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The Role of Social Support in the Anxiety and Depression of Elderly

Authors:
Fardin Alipour at University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences
Fardin Alipour
Homeyra Sajadi
Homeyra Sajadi
Homeyra Sajadi
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Setarh Forouzan at University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences
Setarh Forouzan
Hamid Nabavi at North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences
Hamid Nabavi
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Abstract

Objectives: This study has been conducted to investigate the «social support» various roles in anxiety and depression of elderly people, in Tehran’s second district habitants. Methods & Materials: The method of study is causal-comparative and required data was collected by Norbeck Social SupportQuestionnaire and Anxiety and Depression Scale. The sample includes 100 elder subjects who are 60 years old and over which having been chosen from elderly population of Tehran’s second district. Regression and correlation coefficient tests have been applied for dataanalysis. Results: Findings show that anxiety and depression rates were 44% and 40% respectively in elder subjects. Correlation test showed that all types of social support pecuniary, emotional, functional, structural support) had a reverse and significant relationship with depression and anxiety. The results of multiple regression showed that pecuniary and structural support were significant predictive for anxiety and pecuniarysupport was significant predictive for depression in elderly peopel. Conclusion: The Results of this study emphasize on the importance of social determinants of health role, especially, social support on the mental disorders of the elderly. Taking this inexpensive resource into account in tackling elderly depression and anxiety, and as a result,improvement of their quality of life, is of a great importance.
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... At present, more than 10% of the population in Iran is at least 60 years old, and this figure will grow to about 33% by 2050. 1 Depression is a major public health problem and the most common emotional disorder among older adults. 2,3 Moreover, the global incidence of depression increased by 45% from 1990 (172 million) to 2017 (258 million). 4 However, the prevalence of depression varies by country, and it was found to be about 20% in western countries, 5 28% in Sri Lanka, 6 and more than 60% among Iranian older adults. ...
... 9 Epidemiological studies have found that many demographic and biopsychosocial factors are associated with depression, including gender, 2, 7, 10, 11 age, 7, 10 marital status, 10,11 physical activity, [12][13][14][15] low education, 7,11 socioeconomic status (SES), social networks, 16 and perceived social support. 3,16,17 As the population of older people is growing fast, it is crucial to understand the factors that may influence depression among older adults. Thus, the current research aimed to investigate the prevalence of depression and identify the factors associated with depression among older people in Tabriz, Iran. ...
... Low perceived social support was one of the main predictors of depression, which is consistent with previous research. 3,16,17,36,37 Social support is thought to be one of the social determinants of overall health and is an essential factor in the course and outcome of psychopathological disorders. People with a higher level of social support have a better general health status, and social support can decrease depression and improve the quality of life. ...
Prevalence and Factors Associated with Depression in Older Adults in Tabriz, Iran: Data from the Health Status of Aged People in Tabriz (HSA-T Study)
Article
  • Mar 2023
Objectives: To determine the prevalence of depression and identify the factors predicting depression among older people. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting(s): Tabriz, the capital city of the East Azerbaijan Province in northwestern Iran. Participants: A representative sample of ≥ 60 years who were not institutionalized participated in this study. A total of 1071 participants (514 males and 557 females) were selected using the probability proportional to the size (PPS) sampling method. Outcome Measures: Depression, perceived social support, socioeconomic status (SES), and life satisfaction were assessed using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Socioeconomic Status Questionnaire for Urban Households (SES Iran), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), respectively. Results: Depression was highly prevalent among Iranian older adults, and more than 77.0% (95% confidence interval (CI: 0.75-0.80) of the participants suffered from some level of depression. In addition, the prevalence of depression was significantly higher among women (85.0% vs. 70.0%, P < 0.001). Furthermore, being female, older age, lower levels of physical activity, lower perceived social support, and lower life satisfaction were all associated with depression severity. Conclusions: The high prevalence of depression among older people in Iran and the significant role of social factors highlight the need to use a multidimensional approach when developing interventions to reduce depression among older adults.
