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Can a dysprosium shortage threaten green energy technologies?
... Dysprozi -một trong các nguyên tố đất hiếm (RE), là thành phần không thể thiếu trong sản xuất nam châm Nd-Fe-Dy-B, vật liệu từ giảo terfenol-D, vật liệu laser, vật liệu hấp thụ nơtron và nhiều ứng dụng công nghệ cao khác. Ngày nay, cùng với sự phát triển mạnh mẽ của ngành chế tạo ô tô điện -xăng (hybrid), ô tô (xe máy) điện, turbin gió… thì nhu cầu Dy nói riêng và các nguyên tố đất hiếm khác như Pr, Nd, Tb, Y… là rất lớn [1][2][3][4]. ...
... Các nguyên tố đất hiếm nhóm nhẹ (từ La đến Nd) có nhiệt độ nóng chảy thấp (<1030 o C) nên có thể điều chế bằng cả hai phương pháp. Trong khi đó, các nguyên tố đất hiếm nhóm trung và nhóm nặng (từ Sm đến Lu và Y) có nhiệt độ nóng chảy cao nên thường được điều chế bằng phương pháp nhiệt kim [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Các muối halogenua đất hiếm REF 3 và RECl 3 được sử dụng như là nguyên liệu cho cả hai phương pháp trên. ...
... Trong khi đó, các nguyên tố đất hiếm nhóm trung và nhóm nặng (từ Sm đến Lu và Y) có nhiệt độ nóng chảy cao nên thường được điều chế bằng phương pháp nhiệt kim [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Các muối halogenua đất hiếm REF 3 và RECl 3 được sử dụng như là nguyên liệu cho cả hai phương pháp trên. Trong hai muối được sử dụng, muối RECl 3 có nhiệt độ nóng chảy thấp hơn REF 3 nên thuận lợi hơn cho quá trình điều chế REM. ...
In this report, dysprosium fluoride (DyF3) - a material for the preparation of dysprosium (Dy) metal was prepared by the fluorination of dysprosium oxide (Dy2O3) by ammonium bifluoride (NH4HF2) reagent. The effect of reaction time and temperature on the formation of dysprosium fluoride salt has been studied. The phase composition and crystal structure of the obtained products were analysed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Thermal analysis techniques were applied to determine the temperature range of the fluorination. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) was used for external morphology observation and chemical elemental composition analysis. The results showed that the high purity phase of DyF3 was formed at the conditions: reaction time and temperature of >1 h and >350oC, respectively. The product is available for the preparation of Dy metal by metallothermic reduction.
... For example, Habib and Wenzel [22] estimate that future demand for rare earth elements (REEs) Nd and Dy will primarily come from non-energy sectors and the manufacturing of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). This estimate agrees with results presented by Hoenderdaal et al. [23], who analyse the demand for Dy and conclude that the wind turbine sector would represent a significant share of total demand only in very ambitious energy scenarios. On the other hand, Ziemann et al. [24] show that future demand for Li from non-energy sectors seems to play only a minor role, driven primarily by the manufacturing of batteries for mobility. ...
... Upper bound values correspond to our results for the less ambitious scenarios and are mainly driven by the deployment of BEVs. Hoenderdaal et al. [23] use scenarios which combine low and high expansion scenarios for wind turbines with low and high assumptions on the market penetration of direct-drive wind turbines. The growth rates of nonenergy sectors are assumed to be sector-specific. ...
... As in Ref. [22], the material demand is mainly driven by BEVs. Although the results in Hoenderdaal et al. [23] are in the range of material demand in the our study, they assume a lower degree of ambition of the analysed scenarios (i.e. lower installed capacities of wind power, less electric vehicles) which is compensated by a higher specific material content of the energy technologies. ...
We assess the requirements for neodymium, dysprosium, lithium, and cobalt in power generation, storage and transport technologies until 2050 under six global energy scenarios. We consider plausible developments in the subtechnology markets for lithium-ion batteries, wind power, and electric motors for road transport. Moreover, we include the uncertainties regarding the specific material content of these subtechnologies and the reserve and resource estimates. Furthermore, we consider the development of the material demand in non-energy sectors. The results show that the material requirements increase with the degree of ambition of the scenarios. The maximum annual primary material demand of the scenarios exceeds current extraction volumes by a factor of 3 to 9 (Nd), 7 to 35 (Dy), 12 to 143 (Li), and 2 to 22 (Co). The ratios of cumulative primary material demand to average reserve estimates range from 0.1 to 0.3 (Nd), 0.3 to 1.1 (Dy), 0.7 to 6.5 (Li), and 0.8 to 5.5 (Co). Average resource estimates of Li and Co are exceeded by up to a factor of 2.1 and 1.7, respectively. We recommend that future scenario studies on the energy system transformation consider the influence of possible material bottlenecks on technology prices and substitution technology options.
... Rare earth elements (REEs) a chemically uniform group of metals, which includes the 15 lanthanide elements, as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), are indispensable for emerging technologies (e.g., cell phones, hybrid vehicles, and wind turbines) (Mayfield and Fairbrother, 2015) and heavy REEs (gadolinium-lutetium) especially are more valuable than light REEs (lanthanum -europium) due to their more limited known exploitable deposits (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). Among heavy REEs, Dy was identified by the United States Department of Energy as one of the critical REEs for the development of future clean energy technologies (United States Department of Energy, 2011), since nearly 95% of the total Dy demand accounts for use in magnets for wind turbine generators and electric vehicle motors (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). ...
... Rare earth elements (REEs) a chemically uniform group of metals, which includes the 15 lanthanide elements, as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), are indispensable for emerging technologies (e.g., cell phones, hybrid vehicles, and wind turbines) (Mayfield and Fairbrother, 2015) and heavy REEs (gadolinium-lutetium) especially are more valuable than light REEs (lanthanum -europium) due to their more limited known exploitable deposits (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). Among heavy REEs, Dy was identified by the United States Department of Energy as one of the critical REEs for the development of future clean energy technologies (United States Department of Energy, 2011), since nearly 95% of the total Dy demand accounts for use in magnets for wind turbine generators and electric vehicle motors (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). Its world production is around 2000 tons per year (Emsley, 2011) and it is expected that from 2010 to 2035 the demand of this element will rise by 2600% (Alonso et al., 2012). ...
Rare earth elements (REEs) have been recently identified as emergent contaminants because of their numerous
and increasing applications in technology. The impact of REEs on downstream ecosystems, notably aquatic organisms,
is of particular concern, but has to date been largely overlooked. The purpose of this study was thus to
evaluate the toxicity of lanthanide metals, lutetium (Lu) and dysprosium (Dy) in rainbow trout after 96 h of
exposure. The lethal concentration (LC50) was determined and the expression of 14 genes involved in different
pathways such as oxidative stress, xenobiotic detoxification, mitochondrial respiration, DNA repair, protein
folding and turnover, inflammation, calcium binding and ammonia metabolism were quantified in surviving fish.
In parallel, lipid peroxidation (LPO), DNA damage (DSB), metallothionein level (MT) and cyclooxygenase activity
(COX) were examined. The acute 96 h-LC50 data revealed that Lu was more toxic than Dy (1.9 and 11.0
mg/L, respectively) and was able to affect all investigated pathways by changing the expression of the studied
genes, to the exception of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). It
also induced a decrease in DNA repair at concentrations 29 times below the LC50. This suggests that Lu could
trigger a general stress to disrupt the cell homeostasis leading to genotoxicity without promoting oxidative stress.
