship Council, and the Aquaculture Stewardship Council as a new form of extraterritoriality in relation to the territorial sovereignty of states? In this paper we outline how transnational eco-certification can reinforce longstanding global relations of domination through the creation of eco-certification empires that have much in common with colonial-era extraterritorial empires. Specifically, we show how the territorial practices in the ASC standards for shrimp aquaculture replicate aspects of the legal extraterritoriality of the colonial period, and how these new forms of extraterritoriality create disaggregated and variegated sovereigntyscapes. Key shared features include the identification of subjects that need protection, a narrative that depicts local states as inadequate for providing these protections, and the creation of territories where these protections are provided—by imperial states during the colonial period, and certification agents for transnational eco-certification. This helps us understand why transnational eco-certification is often perceived as an encroachment on national sovereignty in Thailand and elsewhere.
Public awareness of possible environmental impacts of seafood consumption is growing. The seafood industry and environmental pressure groups have begun to certify fish and other aquatic products produced to sustainable standards. Representations of sustainability advanced by both groups in relation to tilapia converge around limited definitions related primarily to technical parameters. Such an approach does not adequately represent the complexity of sustainable aquaculture and may be counterproductive. This is illustrated by a comparing assumptions embedded in the text of the World Wide Fund for Nature's “tilapia aquaculture dialogue” with empirical findings from a study assessing the sustainability of tilapia farming systems in Central Thailand. Building on these findings, representations of sustainable tilapia aquaculture produced by the “tilapia aquaculture dialogue” are criticized, and it is argued that new approaches are required if sustainable aquaculture is to be meaningfully understood and implemented.
As third-party certification has become a prominent governance mechanism, conflicting understandings of it have emerged. Proponents advance third-party certification as a technical and objective governance mechanism, while critics argue that politics and relations of power characterize it. We reject this dichotomization both in terms of how TPC is understood, as well as understandings of science and politics. Drawing on science and technology studies, we argue that third-party certification is simultaneously science-based and political, and that both science and politics entail social and technical practices. Using a case study of an organic shrimp project in Indonesia, we examine the development and enforcement of standards. Three important findings emerge from our analysis. First, the development and enforcement of standards in a third-party certified project is partially dependent on the extent to which the interests and realities of all stakeholders are successfully translated and enrolled. Second, differences between actors in a third-party certified project are not just epistemological, but also ontological. Thus, overcoming differences in TPC entails reconciling not only interests and knowledge, but also material realities. Third, TPC is performative in that if the standards are to be adhered to, enrollment and translation have to be continuous practices. In concluding, we argue that a science and technology analysis points to the need not only to democratize TPC, but also diversify the epistemological basis of standards, and that efforts to ensure compliance need to go beyond audits.
Drawing on a case study of an organic shrimp project in Indonesia, this paper provides a preliminary assessment of the use of third-party certification (TPC) to make shrimp aquaculture more environmentally sustainable in a rural setting in Indonesia. Specifically, I examine three processes of TPC: (1) the development of standards, (2) the communication of standards, and (3) the enforcement of standards. My research indicates that TPC is based on technoscientific norms and values and Western ideas of rationality. Thus, implementing TPC in rural settings in the global South may pose additional difficulties, resulting from cultural and structural differences. Consequently, TPC may not be able to be successfully implemented everywhere in the world, especially in the rural South, in its current form.
Why, since 1988, has the Vietnamese government reversed its commitment to collective farming and permitted the revival of family farming? BENEDICT KERKVLIET rejects the obvious explanation-that reversal followed naturally from the post-1986 policy of reform (d oi-moi) or that it merely mimicked Chinese policies. He proposes, as an alternative, that the Vietnamese government has responded with various kinds of accommodations since the mid-1970s to growing popular discontent with its agricultural policies. Borrowing a concept from Brantly Womack, Kerkvliet suggests that Communist parties must be "mass-regarding" both to establish their rule and to maintain it. He links this idea with James Scott's emphasis on the power of everyday peasant resistance to conclude that the Vietnamese Communist Party was responding to popular pressure from below. Thus, Kerkvliet finds that standard characterizations that represent the current regime in Vietnam as a "dominating state" or one that rules through "mobilization authoritarianism" overlook the existence of strong local social pressures that have the capacity for low-level resistance to government policy. Moreover, such characterizations also do not take into account that the Vietnamese state has displayed a long-term concern with ensuring that its policies are acceptable among the peasantry.