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... This can substantially affect the immune system [20][21][22]. Second, older adults, whether community-dwelling or in care homes, experiencing reduced social support, chronic disease, and decreased self-esteem are at an increased risk of mental health issues such as anxiety and depression [23,24], which negatively impacts their wellbeing and quality of life [25,26]. Finally, a decline in physical function is commonly observed with ageing, increasing older adults' vulnerability to falling, frailty, rising healthcare costs and premature death [27][28][29]. ...
Digital music and movement intervention to improve health and wellbeing in older adults in care homes: a pilot mixed methods study
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
  • BMC Geriatr
Background Low physical activity among older adults is related to adverse health outcomes such as depression and loneliness, poor physical function and increased risk of falls. This study was designed to increase physical activity through a digital, group-based, physical activity and music intervention and to examine its effectiveness on social, mental and physical health outcomes. Methods Participants were 34 older adults (65 years +) recruited across four care homes in Scotland to a pilot study. Surveys were administered at baseline and post-intervention, comprising measures of fear of falling, depression and anxiety, loneliness, sleep satisfaction and quality of life. A battery of physical function tests and saliva sampling for cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone hormone analysis were also conducted at each time point. Additionally, process evaluation measures (recruitment, intervention fidelity, attendance, retention rates and safety) were monitored. The intervention comprised 12 weeks of three prescribed digital sessions per week: movement and music (n = 2) and music-only (n = 1), delivered by an activity coordinator in the care home. Post-intervention interviews with staff and participants were conducted to gain qualitative data on the acceptability of the intervention. Results An average of 88% of prescribed sessions were delivered. Pre- to post-intervention intention-to-treat analysis across all participants revealed significant improvements in anxiety, salivary DHEA, fear of falling and loneliness. There were no significant improvements in health-related quality of life, perceived stress, sleep satisfaction or physical function tests, including handgrip strength. Qualitative analysis highlighted benefits of and barriers to the programme. Conclusions The digital movement and music intervention was deemed acceptable and delivered with moderate fidelity, justifying progression to a full-scale trial. Although a proper control group would have yielded more confident causal relationships, preliminary psychosocial and biological effects were evident from this trial. To show significant improvements in physical function, it is likely that a bigger sample size providing sufficient power to detect significant changes, greater adherence, longer intervention and/or higher exercise volume may be necessary. Trial registration The trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT05601102 on 01/11/2022.
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... Since pregnant women with appropriate support resources, despite high burden of stress, have fewer complications, arranging counseling sessions to involve partners in prenatal care and delivery process may contribute to lower stress as well as healthier mothers and babies. [20,34] One focus of such counseling may be on how to help coach a relaxation response in their pregnant partner and/or how to remove unnecessary/burdensome stressors from her overall life situation. Since the main aim of this study was to investigate the relation between social support and specific-pregnancy stress, women experiencing severe stressors such as missing a close family member were excluded from this study. ...
Social support and maternal stress during pregnancy: a PATH model Social support and maternal stress during pregnancy: a PATH model
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2015
Background: Lack of appropriate social support and resultant increased maternal stress during pregnancy contributes to negative pregnancy outcomes for both mothers and the future offspring. Objective: The primary aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between social support and maternal stress during pregnancy. Methods: This descriptive-correlative study was conducted on 210 pregnant women who met inclusion criteria and attended Shahryar Social Security Hospital from August to December 2012. Participants were recruited through a purposive convenient sampling. Questionnaires about socioeconomic status, the Vaux Social Support Record and pregnancy-specific stress were completed by participants. SPSS-19 and Lisrel 8.8 were used for data and path analysis. Results: There was a significant relationship between perceived social support and maternal stress (p < .05); however, support from family members and partners had the most affect. An emergent path model fitted (CF1 = 1, RMSEA = 0.00) and, accordingly, direct social support (t-value = 7.3) influenced maternal stress during pregnancy. But socioeconomic status did not show significant impact. Conclusions: Since social support is a measurable and multi-dimensional factor, health managers and policy makers ought to assess, recognize and apply specific support resources for pregnant women. Our data also support the idea that empowering family members and partners to support pregnant women by involving them in prenatal care programs is important to reduce maternal stress rate.