However, Dy induced modulation in the expression of genes involved in the protection against oxidative stress,
detoxification, mitochondrial respiration, immunomodulation, protein turnover and an increase in the DNA
strand breaks at concentrations 170 times lower than LC50. Changes in mRNA level transcripts could represent an
early signal to prevent against toxicity of Dy, which exhibited inflammatory and genotoxic effects. This study
thus provides useful knowledge enhancing our understanding of survival strategies developed by rainbow trout
to cope with the presence of lanthanides in the environment.
... Rare earth elements (REEs) a chemically uniform group of metals, which includes the 15 lanthanide elements, as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), are indispensable for emerging technologies (e.g., cell phones, hybrid vehicles, and wind turbines) (Mayfield and Fairbrother, 2015) and heavy REEs (gadolinium-lutetium) especially are more valuable than light REEs (lanthanum -europium) due to their more limited known exploitable deposits (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). Among heavy REEs, Dy was identified by the United States Department of Energy as one of the critical REEs for the development of future clean energy technologies (United States Department of Energy, 2011), since nearly 95% of the total Dy demand accounts for use in magnets for wind turbine generators and electric vehicle motors (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). ...
... Rare earth elements (REEs) a chemically uniform group of metals, which includes the 15 lanthanide elements, as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), are indispensable for emerging technologies (e.g., cell phones, hybrid vehicles, and wind turbines) (Mayfield and Fairbrother, 2015) and heavy REEs (gadolinium-lutetium) especially are more valuable than light REEs (lanthanum -europium) due to their more limited known exploitable deposits (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). Among heavy REEs, Dy was identified by the United States Department of Energy as one of the critical REEs for the development of future clean energy technologies (United States Department of Energy, 2011), since nearly 95% of the total Dy demand accounts for use in magnets for wind turbine generators and electric vehicle motors (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). Its world production is around 2000 tons per year (Emsley, 2011) and it is expected that from 2010 to 2035 the demand of this element will rise by 2600% (Alonso et al., 2012). ...
Rare earth elements (REEs) have been recently identified as emergent contaminants because of their numerous and increasing applications in technology. The impact of REEs on downstream ecosystems, notably aquatic organisms , is of particular concern, but has to date been largely overlooked. The purpose of this study was thus to evaluate the toxicity of lanthanide metals, lutetium (Lu) and dysprosium (Dy) in rainbow trout after 96 h of exposure. The lethal concentration (LC50) was determined and the expression of 14 genes involved in different pathways such as oxidative stress, xenobiotic detoxification, mitochondrial respiration, DNA repair, protein folding and turnover, inflammation, calcium binding and ammonia metabolism were quantified in surviving fish. In parallel, lipid peroxidation (LPO), DNA damage (DSB), metallothionein level (MT) and cyclooxygenase activity (COX) were examined. The acute 96 h-LC 50 data revealed that Lu was more toxic than Dy (1.9 and 11.0 mg/L, respectively) and was able to affect all investigated pathways by changing the expression of the studied genes, to the exception of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). It also induced a decrease in DNA repair at concentrations 29 times below the LC 50. This suggests that Lu could trigger a general stress to disrupt the cell homeostasis leading to genotoxicity without promoting oxidative stress. However, Dy induced modulation in the expression of genes involved in the protection against oxidative stress, detoxification, mitochondrial respiration, immunomodulation, protein turnover and an increase in the DNA strand breaks at concentrations 170 times lower than LC 50. Changes in mRNA level transcripts could represent an early signal to prevent against toxicity of Dy, which exhibited inflammatory and genotoxic effects. This study thus provides useful knowledge enhancing our understanding of survival strategies developed by rainbow trout to cope with the presence of lanthanides in the environment.
... kt of dysprosium (Dy) within the magnets of PMG drives ( Fig. 4 ). Regarding the veracity of Nd figures, the Nd per MW intensity multipliers for each WTG were derived from extensive stakeholder discussion and analysis of literature exploring NdFeB content of different generators (e.g., Griffiths and Easton, 2011 ;USDoE, 2011 ;Wilburn, 2011 ;Constantinides, 2012 ;Hoenderdaal et al., 2013 ;Speirs et al., 2013 ;AMEC, 2014 ;Lacal-Arántegui, 2015 ;Imholte et al., 2018 ). The Nd multipliers employed in this article reflect those derived from and verified by industry operators and notably incorporate one of the lowest of stated average Nd NdFeB contents, i.e. 27% ( Griffiths and Easton, 2011 ) (see Fishman and Graedel, 2019 , for reference to Nd NdFeB intensity ranges used within articles). ...
... kg of Nd could potentially be required for each additional MW of generator capacity. Notably, however, to highlight issues with assessing future resource management needs, overall Nd per MW employed within larger later generation turbines was expected by PMG manufacturers to decrease ( Griffiths and Elston, 2011 ); whilst use of Dy, deemed critical to the performance of PMGs at high temperatures in WTGs and EV batteries (i.e., Hoenderdaal et al., 2013 ), is expected to fall due to a chronic shortage and consequent design changes to NdFeB magnets. This, arguably, gives some hope that demand for some problematic or rare materials will not increase in a linear manner to turbine capacity increases, hence in part the use of conservative generator specific Nd figures in this article compared to some published studies. ...
Development and deployment of low carbon infrastructure (LCI) is essential in a period of accelerated climate change. The deployment of LCI is, however, not taking place with any obvious long term or joined up thinking in respect of life-cycle material extraction, usage and recovery across technologies or otherwise. This proposition is demonstrated through empirical quantification of selected infrastructure and a review of decommissioning plans, as exemplified by offshore wind in the United Kingdom. There is wide acknowledgment that offshore wind and other LCI are dependent on the production and use of many composite and critical materials that can and regularly do inflict high impacts on the environment and society during extraction and manufacturing. To optimise resource use from a whole system perspective, it is thus essential that the components of LCI and the materials they share and are comprised of, are designed with a circular economy in mind. As such, LCI must be designed for durability, reuse and remanufacturing, rather than committing them to sub-optimal waste management and energy recovery pathways. Beyond a promise to remove installed components, end-of-life decommissioning plans do not however provide any insight into a given operators’ awareness of the nuances of their proposed material management methods or indeed current or future management capacities. Decommissioning plans for offshore wind are at best formulaic and at worst perfunctory and provide no value to the growing movement toward a circular economy. At this time, millions of tonnes of composites, precious and rare earth materials are being extracted, processed and deployed in infrastructure with nothing in place that suggests that these materials can be sustainably recovered, managed and returned to productive use at the potential scales required to meet accelerating LCI deployment. Academic and industry literature, or lack thereof, suggest that this statement is largely reflected throughout LCI deployment and not just within the deployment of offshore wind in the UK.
... Dy is included for high temperature stability and improved coercivity [5,28]. Though percentages greater than 6%-10% are desirable, cost and availability have pushed the Dy content to~4%, with advanced manufacturing methods striving for an even lower content overall [28,29]. Notably, not all wind turbines use permanent magnet generators, but the market share of those that do is increasing due to the higher conversion efficiency and reduced maintenance, a desirable pairing for off-shore wind turbines operating at low speeds [30,31]. ...