Third-party certification (TPC) is becoming an integral component of the global agrifood system. However, little is known about its functions, structures and practices. In this article we examine the emergence of TPC as a governance mechanism, its organisational structure, and its practices. Distinguishing between two forms of ‘independence’– organisational and operational – we argue that TPC exhibits organisational, but not operational independence. Thus, in contrast to the view of TPC as an objective governance mechanism, we argue that TPC is embedded in social, political and economic networks. This finding, we argue, raises questions as to how TPC is structured and operates, who gets to decide the ways it is structured and operates, and the ways that TPC might differentially impact on actors in the food and agricultural sector.
ABSTRACT This paper uses themes from political ecology to develop insights into the billion dollar shrimp aquaculture sector in Thailand. We find that corporations can exercise only limited control over shrimp production and that there is no clear trend toward larger operations. We explain the continued viability of small owner-operated farms by looking at how shrimp farming is located in physical and social space, and at the ability of owner-operators to work within the highly unstable socio-ecological processes of shrimp production. We also find that shrimp farming has induced a spatially-uneven increase in state territorial regulation. The spatial distribution of regulation is shaped by differences in how landscapes become politicized, and the degree of jurisdictional clarity. We conclude that industry self-regulation has limited prospects for containing the social and environmental problems of shrimp farming in Thailand, but that expanded state regulation that mobilizes the participation of local people might be effective.
In the field of environmental governance information is starting to become increasingly important, not least because of globalization and the information and communication technologies revolution. The notion of informational governance is a recent coinage that acknowledges the (partial) switch from regulatory-based forms of governance to information-based modes. In the information-rich centres and nodes of the network society, where information is widely produced, disseminated and accessible, this might prove analytically useful. But what are the contours of informational governance in information-poor environments? This paper looks into the (limited) emergence of informational governance arrangements in environmental protection in two cases characterizing the informational periphery: China and Vietnam.
Despite the large amount of academic attention that Southeast Asian shrimp farming has received since the 1980s, few attempts have been made to explain the remarkable variation in the industry's organization across countries and localities. This paper compares the development of shrimp farming in Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand, arguing that differences can be traced to variations in the initial conditions under which shrimp farming was established, the different ways that national aquacultures are embedded in the regional political economy and the ways in which different countries have responded to the characteristic environmental problems the sector causes itself.
Rod Rhodes is Professor of Politics and Head of Department at the University of York and editor of Public Administration. He thanks Neil Carter (York) and Janice McMillan (Robert Gordon) for their comments on an early version.
Commodity chains that once involved a stepwise progression through multiple global, national and local scales are increasingly controlled through new ‘spaces’ of information and access, beyond the reach of scale-dependent governance regimes such as the state. Thus, to determine the geography of trade, the source and influence of information and the relevance of governance systems which mediate access and control over coastal resources requires an understanding both of the global and locally articulated trade networks. This article uses the case of Southeast Asia shrimp production and trade to examine the linkages between material commodity transfers through the ‘space of place’ and the movement of information through the ‘space of flows’. Linking these two spaces is particularly challenging in information-poor societies where flows of information, technology and consumer perceptions back to these areas pass through a ‘black box’, limiting clear lines of exchange between producers and globally connected exporters.