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... Although anxiety occurs in all age groups, it is a common disorder in the aging period and is more debilitating in the elderly [4,12,13]. Aging anxiety is a general fear that affects both men and women. A person with this fear may be young and healthy. ...
The effects of cognitive and physical training on physiological and psychological levels of anxiety in the female elderly
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2021
Background: Increasing prevalence rate of anxiety disorders in elderly populations especially due to physical limitations has become a key concern for health authorities. Aim: The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of cognitive and physical training on physiological and psychological Levels of anxiety in the elderly. Methods: Forty-nine aged females (62.3±2.6 years) with BMI of 35-49.99 kg/m2 were assigned to one of three groups: Cognitive (n= 17), Physical training [yoga] (n= 16) and control group (n= 10). The cognitive training protocol included breathing and imagery/visualization techniques, which lasted for an 8-week period, three sessions a week. Yoga practices comprising Asana and Pranaya training, three times a week, for two months. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was given before and after intervention training. Biofeedback devices was used to monitor galvanic skin resistance and resting heart rate (as physiological and psychological markers of anxiety) in pretest and pre-test phases. The data were analyzed using analysis covariance and Bonferroni post hoc test. Results: It was indicated that anxiety score in cognitive training was significantly lower than control group (P= 0.002) and also, anxiety score in physical Training was significantly lower than control group (P= 0.01). No significant difference was found between the two training groups (P= 0.18). Furthermore, both training groups had lower galvanic skin resistance (P< 0.001). In addition, physical training group had a better status of resting heart rate after intervention compared to the cognitive and control groups (respectively, P= 0.04 and P= 0.001). Conclusions: It was concluded that the health benefits of Physical training [yoga] isn’t not specific to maintaining physical health, but also extends to lowering the anxiety in elderly with obesity. It was also suggested that cognitive training can mitigate the anxiety symptoms in the elderly while no physical changes were shown in cognitive training
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... Although anxiety occurs in all age groups, it is a common disorder in the aging period and is more debilitating in the elderly [4,12,13]. Aging anxiety is a general fear that affects both men and women. A person with this fear may be young and healthy. ...
The effects of cognitive and physical training on physiological and psychological levels of anxiety in the female elderly
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2021
Background: Increasing prevalence rate of anxiety disorders in elderly populations especially due to physical limitations has become a key concern for health authorities. Aim: The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of cognitive and physical training on physiological and psychological Levels of anxiety in the elderly. Methods: Forty-nine aged females (62.3±2.6 years) with BMI of 35-49.99 kg/m2 were assigned to one of three groups: Cognitive (n= 17), Physical training [yoga] (n= 16) and control group (n= 10). The cognitive training protocol included breathing and imagery/visualization techniques, which lasted for an 8-week period, three sessions a week. Yoga practices comprising Asana and Pranaya training, three times a week, for two months. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was given before and after intervention training. Biofeedback devices was used to monitor galvanic skin resistance and resting heart rate (as physiological and psychological markers of anxiety) in pretest and pre-test phases. The data were analyzed using analysis covariance and Bonferroni post hoc test. Results: It was indicated that anxiety score in cognitive training was significantly lower than control group (P= 0.002) and also, anxiety score in physical Training was significantly lower than control group (P= 0.01). No significant difference was found between the two training groups (P= 0.18). Furthermore, both training groups had lower galvanic skin resistance (P< 0.001). In addition, physical training group had a better status of resting heart rate after intervention compared to the cognitive and control groups (respectively, P= 0.04 and P= 0.001). Conclusions: It was concluded that the health benefits of Physical training [yoga] isn’t not specific to maintaining physical health, but also extends to lowering the anxiety in elderly with obesity. It was also suggested that cognitive training can mitigate the anxiety symptoms in the elderly while no physical changes were shown in cognitive training
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... This can substantially affect the immune system (18)(19)(20). Second, older adults, whether community-dwelling or in care homes, experiencing reduced social support, chronic disease, and decreased self-esteem are at an increased risk of mental health issues such as anxiety and depression (21,22), which negatively impacts their wellbeing and quality of life (23,24). Finally, a decline in physical function is commonly observed with ageing, increasing older adults' vulnerability to falling, frailty, rising healthcare costs and premature death (25)(26)(27). ...