Rare earth element (REE) permanent magnets (NdFeB) are a critical element in a vast and growing number of industrial applications. In consumer electronics, a broad category encompassing computer, CD, and DVD hard drives, in addition to the ubiquitous cell phones, the nominal NdFeB magnet content may be small, but the global market share for this sector accounts for almost 30% of NdFeB demand, due to a large and continually increasing consumer base. It is estimated that wind turbines that primarily employ permanent magnets will add roughly 110 GW annually of on- and off-shore capability over the next few years. Electric vehicles (EVs) and E-bicycles (EBs) equipped with permanent magnet motors comprise the transportation contribution. Permanent magnet motors have garnered nearly 100% of the market share among EV manufacturers worldwide. Industrial, professional service, and personal robots, most using permanent magnets, are also included in the projected global need for rare earths, particularly Nd and Dy. The sector projects significant growth of approximately 10% across robotic categories. In this paper, we calculate the future demand for Nd and Dy through 2050 across these sectors using a compounded annual growth rate coupled with magnet weight and rare earth content. Uncertainties in the estimates, such as the true global production of Nd, a range of end-product scales and/or unit types in each sector, varied magnet compositions, and the variety of uses within a sector, are all considered.
... Although many studies have assessed the demands for REEs and other critical minerals, several knowledge gaps still exist. Firstly, demand estimating studies focus on REEs required for specific technologies, such as neodymium and dysprosium for wind turbines and electric vehicle (EVs) (Hoenderdaal et al 2013, Watari et al 2019, Li et al 2020. Although both retrospective and prospective studies have been conducted to assess the demands for yttrium, europium, and terbium in the lighting sector at global, regional, and national levels, future demand dynamics driven by on-going lighting technology transition has not been estimated for China (Rollat et al 2016, Zhou et al 2017, Elshkaki 2021b, Gao et al 2022a, Xiao et al 2022. ...
Energy efficient lights, such as fluorescent lamps (FLs) and light-emitting diode lamps (LEDs), can greatly help achieve carbon neutrality in the building sector. Yttrium, europium, and terbium, three rare earth elements (REEs), are essential for energy efficient lighting. However, due to the ongoing lighting technology transition from FLs to LEDs, the demands for yttrium, europium, and terbium have decreased significantly. It resulted in oversupplies of these three REEs in the lighting sector, indicating an economically and environmentally unsustainable supply chain. This study aims to forecast the supply and demand dynamics of yttrium, europium, and terbium in China from 2021 to 2060 under the carbon neutrality contexts by applying a dynamicmaterial-flow-analysis based framework- . Key flows and stocks along their life cycles are examined. Results show that the annual demands for yttrium, europium, and terbium in China’s lighting sector will decrease by 88%-100% from 2021 to 2060. Driven bythe demand for other co-produced critical REEs, the growing REEs supply will resultin high surplus risks of yttrium and europium. Meanwhile, terbium deficit risk needsattention due to its demand growth in other fields. Such surpluses of these three REEsin 2060 are estimated to reach between 71,762 tons and 274,869 tons for yttrium, 535tons and 1,712 tons for europium, and -1,360 tons (i.e., deficit) and 540 tons forterbium R. ecycling activities of major co-produced REEs, such as neodymium, and the export expansion of surplus products can effectively mitigate such surplus risks. Finally, policy recommendations are proposed to improve the overall REEs efficiency from governance, technology, and economic instruments perspectives.
... Including the identification of China's advantages (Schlinkert and Boogaart, 2015), the competition and complementarity between China and other trade partners (He and Lei, 2013;Ge et al., 2016), the disorder of China's rare earth export (Zhang et al., 2015), the policy evolution market responses (Ge and Lei, 2018). Some research also focuses on the impact of China's export policy on clean energy technology (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013), the impact on global rare earth supply-demand and the industry prospect Brown and Eggert, 2018;Mancheri et al., 2019). Besides, the rare earth trade policy of the U.S. and Japan has also attracted widespread attention (Schmid, 2019;Hau et al., 2022). ...
... Therefore, the processing and recycling of this type of waste, which contains REEs (especially Dy), are significant. Hoenderdaal et al. [29] reported that electric vehicles accounted for about 23% of the worldwide demand for Dy. The main REE application in electric vehicles is batteries. ...
Rare earth elements (REEs) are typically found in low concentrations within natural rocks that make up mine tailings, such as carbonates in association with silicates within carbonatite igneous rocks, so it is of interest to develop (bio)hydrometallurgical ways to liberate them from the silicate matrix. This work investigated, through geochemical modeling, the extraction of europium and ytterbium carbonates from rocks containing one of four silicates (chrysotile, forsterite, montmorillonite, and phlogopite) via chemical (mineral acid) or biological (organic acid) leaching. The results indicated conditions that led to either congruent or incongruent dissolution of the mineral phases and the formation of transient mineral phases. Chemical leaching models suggest that REE carbonates are recoverable in one-step leaching from forsterite and chrysotile rocks, while they are recoverable in a secondary leaching step from montmorillonite and phlogopite rocks. Gibbsite as a transient phase is shown to complicate REE recovery, potentially requiring reactive extraction. REEs have the potential to be recovered from silicate rocks via chemoorganotrophic bioleaching, but the process configuration would differ depending on the predominant minerals that make up the rock, and the type of REE present in it.
... Metals are critical for all socioeconomic and technological developments (Nelsen et al., 2010). Emerging technologies have created a preferential demand for metals such as In, Co, Li, Al, Sn, Ag, Pt and Pd, some of which are mainly found at depths of >1 km below surface (Graedel, 2011;Alonso et al., 2012;Elshkaki and Graedel, 2013;Hoenderdaal et al., 2013;Peiró et al., 2013;Moreau et al., 2019). e) Infrastructure, industrialisation and energy supply. ...
Underground mining has historically occurred in surface and near-surface (shallow) mineral deposits. While no universal definition of deep underground mining exists, humanity's need for non-renewable natural resources has inevitably pushed the boundaries of possibility in terms of environmental and technological constraints. Recently, deep underground mining is being extensively developed due to the depletion of shallow mineral deposits. One of the main advantages of deep underground mining is its lower environmental footprint compared to shallow mining. In this paper, we summarise the key factors driving deep underground mining, which include an increasing need for raw materials, exhaustion of shallow mineral deposits, and increasing environmental scrutiny. We examine the challenges associated with deep underground mining, mainly the: environmental, financial, geological, and geotechnical aspects. Furthermore, we explore solutions provided by recent advances in science and technology, such as the integration of mineral processing and mining, and the digital and technological revolution. We further examine the role of legacy data in its ability to bridge current and future practices in the context of deep underground mining.
... However, it is important to emphasize that pure electric vehicles (EVs) still present major drawbacks such as limited driving range [10,11], long recharging period, oversizing and high total cost of ownership [12][13][14], which interferes in their market share. Another vulnerable aspect of EVs is related to the heavy reliance on scarce minerals for manufacturing of powertrain components [15][16][17], in which material supply risks should be evaluated during expansion of the electric vehicle industry. Furthermore, the claim that EVs produce zero emissions is misleading since it does not take an in-depth well-to-wheels life-cycle analysis of this electrically propelled vehicle into account [11]. ...
This paper presents a multi-objective optimization procedure for a hybrid biofuel-electric vehicle (HBEV) powertrain design and fuzzy logic control. The vehicle concept is based on an electric drivetrain, while the battery is recharged by an onboard generator coupled to an ethanol-powered engine. The optimization procedure is done by the interactive adaptive-weight genetic algorithm method, aiming for the minimization of the fuel consumption, tailpipe emissions, powertrain size, and charging time, while the battery lifespan is improved. The powertrain parameters are defined as design variables, along with the membership functions, rules, and weights of the fuzzy logic controllers, responsible for the power split among the four in-wheel electric motors, the engine and generator operation. The optimization is done under the combination of four standard driving cycles combined in a 4 times loop, resulting in a 281.8 km path. As compared to a conventional vehicle with the same engine data, the best HBEV solution was able to save 17.78% fuel, while decreasing the emissions by 52.38%, 22.85%, and 28.57%, considering a battery life expectation of 23,907 h. Moreover, this optimum HBEV was also evaluated under two combinations of real-world driving cycles, reaching fuel savings up to 30% and lower emissions as compared to the conventional vehicle in all analyzed scenarios. Finally, a cost analysis is performed to compare the proposed HBEV powertrain concept with other hybrid vehicle configurations presented in the literature.