International environmental and social concerns about tropical shrimp production have led to the emergence of private transnational governance and regulation. Using cases from Ca Mau we investigate how the shift to private transnational regulatory networks has changed the role of the government from a regulator to a facilitator of global private governance interests and arrangements. The rise of these various schemes has also been part of a shift from quantitative to qualitative policy goals within the Vietnamese aquaculture sector. In turn, this has led to new internal relationships, most notably the repositioning of private interests and community-based management within the Vietnamese state framework. We conclude that the ongoing transformation of the government’s role in environmental shrimp governance requires mechanisms that foster improved participation and compliance between the state and private actors. To achieve this efforts are needed to better include local government at both communal and village levels and to use existing global market incentives more strategically.
Within the last decade shrimp farming in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam has increased by 3500%. Shrimp farming became un-sustainable in the early 1990's due to the un-planned development of this industry and the resulting self pollution of the farms, the destruction of mangrove forest and the outbreak of viral diseases. Historical data on fisheries, fishing effort and mangrove coverage were obtained from the province Minh Hai (lately divided in Ca Mau and Bac Lieu). Analysis of catch and effort data of marine fisheries in the Mekong Delta indicated a severe danger of over-exploitation of fish stocks and further decline can be expected if fisheries management only considers the demand for fish. The relation between the total fish catch (t/year), the mangrove area (ha), the engine capacity (HP) of the fishing fleet and the social incentive for fishing could be described with the model: Total catch=0.449*Mangrove area + 0.614 Engine capacity + 654 Social factor. One hectare of mangrove forest supports a marine catch of 450 kg/year
This paper examines two distinct environmental regulatory networks for shrimp farming, one based in certification, the other in community and local government regulation. Field research in Southern Thailand shows that local communities and local governments are currently the most effective regulators of shrimp farming. Emerging environmental certification networks do not provide for community input into setting, monitoring, or enforcing technical standards. Certification networks could be more effective at containing negative social and environmental impacts if they borrowed from Community Based Natural Resource Management approaches to make the definition of technical standards more flexible and open to participation by affected communities.
Since the mid-1990s, the number and diversity of ‘quality-certified’ products has increased dramatically. This article examines labor practices and regulatory spaces within 3rd party quality certification and suggests that this distinct configuration be termed ‘just-in-space’ production. A privileging of space derives, on the one hand, from the character of qualities certified. ‘Extrinsic’ qualities, such as biodiversity conservation or fair-trade labor practices, may only be introduced into the commodity through monitoring of labor at the point of production and along the commodity chain to retailer venues. This monitoring, accomplished via inspections and document production on a track that parallels the commodity movement, occurs within a semi-public space and results in an uneasy tension between a social interest in open inspections of ecological and socially-just production and retailer interest in controlling certification information about ‘green’ products. At the same time, transnational institutional regulation of certification (e.g., ISO), together with popular support for quality certification, limits the power of retailers and activists to alter certification practices and sustains the semi-public character of this space. Using a literature review and research on certified organic coffee, this paper examines practical and theoretical implications of just-in-space production, and concludes that while this configuration facilitates public action in support of social-justice and environmental conservation, it is also susceptible to manipulation by large retail firms that chose to evade 3rd party certification by setting up private certifications.
A total of 4845 penaeids belonging to nine species—Metapenaeus anchistus,M. ensis,M. moyebi,M. philippinensis,Penaeus merguiensis,P. monodon,P. semisulcatus,P. latisulcatusandMetapenaeopsis palmensis—were collected by pocket seine monthly over 13 months from mangrove and non-mangrove sites in Guimaras, Philippines. The restricted distribution of the three dominant species—M. ensisandP. merguiensisto the brackish water riverine mangrove, andM. anchistusto the high-salinity island mangrove and tidal flat—is probably related to different salinity and substrate preferences. Abundance and size composition of the major species suggest a strong nursery role for the riverine mangrove (high juvenile densities, relatively small sizes year-round), limited nursery use of the island mangrove (fewer shrimps, larger size ranges, presence of maturing females) and a non-nursery use (e.g. foraging) in the tidal flat. Penaeid recruitment to the river had two peaks in November and May when the average salinity was ∼20 (Practical Salinity Scale) and water temperatures were high (30–31 °C). The spatio-temporal pattern of penaeid species in Guim