Digital music and movement resources to improve health and wellbeing in older adults in care homes: a pilot randomised trial.
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Nov 2023
Background: Low physical activity among older adults is related to adverse health outcomes such as depression and loneliness, poor physical function and increased risk of falls. This study was designed to increase physical activity through a digital, group-based, physical activity and music resource and to examine its effectiveness on social, mental and physical health outcomes. Methods: Participants were 34 older adults (65 years+) recruited across four care homes in Scotland to a randomised controlled pilot study with waitlist controls. Surveys were administered at baseline and post-intervention, comprising measures of fear of falling, depression and anxiety, loneliness, sleep satisfaction and quality of life. A battery of physical function tests and saliva sampling for cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone hormone analysis were also conducted at each time point. Additionally, process evaluation measures (recruitment, intervention fidelity, attendance, retention rates and safety) were monitored. The intervention comprised 12 weeks of three prescribed digital sessions per week: movement to music (n=2) and music-only (n=1), delivered by an activity coordinator in the care home. Post-intervention interviews with staff and participants were conducted to gain qualitative data on the acceptability of the intervention. Results: An average of 88% of prescribed sessions were delivered. The waitlist control group design was not adhered to. Intention-to-treat analysis across all participants revealed significant improvements in anxiety, salivary DHEA, fear of falling and loneliness. There were no significant improvements in health-related quality of life, perceived stress, sleep satisfaction or physical function tests, including handgrip strength. Qualitative analysis highlighted benefits of and barriers to the programme. Conclusions: The digital movement and music intervention was deemed acceptable and delivered with moderate fidelity, justifying progression to a full-scale trial. Although a proper control group would have yielded more confident causal relationships, preliminary psychosocial and biological effects were evident from this trial. To show significant improvements in physical function, it is likely that greater adherence, longer intervention and/or higher exercise volume may be necessary. Trial registration: The trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT05601102 on 01/11/2022
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... For example, Nouri and Farsi indicated the role of child support and its effect on their physical and mental health (23). Another study showed that the rejection or abandonment of the elderly by children led to feelings of insecurity and anxiety in the elderly because child support was negatively related to anxiety and depression (24). Therefore, this theme can also be effective in healthy aging. ...
Evaluation of Healthy Aging Themes from the Perspectives of the Elderly: A Qualitative Study
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2022
Background: The increase in the elderly population is one of the most critical challenges facing various countries worldwide, including Iran. Medical and social problems are also rooted in this demographic problem. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the healthy aging themes from the perspectives of the elderly. Methods: This qualitative study was conducted on all the elderly living in Shahrekord using thematic analysis among whom, 15 individuals were selected using the purposive sampling method based on the inclusion criteria. The sample size was determined considering data saturation. The participants took part in a semi-structured interview who were coded into three categories to analyze the data i.e., basic, organizing, and global themes through a thematic analysis approach. Results: The analyses indicated eight organizing themes, including satisfaction with marital life, healthy lifestyle, satisfaction with moral issues, spiritual orientation, independence and financial self-sufficiency, intra-generational dynamism, intergenerational dynamism, and social satisfaction. Finally, the global theme of dynamic aging was extracted by integrating the organizing themes. Conclusions: According to the results, many factors, including marital, psychological, religious, family, economic, and social factors, are involved in dynamic aging. In addition to maintaining a healthy lifestyle, the findings of this study can inform professionals who work with this demographic group about other factors that contribute to a healthy aging process.