... The studies analysed in [6] deal most frequently with the rare earths dysprosium and neodymium required for permanent magnets in wind mills and electric motors (see [4,[21][22][23] on global and [24, 25] on national levels). Lithium and, to a lesser extent, cobalt are also among the elements most commonly analysed [6]. ...
Potentially scarce materials play an important role in many current and emerging technologies needed for a sustainable energy and mobility system. This paper examines the global demand for 25 potentially scarce materials that would result from an energy system that is compatible with the 1.5 °C target. It further analyses the risk for short- and mid-term material shortages. To determine the material requirements, an extensive prospective database was built up on the specific demand of these materials in key technologies. A second database describes the potential development of sub-technology market shares within a technology class. A material flow analysis model was used to determine the annual and cumulative material requirements as well as the recycling potential in the underlying scenario. The results show that production of all materials has to increase, in some cases significantly, in a short period of time to meet the demand for the energy and transportation system. In addition, the cumulative demand for some materials significantly exceeds current reserves and even resources. In particular, lithium (demand increase (DI) more than factor 10, cumulated demand (CD) exceeds reserves up to factor 2), cobalt (DI/CD: <7/<3), and nickel (CD/DI: <2.4/<1.4) for batteries, dysprosium (DI < 8) and neodymium (DI < 1.5) (for permanent magnets (wind turbines and electric motors), and iridium (DI < 2.9) as well as platinum (DI < 1.8) (fuel cells, electrolyzers) are affected. The construction of battery electric and fuel cell electric vehicles thus represents a major driver of the material demand. Depending on the material, shortages can be reduced or delayed by technology substitution, material recycling, technology lifetime extension, increased material efficiency, and a smaller future vehicle stock, but not entirely avoided. Hence, it can be expected that material bottlenecks will result in increasing material prices, at least in the short to medium term.
... Therefore, the processing and recycling of this type of waste, which contains REEs (especially Dy), are significant. Hoenderdaal et al. (2013) reported that electric vehicles had accounted for about 23% of the worldwide demand for Dy. The main REEs application in electric vehicles is batteries. ...
This thesis investigated the recovery of critical metals from waste streams, by means of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching and bio-precipitation. The literature reviews covered urban solid wastes and coal ashes containing rare earth elements (REEs). The numerical investigations focused on three critical metals: Arsenic (As) contained in metal-contaminated natural waters, and Europium (Eu) and Ytterbium (Yb) contained in silicate rocks that often are accumulated as lowvalue mine tailings. This thesis utilized geochemical modeling, using The Geochemist’s Workbench software, to develop and test reactive models. The first model simulates the timedependent bio-precipitation of arsenic from a natural water with the aid of bacterium Bacillus arsenicoselenatis. The second model simulates the equilibration of four silicate minerals (chrysotile, forsterite, montmorillonite and phlogopite) containing oxides of Eu and Yb with an aqueous solution of dilute salts exposed to air, followed by the addition of inorganic (H2SO4 and HCl) and organic (Lactic) acids to this system.
... ； 划分改革开放以来中国稀缺矿 并指出新形势下的战略选择 [8] ； 剖析 1990-2013 年 的优势矿产管理政策演进过程， 评述政策的积极效 果及负面影响， 最后提出政策新思路 [9] 等。第二类 研究运用数量模型检验了稀土政策对中国稀土产 业及全球稀土市场的影响。中国学者认为稀土政 策总体上取得了积极成果 [10] ， 其中出口数量管理有 效削减了初级产品的出口数量 [11] ， 提升了稀土出口 的市场势力 [12,13] 。国外研究则关心中国稀土政策变 动对全球稀土市场及下游产业的影响， 重点包括中 国出口数量管理政策对清洁能源技术的影响 [14] 、 环 境规制对全球稀土供需的影响 [15][16][17] 、 稀土储存与环 境税收等对全球稀土产业链弹性的影响 [18] 等。第三 类研究重点关注中国稀土出口数量管理的动机。 有研究认为中国稀土出口措施造成了 "不公平竞争 优势" [19] ， 具有资源民族主义的特征 [20] [43] 增 长 到 5.33 万 t [44] ， 国 内 消 费 量 由 8286 t [46] ...
... In order to mitigate this effect, the share of energy produced through renewable sources should be heightened substantially, as well as the efficiency achieved in energy production (Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, 2007. The transition towards a more sustainable and renewable transformation of the energy systems is closely related to technologies such as the ones associated with electric cars and wind turbines; sectors which have in common essential requirements of rare earth metals such as dysprosium and neodymium (Hoenderdaal et al., 2013). ...
Background: Nowadays, the industry trends are reflecting an increase in the consumption of products containing rare earth elements (REEs), which leads to the generation of several REE-containing residues such as spent permanent magnets (SPM), permanent magnet swarf (PMS), and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.
Methods: Due to the risk of supply and to decrease the dependency of Europe in obtaining REEs, an innovative process for obtaining REEs in the form of rare earth oxalates (REOx) that can be easily transformed to an xide mixture by calcination is proposed. The proposed method includes leaching of REEs from SPM, PMS, and NiMH batteries using different solvents such as ionic liquids and/or mineral acids; precipitation of REE in the form of REOx and purification of the final products by an ionic liquid extraction (ILE) process for removing the impurities using Cyphos 101 as ionic liquid. Intensive research, based on laboratory tests, is described for each of the parts of the process with the aim of providing optimized results.
Results: In this study, >99% recovery of the REE initially present in the leachates after the leaching phase is achieved, with a purity of the REOxafter the precipitation and purification steps higher than 95%.
Conclusion: A novel and innovative process for the extraction of REEs from secondary sources has been investigated in this paper, demonstrating strong potential for its implementation. The REEEs recovery rate and the purity obtained together with the low environmental impact of this process compared to conventional ones can contribute to a greener future where the usage of REEs will presumably be even more relevant.
... The recoverable/demand ratios of Dy are not as high as those of Nd because the NdFeB magnets used in HDDs and MRIs have significantly less Dy composition. Considering that research is underway to substitute/reduce the Dy content in NdFeB magnets due to its high cost [36] we found that the demand for Dy would drop from 337 tons to 231 tons in 2034, assuming a Dy content of 3.4% [20], [37] in future EV PM motors. ...
Rare earth elements (REEs) such as Neodymium (Nd) and Dysprosium (Dy) are used in Rare Earth Permanent Magnets (REPMs). Neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets offer the strongest magnetic field per volume among all the magnets available in the market, which enables lightweight and compact product designs. NdFeB magnets have thus become indispensable in emerging clean technologies such as wind turbines and electric vehicles (EVs). Global demand for these renewables is increasing due to environmental considerations, energy security, and consumer demand. However, China’s dominance in REE production and processing technology has led to concerns pertaining to supply chain risks. This is especially the case for the automotive industry that is experiencing a major shift from traditional internal combustion engines to EVs that employ these REPMs. The number of EVs on U.S. roads is projected to reach more than 18 million in 2030 up from 1.4 million in 2019. In order to mitigate supply chain brittleness, and thereby potentially reduce price volatility, secondary REE supply sources from end-of-life (EoL) products may be a viable option. This study quantifies the recycling potential of Nd and Dy from EoL EVs, HDDs and MRIs in the U.S. Factors used in the analysis were number of units manufactured each year, NdFeB magnet mass in each unit and REE composition of magnets employed. Using EV production forecasts, we estimate how much of the future Nd and Dy demands can be met by secondary supply from EoL products.
... In the following, we summarize the existing knowledge on these parameters, and derive assumptions and sub-scenarios for them. (Glöser-Chahoud, 2017;Hoenderdaal, Tercero Espinoza, Marscheider-Weidemann, & Graus, 2013). Furthermore, Nd can be replaced by Pr up to a ratio of 3:1 without negative impacts on performance (Buchert, Manhart, Bleher, & Pingel, 2012). ...
The environmental impacts of rare earth mining have recently caused public concern, because demand for the rare earth elements neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (pr), dysprosium (Dy), and terbium (Tb) is expected to increase strongly as a result of their use in magnets for electric cars and other emerging applications. Therefore, we analyzed the future environmental impacts of producing these rare earth metals per kilogram and for global production in the year 2035 to obtain insights into their relevance and draw conclusions about suitable mitigation measures. We introduced a new stepwise approach that combines future scenarios of metal demand, policy measures, mining sites, and environmental conditions with life cycle assessment data sets.
The environmental impacts of 1kg of Nd, Pr, Dy, and Tb will probably decrease by 2035. In contrast, the environmental impacts of the global production of these metals for magnet applications might increase or decrease depending on the development of demand and the environmental conditions of mining and production. Regarding mitigation measures, the attempts included in the Chinese consolidation strategy (improvement of the environmental conditions of mining, prevention of illegal mining) are the most promising to reduce impacts in the categories human toxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity and, in the case of Nd/Pr, also in eutrophication and acidification. For the remaining categories, reducing the increase in demand (e.g., by improving material efficiency) is the most promising measure. Enhancing the environmental performance of foreground processes has larger potential benefits than improving background processes for most impact categories, including human toxicity as the most relevant impact category following normalization. This article met the requirements for a gold‐gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.
... g/unit 100 (Ballinger et al., 2019;Chu, 2011;Yano, Muroi, & Sakai, 2015) Wind turbines 124.000-210.000 kg/MW 20 (Chu, 2011;Hoenderdaal et al., 2013;Nassar, Wilburn, & Goonan, 2016) Mobile phones 0.050-0.200 g/unit 100 (Ciacci et al., 2019;Crock, 2016; Laptops/tablets 0.600-2.100 ...
Neodymium is one of the most important enabling materials for next‐generation clean technologies, especially electric vehicles and wind turbines. As the world's largest producer of rare earth minerals, China dominates the global neodymium supply and a considerable amount of primary neodymium resources are from illegal mining. Many studies have been conducted on the material flow of neodymium in different regions, but few studies focus on China. In this study, a static material flow analysis of neodymium is conducted to quantitatively analyze the industrial chain structure of neodymium in China and to calculate the neodymium output from illegal mining. The results quantitatively depict the neodymium material flow of each stage of China's neodymium industrial chain in 2016, which indicates that 12.3–17.0 kt of primary neodymium resources were from illegal mining. On the basis of the results, reasonable conclusions can be drawn that the recycling of neodymium from end‐of‐life products provides an important opportunity to both reduce illegal rare earth mining and cope with increasing neodymium demand.
... After applying the tests in Table 2 above, we find that the fixed-effect model should be used. Since data present characteristics of contemporaneous correlation, autocorrelation of residuals, and heteroscedasticity, this study chooses fixed effect regression models with Driscoll and Kraay standard errors [68]. In the derivation of Driscoll and Kraay standard errors, the disturbance is allowed to be autocorrelated, heteroskedastic, and cross-sectionally dependent, so the estimation is well calibrated when spatial dependence exists [69]. ...
This study aims to find the relationship between energy resource dependence and economic growth in consideration of interprovincial heterogeneity. This paper first uses panel data from 14 provinces with rich energy resources in China between 2001 and 2016 as a whole to test the energy resource curse hypothesis. It finds that there is no obvious resource curse from a general perspective. It further makes time prediction and transmission channel analysis based on regressions of each province and classifies them into four groups according to the different degrees of the resource curse. It shows the different roles of resource dependencies in different groups. Twelve provinces are subject to different degrees of the resource curse, among which, six provinces would eventually experience negative economic growth if they increase the degree of resource dependence. Next, this study discusses the mechanism of one particular group, “invisible energy resource curse”, which is when energy resources directly promote but indirectly hinder economic growth. Finally, based on the results, the present study offers policy suggestions according to provinces’ heterogeneous curse levels.
... Dysprosium is a rare earth metal used in making contrast agents for magnetic resonance imagery and the production of permanent magnets for electric cars as well as direct-drive wind mills. It is also used in the manufacture of multi-layer ceramic capacitors and data storage materials such as computer hard disc drives [21][22][23]. ...
Zinc zirconate nanocomposites with varying compositions of Dy3+ ions were synthesized through a solution combustion method using citric acid as a fuel. There were mixed hexagonal ZnO and cubic ZrO2 phases in the X-ray diffraction patterns of the composites whose average crystallite sizes range between 27 and 38 nm. Scanning electron microscopy images show a mixture of polygonal and hexagonal rod-like structures of varying aggregation levels at the different Dy3+ -doping concentrations. The reflectance spectra showed absorption edges around 400 nm and an energy bandgap between 2.99 and 3.07 eV. There was a violet emission from the host matrix that gradually shifted towards white light with enhanced doping. At a higher Dy3+ concentration, there was luminescence quenching attributed to dipole-dipole interaction among the dopant ions. The synthesized nanocomposite phosphors may be used in sensors and colored display technology.
... The rare earth elements (REEs) are increasingly valuable because of their growing use in renewable energy and high technology applications [1], such as fuel cells, magnets, superconductors, cell phones, turbines and thermoelectric materials. The limited known exploitable deposits of REEs in the world, however, creates challenges in the supply of primary REEs [2]. Dy is a critical metal for the production of permanent magnets, lamp phosphors, rechargeable NiMH batteries, catalysts and for other applications [3][4][5]. ...
This paper reports on the experimental investigation of the phase relations in the CaO-SiO2-Dy2O3 system. CaO-SiO2-Dy2O3 slags were equilibrated at 1773 and 1873 K for 86400 s in Ar and then quenched in water to determine the phase relations of the system. The composition of the equilibrated phases was measured by EPMA-WDS and XRD. The presence of ternary compounds and the solid solution and liquid regions were determined to construct the isothermal sections at 1773 and 1873 K of the ternary phase diagram. The data from this work will support further investigations on the feasibility to recover REEs through pyrometallurgical processing.