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Suicidal ideation in older adults in nursing homes: impact of depression, perceived social support and cognitive impairment
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Nov 2024
Introduction. Suicide increases with age; the rate of death by suicide in people over 70 years of age is twice that of people aged 15-49. Currently 30.96% of the population over 64 years of age have functional limitations and perceived social support decreases significantly at this stage. Exposure to these factors appears to be exacerbated in people living in residential care, yet research remains scarce. We analysed suicidal ideation and associated factors such as depression, perceived social support, cognitive decline and functional limitations in older adults living in nursing homes. Methods. Multicentre study of 126 participants aged over 65 years, mean age is 81.35 years (SD= 9.31) and 65.6% are women. Results. Suicidal ideation was found in 57.1% of the participants. Depression, low social support and the presence of mild cognitive impairment were associated with the presence of suicidal ideation in older people living in nursing homes. Discussion. The results obtained highlight the need to focus the dynamics and interventions in nursing homes on emotional aspects, which can help prevent and even detect suicidal ideation and suicidal behaviour.
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COVID-19 government measures and their impact on mental health: a cross-sectional study of older primary care patients in Germany
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2023
Background With the outbreak of COVID-19, government measures including social distancing and restrictions of social contacts were imposed to slow the spread of the virus. Since older adults are at increased risk of severe disease, they were particularly affected by these restrictions. These may negatively affect mental health by loneliness and social isolation, which constitute risk factors for depressiveness. We aimed to analyse the impact of perceived restriction due to government measures on depressive symptoms and investigated stress as mediator in an at-risk-population in Germany. Methods Data were collected in April 2020 from the population of the AgeWell.de-study, including individuals with a Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Aging, and Incidence of Dementia (CAIDE) score ≥9, using the depression subscale of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI-18) and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-4). Feeling restricted due to COVID-19 government measures was surveyed with a standardized questionnaire. Stepwise multivariate regressions using zero-inflated negative binomial models were applied to analyse depressive symptoms, followed by a general structural equation model to assess stress as mediator. Analysis were controlled for sociodemographic factors as well as social support. Results We analysed data from 810 older adults (mean age = 69.9, SD = 5). Feeling restricted due to COVID-19 government measures was linked to increased depressiveness (b = 0.19; p < 0.001). The association was no longer significant when adding stress and covariates (b = 0.04; p = 0.43), while stress was linked to increased depressive symptoms (b = 0.22; p < 0.001). A final model confirms the assumption that the feeling of restriction is mediated by stress (total effect: b = 0.26; p < 0.001). Conclusion We found evidence that feeling restricted due to COVID-19 government measures is associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms in older adults at increased risk for dementia. The association is mediated by perceived stress. Furthermore, social support was significantly associated with less depressive symptoms. Thus, it is of high relevance to consider possible adverse effects of government measures related to COVID-19 on mental health of older people.
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Dimensions of Physical Activity Are Important in Managing Anxiety in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2023
  • J AGING PHYS ACTIV
Physical activity (PA) is a known approach for managing anxiety symptoms in older adults. This systematic review and meta-analysis address the benefits of PA and its dimensions (frequency, session time, type, and intervention period) on anxiety symptoms in older adults aged 65 years and above. Searches covered eight databases reporting eight randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and five non-RCTs. Meta-analysis of RCTs (standardized mean difference = -0.41; 95% confidence interval [-0.58, -0.24]; p < .00001) and Fisher's method of combining p values for non-RCTs supported the effectiveness of PA for managing anxiety symptoms in older adults. Subgroup analysis revealed significant effects for all PA types, session times, frequency, and intervention periods compared with control groups, albeit with different magnitudes of effect. In conclusion, although some dimensions of PA contribute to its effectiveness for anxiety, PA intensity and mode required to maximize PA effects remain unclear.
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Network structures and support functions: Theoretical and empirical analyses.
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1992
examines the relationship between the two constructs [social networks and social support] through theoretical and empirical perspectives / the relationship between two constructs can also be determined by definition and through methodological confounding / therefore, it is also necessary to perform conceptual and methodological analyses / these analyses consider all constructs elaborated on within the broader terms of "social networks" and "social support" / the theoretical and empirical analyses concentrate on the association between network roles (kind of relationship—e.g., friend, neighbor, etc.) and network resources, supportive climates, and received and perceived social support (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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An Examination of Sex Differences in Social Support Among Older Men and Women
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 1987
This paper is designed to empirically investigate sex differences in social support. Several types of sex differences are examined, including quantity and quality of support, the relationship between quantitative and qualitative measures of support, the number and source of support provided and received, and the relative predictive power of quality and quantity of support on well-being. The data are taken from the Supports of the Elderly, a national survey of older people (Kahn and Antonucci, 1984). Included in the present study are 214 men and 166 women ranging in age from 50 to 95 who are married and have at least one child. The analyses reveal that women have larger networks and receive supports from multiple sources, while men tend to rely on their spouses exclusively. Men report greater satisfaction with marriage than women. Quantitative supports are more related to qualitative supports for women than for men. For both sexes, the quality of support rather than the quantity of support has significantly greater effects on well-being; both the quantity and quality of social support have a greater impact on the well-being of women compared to men. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/45580/1/11199_2004_Article_BF00287685.pdf
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Clinical Features of Depression in the Nursing Home
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 1989
The prevalence of depression among nursing home residents was estimated by screening a group of residents selected from a random sample on the basis of cognitive status; it ranged from 18-20% for major depression to 27-44% for other dysphoric states. Though individual patients were observed to change over a 6-month period, depression as assessed with the Geriatric Depression Scale was, in general, persistent. Major depression was clinically confirmed in 8 of 10 patients identified at screening. It was characterized by medical disorders that complicated diagnosis and treatment, and by increased mortality relative to the rest of the population.
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Social Support, Coping, and Depressive Symptoms in a Late-Middle-Aged Sample of Patients Reporting Cardiac Illness
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 1995
This study tests a 1-year predictive model of depressive symptoms in a late-middle-aged sample of patients reporting diagnoses of cardiac illness. Results based on 325 individuals (248 men and 77 women) diagnosed with chronic cardiac illness, 71 individuals (52 men and 19 women) diagnosed with acute cardiac illness, and 219 healthy controls (129 men and 90 women) strongly supported the hypotheses. Compared with healthy persons, individuals with chronic and those with acute cardiac illness reported more depressive symptoms at follow-up. Women overall showed more depressive symptoms than did men, and women with cardiac illness were particularly vulnerable to behavioral manifestations of depressive symptoms. Integrative time-lag and prospective structural equation models indicated that, for individuals with cardiac illness, social support and adaptive coping strategies predicted fewer depressive symptoms.