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Regards, Hansheng
Nowadays, it is of utmost importance to consider climate change factors, such as ocean warming, since the risk of negative impacts derived from increased surface water temperature is predicted to be high to the biodiversity. The need for renewable energy technologies, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, has led to the increasing use of rare earth elements (REE). Dysprosium (Dy) is widely used in magnets, motors, electrical vehicles, and nuclear reactors, being considered a critical element to technology due to its economic importance and high supply risk. However, the increasing use of this element contributes to the enrichment of anthropogenic REE in aquatic systems. Nevertheless, the information on the potential toxicity of Dy is limited. Moreover, the effects of pollutants can be amplified when combined with climate change factors. Thus, this study aimed to assess the effects of Dy (10 μg/L) in the species Mytilus galloprovincialis under actual (17 °C) and predicted warming conditions (21 °C). The Dy concentration in contaminated mussels was similar between temperatures, probably due to the detoxification capacity in individuals under these treatments. The combined stressors affected the redox balance, but higher impacts were caused by Dy and warming acting alone. In terms of cellular damage, although Dy acting alone was prejudicial to mussels, warming and both stressors acting together induced higher levels of LPO and PC. The histopathological effects in the digestive tubules of Dy were independent of the temperature tested. Regarding the sperm, only warming induced cellular damage however both stressors acting alone and together impaired the movement of the sperm. Overall, this study highlights that warming might influence the effects induced by Dy, but greater impacts were caused by the metal. Eventually, the tested stressors may have consequences on mussels' reproduction capacity as well as their growth, abundance, and survival.
Light rare earth elements (LREEs) are of strategic importance for low carbon transition and decarbonization. However, the imbalance between LREEs exists and a systematic understanding of their flows and stocks is lacking, which impedes the attainment of resources efficiency and exacerbates the environmental burdens. This study examines the anthropogenic cycles and the imbalance problem of three representative LREEs in China, the largest LREEs producer in the world, including cerium (the most abundant), neodymium and praseodymium (the fastest demand-growing). We find that 1) from 2011 to 2020, the total consumption of Nd and Pr increased by 228 % and 223 %, respectively, mainly attributed to the increasing demand of NdFeB, whereas that of Ce increased by 157 %; 2) the supply insufficiency of Nd and Pr under the current quota system accumulated to 138,086 tons and 35,549 tons, respectively, while the oversupply of Ce reached 63,523 tons; and 3) China has become a net importer of LREEs concentrates, and a net exporter of LREEs in the form of intermediate and final products, imposing further burdens to the domestic environment. It is clear that the imbalance of LREEs occurred during the study period, raising urgent needs to adjust the LREEs production quotas, seek other Ce applications, and eliminate illegal mining.
The increasing demand for rare earth elements (REEs) makes them a scarce strategic resource for technical developments. In that regard, harvesting REEs from coal ashes—a waste byproduct from coal power plants—offers an alternative solution to conventional ore-based extraction. However, this approach is bottlenecked by our ability to screen coal ashes bearing large concentrations of REEs from feedstocks—since measuring the REE content in ashes is a time-consuming and costly task requiring advanced analytical tools. Here, we propose a machine learning approach to predict the REE contents based on the bulk composition of coal ashes (which is easily measurable under the current testing protocol). We introduce a multi-task neural network that simultaneously predicts the contents of different REEs and, importantly, exhibits notably improved accuracy than the single-task models. Further model analyses reveal key data patterns for screening coal ashes with high REE concentrations.
Teaser: With machine learning, high-throughput screening of REE-bearing coal ashes can be fulfilled based on a simple measurement.
Dysprosium (Dy) is a critical rare earth element. However, its supply, consumption, trade, and recycling along the entire supply chain have not been clearly investigated, especially for China where most Dy is produced and used. This study quantified the Dy flows and stocks in mainland China during 1990-−2019. Key findings are as follows: (1) domestic Dy demand increased by 16-fold during 2004−2019, driven by green technologies; (2) Dy mine production failed to grow significantly after 2010 under intensified environmental regulations; (3) China's total Dy exports increased steadily, with exported commodities changing from upstream to downstream products; (4) in-use Dy stocks grew by 15-fold during 2006−2019, implicating big potentials of urban mining, but commercial recycling systems have not been established. This study reveals the importance of supply-demand monitoring, environmental governance, and global cooperation to Dy industries, and highlights the necessity of material flow analysis for improving metal supply chain management.
Attempts to track material flows and the calculation of efficiency for material systems go hand in hand. Questions of where materials come from, where materials go to, and how much material is lost along the way are embedded in human societies. This article reviews material flows, their analysis, and progress toward material efficiency. We focus first on material flow analysis (MFA) and the three key tenants of any MFA: presentation of materials, visualization of the flow structure, and insight derived from analysis. Reviewing recent literature, we explore how each of these concepts is described, organized, and presented in MFA studies. We go on to show the role of MFA in material efficiency calculations and what-if scenario analysis for informed decision-making. We investigate the origins and motivations behind the material efficiency paradigm and the key efficiency strategies and practices developed in recent years and conclude by suggesting priorities for a future research agenda.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Materials Research, Volume 52 is July 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Amidst the background of an increasingly evidenced shift to renewable energy, many studies explored the relationships between crude oil, renewable energy, and technology stock markets worldwide. However, research has yet to take the raw materials market into account financially. This study investigates the volatility spillovers between crude oil, renewable energy, and high-technology markets in China in time and frequency domains first. Thereupon the tri-market system is expanded to include the raw materials market (rare earths). The framework of wavelet analysis and BEKK-GARCH model with exogenous variables is applied. The results corroborate that there exists significant volatility spillover between renewable energy and high-technology stock markets, and the renewable energy market in China relates closer to high-technology than crude oil. Besides, the volatility spillovers vary by frequency, with D3 (8–16 days) results appearing more pronounced. Moreover, the rare earths market has significant impacts on the system, especially for high-technology and renewable energy markets. This suggests that as key raw materials to renewable energy development, rare earths may increase the risk transfer of the tri-market system. The results are of potential importance and use for investors and policy makers. In particular, taking the frequency perspective helps devising differentiated portfolio and risk management strategies.
Achieving global climate and energy goals will require prodigious increases in non-emitting electricity generation, raising concerns about the scale of materials needed and associated environmental impacts. Here, we estimate power sector demand for materials and related carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2eq) emissions from 2020-2050 across different climate-energy scenarios and compare these figures to material geological reserves and carbon budgets. We find that demand increases but cumulatively does not exceed current geological reserves. However, annual production of materials including neodymium (Nd), dysprosium (Dy), tellurium (Te), fiberglass, and solar-grade polysilicon may need to grow considerably. Cumulative CO2 emissions related to materials for electricity infrastructure may be substantial (4-29 Gt CO2eq in 1.5°C scenarios) but constitute a small share of global carbon budgets (1-9% of a 320 Gt CO2eq 1.5°C 66% avoidance budget). Our results highlight how power sector decarbonization will mobilize large quantities of materials, likely necessitating continued development of existing and new mineral resources.
Rare earth elements (REEs) are vital for the technology, military, and defense industries. They have been recognized as critical due to potential scarcity, supply constraints, and lack of minable concentrations. Therefore, alternative sources are needed to meet the demand and continue manufacturing rare earth-dependent products. However, the environmental prospect of rare earth mining was not investigated enough, and comprehensive studies are lacking. It demands serious consideration as toxic radionuclides are seen in the same mineralization as rare earths regardless of their primary or secondary sources. The concentration of these hazardous trace elements may be elevated as a result of extraction and beneficiation processes. Unless proper separation and disposal are performed, these radionuclides accumulate on the surface of the soil or integrate with aquatic systems, which consequently raise environmental and health concerns. This review manuscript compiled the environmental impact and aspect of rare earth extraction processes while addressing separation techniques for these radioactive materials from rare earths, emphasizing selective precipitation, solvent extraction, and solid-phase separation.
Rare Earth Metals (REMs) are minerals which needed in modern technology because it has unique chemical, catalytic, electrical and paramagnetic properties, so REMs have the potential to be applied in various fields. The similarity in the physical and chemical properties of REMs causes them to be difficult to separate from their parent minerals. Emulsion Liquid Membrane is an effective and efficient method for REMs purification and separation because in practice it only requires a small amount of solvent, the diffusion rate and mass transfer are high, fast, and simultaneous compared to the solvent extraction method which requires many extraction steps and requires a lot of solvents. In the emulsion liquid membrane method, one of the factors that can determine the success of the extraction process is the selectivity of the ligands/extractants. The extractants must be highly selective against the target REM ions, both in the external aqueous phase and the internal aqueous phase. Therefore, this review aimed to determine the selectivity of various types of extractants such as D2EHPA, Cyanex 302, Cyanex 572, (RO)2P(O)OPh-COOH, Aniline, and TBP on extraction efficiency and stripping efficiency in the separation of rare earth metals through the emulsion liquid membrane method.
This study explores the time and frequency spillover relationship between the political risk (PR) of major importers and exporters and the stock returns of China's rare earths (RER) by using the spillover index proposed by Diebold and Yilmaz (2012, 2014) (D&Y (2012, 2014)) and Baruník and Křehlík (2018) (B&K (2018)). The research results indicate that the average total spillovers between PR and RER are 35.55%, in which short-term spillovers play a dominant role with the average proportion of 71.21%. In particular, the spillover index increases significantly during major financial and political events, including the global financial crisis, European debt crisis, China-Japan diplomatic event, the crisis between Russia and Ukraine, the announcement of WTO dispute resolution about rare earths (REs) and the US presidential election. In addition, Myanmar has the largest PR index, which is also the biggest contributor in the spillover network regardless of time periods. In terms of RER, it is a net receiver of spillovers from PR, which obtains more spillovers from importing countries than exporting countries. Generally, Japan, Estonia, Myanmar and the Netherlands are the top spillover emitters to RER while Germany, France, Japan and India are the main spillover receivers from RER. Moreover, Japan emits evidently more spillovers to RER in the long term and during major political event.
The present paper addresses the preparation and characterization of anhydrous oxygen-free rare earth materials, such as terbium fluoride (TbF3). The fluorination of terbium oxide (Tb4O7) by ammonium bifluoride (NH4HF2) to prepare anhydrous TbF3 was reported in this work. The parameters affecting fluorination were studied, including the fluorination temperature, excess stoichiometric amount of NH4HF2, and time for fluorination. The temperatures of Tb4O7 fluorination by NH4HF2 determined by thermogravimetric analysis and differential thermal analysis ranged from 350°C to 500°C. The phase structure of the as-prepared products identified by the X-ray diffraction method was indexed to the orthorhombic phase of TbF3 [space group: Pnma (no. 62)] that exhibited good accordance with the values in the standard cards JCPDS No. 37-1487 for TbF3. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) methods were used to analyze the elemental compositions in the as-prepared products; the fluorine (F) and terbium (Tb) elemental compositions calculated from the [TbF3] formula are in good agreement with those calculated from the EDS pattern. The optimum parameters for fluorination were determined from the results, and anhydrous oxygen-free TbF3 can be used to study the preparation of metallic terbium by the calcinothermic reduction method.
Economic policy uncertainty and particularly COVID-19 has stimulated the need to investigate alternative avenues for policy risk management. In this context, this study examines the dynamic association among economic policy uncertainty, green bonds, clean energy stocks, and global rare earth elements. A dynamic conditional correlation-multivariate generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity (DCC-MGARCH) model was used to gauge the time-varying co-movements among these indices. The analysis finds that green bonds act more as a hedge than a safe haven against economic policy uncertainty (EPU). In the case of diversification, green bonds work as diversifiers with clean energy stocks and rare earth elements during COVID-19 and in the whole sample period. Additionally, clean energy stocks and rare earth elements show safe haven properties against EPUs. This study contributes to the hedging and safe haven literature with some new insight considering the role of green bonds and clean energy stocks. Additionally, the outcomes of the research contribute toward the literature of portfolio diversification theory. These findings pave the way for not only US investors to hedge long-term economic policy risk by investing in green bonds, but also for China and the UK, as these financial assets (green bonds, clean energy stocks, and rare earth metals) and EPU are long-term financial and economic variables.
Fly ash dan bottom ash (FABA) merupakan limbah hasil sisa pembakaran batubara dari pembangkit listrik tenaga uap (PLTU). FABA yang dihasilkan akan terus meningkat seiring dengan meningkatnya kebutuhan energi listrik yang harus dipenuhi. Komposisi FABA secara umum berupa silika, alumina, oksida besi, dan senyawa oksida lainnya. Abu yang dihasilkan dari pembakaran batubara berpotensi secara ekonomis karena mengandung beberapa unsur berharga antara lain Ge, Ga, unsur tanah jarang (REY), Nb, Zr, V, Re, Au, Ag, dan logam dasar seperti Al. Karakteristik fisik dan kimia FABA merupakan aspek penting yang dapat memengaruhi, baik potensi penggunaan maupun metode pembuangan atau penyimpanan limbah yang akan dilakukan. Potensi pemanfaatan FABA telah banyak digunakan pada bidang geoteknik, salah satunya diaplikasikan sebagai material geopolimer. Selain itu, FABA juga mengandung cenosphere yang merupakan salah satu material bernilai ekonomis tinggi dan telah banyak diaplikasikan pada berbagai bidang industri. Berbagai teknik pemisahan material untuk meningkatkan potensi nilai guna FABA telah berhasil dikembangkan, antara lain metode ektraksi cenosphere, logam berharga serta unsur jejak seperti REY, juga unburned carbon.
Zusammenfassung
Angesichts einer begrenzten Deponiekapazität der Erde und einer zunehmenden Kritikalität von Ressourcen und Lieferketten gewinnt die Kreislaufführung der Stoffflüsse zentrale Bedeutung. Der Abfall wird zum Wertstoff. Kenntnisse über seine stoffliche Zusammensetzung werden zum zentralen Ansatzpunkt der Steuerung umweltökonomisch effizienter Wertschöpfungskreisläufe. Durch die digitale Spiegelung der realen Prozesse wird dies möglich. Das Konzept des Total Design Management ermöglicht das simultane Optimieren von Werkstoff-, Produkt- und Recycling-Design. Nachhaltigkeit wird stringent in Bezug auf die durch den digitalen Raum gegebenen Systemgrenzen definiert. Aus volkwirtschaftlicher Sicht entsteht eine transaktionsökonomisch begründbare Abwägung zwischen internationaler Arbeitsteilung und Technologiesouveränität. Wie diese ausfällt, hängt stark von der Regulierung der Märkte und den Lieferkettenrisiken ab.
Designing new rare-earth-free (REF) permanent magnetic materials (PMM) to replace the high performing but critically restrained rare-earth-based PMM remains a great challenge to the scientific community. Here, we report on the rational design of new REF PMM, Hf2MIr5B2 (M = Fe, Mn) via a theory-experiment combined approach. Density functional theory (DFT) predicted strong interchain M-M spin-exchange coupling and large magnetocrystalline anisotropy energies (EMAE) for the new compounds, suggesting potential intrinsic PMM properties. Subsequent experimental bulk syntheses and magnetic characterizations established the highest ordering temperature (TC ∼ 900 K) for Hf2FeIr5B2 and the highest intrinsic coercivity (HC) value for Hf2MnIr5B2 (HC = 62.1 kA/m) reported to date for Ti3Co5B2-type compounds. Importantly, at room temperature both phases show significant coercivities due to intrinsic factors only, hinting at their huge potential to create REF PMM by improving extrinsic factors such as controlling the microstructure and the domain orientation.