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THE RELATIONSHIP OF FAMILY SOCIAL SUPPORT, MARITAL STATUS, AGE, GENDER, AND ETHNICITY TO STARTING A SMALL BUSINESS: IMPLICATIONS FOR PROFESSIONAL COUNSELORS
Article
  • Jan 1996
perceived family social support than those who did not start a business. This finding was significant for both factors of family support, labeled Communicative Support (at the .05 level) and Behavioral Support (at the .01 level). The results also included that none of the four personal demographics significantly affected this relationship. Implications can be utilized by small business counselors. The results of this study can provide information to these professional counselors for improved facilitation of the career choice of starting a business within a supportive family environment. Small business ownership is one of the fastest growing career choices in modem times. Yet the challenges and conflicts confronting the potential business owner from both the family and work environment often make this choice a difficult and risky one. The two systems of work and family increasingly have been found to become enmeshed. Support from others, primarily family members, is often associated with career choice, and also with career success. The present study is an investigation to determine if there is a relationship between family social support and starting a small business; and if any relationship is affected by the personal demographics of marital status, age, gender, or ethnicity. Subjects for the study were drawn from a population of pre-business individuals contacting a metropolitan Small Business Development Center, a federally funded program that provides business counseling assistance. The respondents (N=217) were representative of two marital statuses (Partner and No Partner), three age groups (early, middle, and late adulthood), both genders (female and male), and two ethnic categories (White and Non-White). Each respondent returned a three-part self-report survey, which included a 15-statement questionnaire that evaluated perceived family social support. The results of the present study found that a relationship does exist between perceived family social support and starting a small business. Those individuals who started a business had higher
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Structural Determinants of Men's and Women's Personal Networks
Article
  • Oct 1990
Men's and women's personal networks often differ in composition, with women's more focused on family and men's on nonkin, especially coworkers. Using data from the 1985 General Social Survey, I find that these gender differences arise in part from dissimilar social structural locations of men and women, which lead to distinct opportunities for and constraints on the formation of close personal ties. Most gender differences in network composition disappear or are considerably reduced when variables related to employment, family, and age are controlled. However, some gender differences remain. Women have a larger number, higher proportion, and greater diversity of kin ties in their personal networks than men, even when compared with men in similar social structural positions.
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Further Development of the Norbeck Social Support Questionnaire
Article
  • Jan 1983
This article describes the second phase of testing the Norbeck Social Support Questionnaire (NSSQ), an instrument designed to measure multiple dimensions of social support. Three studies were conducted to provide a normative data base and to further test validity. In the first study, data from 136 employed adults were obtained. The amount and type of support available for a functioning group of male and female respondents and sources of support for this sample are described. In the second and third studies, the instrument was found to be very stable over a seven-month interval and sensitive to changes within the social support networks of a group of graduate students during their first year of study. Construct validity of the instrument was established by comparing convergent and discriminant constructs to the NSSQ. Concurrent validity with another social support questionnaire was demonstrated. Predictive validity was tested in a sample of 53 graduate students through assessing the buffering effect of social support on measures of negative mood following life stress. Two NSSQ subscales, aid and duration of relationships, had significant interaction effects with life stress on the outcome of negative mood. Duration of relationships also had a significant main effect. After subtracting the main effect for life stress from the overall R2 in the multiple regression analysis, the NSSQ functional support subscales and their interactions with life stress accounted for 19 percent of the variance on negative mood, and the NSSQ network property subscales and their interactions accounted for 20 percent of the variance.
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Gender, social relations and mental health: Prospective findings from an occupational cohort (Whithall II study)
Article
  • Feb 1999
Gender differences in social support tend to suggest that women have larger social networks and both give and receive more support than men. Nevertheless, although social support has been identified as protective of mental health, women have higher rates of psychological distress than men. We examine the prospective association between social support and psychological distress by gender in a cohort study of middle aged British Civil Servants, the Whitehall II study. In this sample we found that women have a larger number of close persons than men although men have larger social networks. We also found that the effects of marital status, social support within and outside the workplace and social networks on subsequent occurrence of psychological distress were similar for men and women independently of baseline mental health status.
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Anxiety disorders: How to recognize and treat the medical symptoms of emotional illness
Article
  • Jun 2001
  • GERIATRICS
Anxiety symptoms in older patients frequently coexist with depression, medical illness, and dementia, which complicate diagnosis and treatment. Most anxiety disorders do not begin in later life but are a recurrence or worsening of a pre-existing condition. Anxiety should be considered in any older patient with depressive symptoms or somatic complaints that are not explained by physical examination. Older patients may benefit from cognitive-behavioral therapy and relaxation training. Antidepresants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, are the preferred medical treatment.
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