The accelerating pace of energy use transition towards renewable energy worldwide has triggered the amplification of the demand for rare earths. This paper aims to explore the risk transfer between renewable energy and rare earth markets from the perspective of firms. The intention is motivated by the observation that significant investments regarding renewable energy are projected for the future and rare earths have emerged as an investment vehicle. By applying the DY (Diebold and Yilmaz) index onto high-frequency data, this paper sheds light on the connectedness between new energy and rare earth markets at firm level. Empirical results show that moderate volatility spillovers exist between these two markets in China. The risk transfer between firms in renewable energy and rare earth markets is also delineated in the form of network connectedness. The magnitude of risk transfer among firms may alter and the structure of risk transfer has seen shifts of focuses among firms over time. Furthermore, using the method of spillover asymmetric measure, pessimistic mood is detected in both markets during most of the period from 2012 to 2020, which indicates a lack of confidence and efficiency in the financing channel of stock. Compared with the existing literature, this article provides a finance-oriented exploration between these two markets using high-frequency data and a detailed illustration at firm level, which may help inform the decision-making for stakeholders.
Global initiatives are focused on deploying clean energy technologies, such as wind energy, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. U.S. onshore and offshore wind targets have been particularly aggressive. Some wind energy technologies, such as direct-drive wind turbines, rely on a volatile and Chinese-concentrated rare earth element (REE) supply chain. Global efforts have been made to develop new sources of REEs, with limited success. This lack of rare earth availability has been suggested to inhibit direct-drive adoption, despite its energy efficiency benefits. However, it is unclear if new U.S. REE supply could adequately support onshore and offshore direct-drive wind energy growth, and help meet U.S. wind energy targets. This analysis estimates U.S. and Chinese REE availability that could support U.S. direct-drive and other REE demand. Results indicated that U.S. wind installation targets with solely direct-drive designs could only require 4–12% of maximum light rare earth production from Mountain Pass, Bear Lodge and phosphate rock mines. When considering market dynamics and hypothetical U.S. production, U.S. light REE production capacity was not able to provide sufficient light rare earths to achieve wind energy targets. U.S. wind energy targets could be achieved by prioritizing 3–17% of U.S. light REE production for direct-drive wind energy.
In this study, Nd–Fe–B magnets with the type of N42 were employed to modify the microstructure and the magnetic properties. The Nd2Fe14B spherical grains were enveloped in a Nd rich grain boundary phase, and they produced unordinary heterostructures. The exchange bias behavior on the permanent magnet Nd–Fe–B was investigated at 5 K. The temperature dependence of magnetization measurement found spin-reorientation transition in the vicinity of temperature T = 100 K. When temperature under 100 K, ferromagnetic property played a major role with frozen magnetic moment. The coercivity at 5 K was larger but the negative saturated magnetic moments was lower compared to that at room temperature. In the magnetic hysteresis (M–H) loops at 5 K to 50 K, the negative shift of H and the positive shift of M along axis increased sharply with the temperature drops. The training effect was observed due to the existence of frozen spin moment. The exchange bias could be ascribed to minor loop effect and unidirectional anisotropy with spin-reorientation transition.
Electric vehicles (EVs) are seen as one of the solutions for the problems facing the transportation sector including pollution problems, climate change, dimensioning of fossil fuel, and energy security. However, EVs rely on materials identified critical due to risks associated with their supply and environmental impacts. This paper aims at analyzing EVs in China, their requirement for 16 materials, and their national and global implications. The analysis is carried out using multi-level dynamic MFA model and 9 scenarios investigating EVs and batteries market share, their materials content and lifetime, and materials recycling. EVs materials impacts on coproduced materials, and energy, water, and CO2 emissions associated with materials production are discussed. Global metals availability is not expected to constraint EVs development in China, while several metals availability in China is expected to limit their growth. Significant increase in most metals production capacity is required. Extending EVs lifetime and using more than one battery reduce risks associated with REEs and increase those associated with other metals. Metals stock in use is expected to be significant compared to current Chinese reserves. EVs development in China has significant implications on resources availability, mainly REEs and graphite, for other world regions and other sectors.
Three rare earth elements (REEs), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), and dysprosium (Dy), are essential ingredients of permanent magnets, used widely in electronics, motors, hybrid cars, generators, televisions, sensors, and windmills. Conventional methods for producing high-purity REEs employ two-phase liquid–liquid extraction methods, which require thousands of mixer-settler units in series or in parallel and generate large amounts of toxic waste. In this study, a two-zone ligand-assisted displacement chromatography (LAD) system with a new zone-splitting method is developed for producing high-purity (>99%) Nd, Pr, and Dy with high yields (>99%) and high sorbent productivity from crude REE mixtures derived from waste magnets. The zone-splitting method based on selectivity-weighted composition factors enables a two-zone design to achieve two orders of magnitude higher productivity than that of a single column design. The design and simulation methods are based on first principles and intrinsic (or scale-independent) engineering parameters. They can be used to design processes for a wide range of feed compositions or production scales. The overall productivity of the two-zone LAD can exceed 100 kg REEs m⁻³ day⁻¹, which is 100 times higher than those of the conventional extraction methods. The LAD for the purification of the ternary mixture requires only three chromatography columns, a safe extractant, EDTA, and other environmentally friendly chemicals. Most of the chemicals can be recycled, generating little waste. This method has the potential for efficient and environmentally friendly purification of the REEs from waste magnets. The method may also help transform the current linear REE economy (from ores to pure REEs, to products, to landfills) to a circular and sustainable REE economy.
Demand for the rare earth elements (REE, lanthanide elements) is estimated to be increasing at a rate of about 8% per year due to increasing applications in consumer products, computers, automobiles, aircraft, and other advanced technology products. Much of this demand growth is driven by new technologies that increase energy efficiency and substitute away from fossil fuels. Production of these elements is highly concentrated in China, which is reducing its exports of REE raw materials as part of its industrial policy. The ability of the rest of the world to replace supply from China depends on the quality of known REE resources and the degree to which those resources have been explored and evaluated. A review of United States resources in a global context finds that the United States could make significant contributions to future REE production. Aside from two advanced projects in the United States and Australia, however, there are no REE projects advanced enough to meet short-term demand.
The Energy [R]evolution 2010 scenario is an update of the Energy [R]evolution scenarios published in 2007 and 2008. It takes up recent trends in global energy demand and production and analyses to which extent this affects chances for achieving climate protection targets. The main target is to reduce global CO2 emissions to 3.7 Gt/a in 2050, thus limiting global average temperature increase to below 2°C and preventing dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. A ten-region energy system model is used for simulating global energy supply strategies. A review of sector and region specific energy efficiency measures resulted in the specification of a global energy demand scenario incorporating strong energy efficiency measures. The corresponding supply scenario has been developed in an iterative process in close cooperation with stakeholders and regional counterparts from academia, NGOs and the renewable energy industry.
The composition, microstructure and processing of NdFeB-type permanent magnets are all critical factors for the successful production of high performance magnet components. Three common fabrication routes can be used to categorize these NdFeB-based bulk magnets: sintering, polymer bonding and hot deformation. Generally, the former type of magnet has a high-energy product (30–50 MGOe), full density and a relatively simple shape. Bonded magnets have intermediate energy products (10–18 MGOe), lower density and can be formed into intricate net-shapes. Hot deformed magnets possess full density, intermediate to high-energy products (15–46 MGOe), isotropic or anisotropic properties and have the potential to be formed into net shapes. This article discusses the critical issues of improved magnetic performance, environmental stability, net-shape formability and magnetization behavior for the main categories of NdFeB magnets.
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