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Mycofungicides and fungal biofertilizers
Abstract
Mycofungicides and fungal biofertilizers have been promoted for agricultural use because of their ability to control plant diseases and their ability to increase crop production in an environmentally friendly manner. In recent years several mycofungicides have been patented and registered for plant disease control, while fungal biofertilizers have also been registered for application in crop production. Several effective mycofungicides and fungal biofertilizers have been formulated for commercial production. Formulation of mycofungicides includes wettable powders and granules; these being applied to seeds, seedlings and mature plants. Examples are Ketomium®, formulated from Chaetomium globosum and Ch. cupreum, Promote® formulated from Trichoderma harzianum and T. viride, SoilGard® formulated from Gliocladium virens, and Trichodex® from T. harzianum. Fungal biofertilizers include plant growth stimulating fungi e.g. Trichoderma, mycorrhizal fungi (ectomycorrhiza e.g. Pisolithus tinctonus and arbuscular mycorrhizae e.g. Glomus intraradices which form mutualistic associations with plants), enzymatic producing fungi for compost production and P-solubilizing fungi and K-solubilizing fungi. Fungal biofertilizers play an important role in promoting plant growth, health, productivity and improving soil fertility.
... The use of antagonistic microorganisms to control several plant diseases has led to the manufacture and registration of many biofungicide products [13,14]. A number of Trichoderma species, such as Trichoderma asperellum, T. asperelloides, T. kiningiopsis, T. harzianum, T. viride and T. virens, have been used as biocontrol agents against several tropical plant diseases [14]. ...
... The use of antagonistic microorganisms to control several plant diseases has led to the manufacture and registration of many biofungicide products [13,14]. A number of Trichoderma species, such as Trichoderma asperellum, T. asperelloides, T. kiningiopsis, T. harzianum, T. viride and T. virens, have been used as biocontrol agents against several tropical plant diseases [14]. However, conditions in agricultural fields such as temperature, light, wind and moisture represent a major limitation on the use of biocontrol agents [15]. ...
... Approximately 90% of formulations of antagonistic microorganisms are made from active conidia of several Trichoderma species [14]. However, most formulations have been developed as granules [41] or as a wettable powder [13]. ...
Stem canker on dragon fruit caused by Neoscytalidium dimidiatum causes severe losses in production of this fruit worldwide. Biological control by Trichoderma species is widely used to control several plant diseases. However, environmental conditions affect the use of biocontrol agents in the field. The development of a new formulation may offer an alternative way to address the problem of stem canker on dragon fruit caused by N. dimidiatum. In this study, we sought to develop a Trichoderma asperelloides PSU-P1 formulation that would be effective against N. dimidiatum. Three vegetable oils, two emulsifier-dispersing agents (Tween 20 and Tween 80), and one source of carbon (dextrose) were tested for carrier additives. We assessed the viability and antifungal ability of formulations incubated at ambient temperature and at 10 °C during a storage period of 1–6 months. The formulation composed of coconut oil, DW, and tween 20 in a ratio of 30:60:10 required a mixing time of 1.14 min; this was significantly faster than the mixing times of other formulations. Application of this formulation suppressed canker development; a canker area of 0.53 cm² was recorded, compared with a control (pathogen only) area of 1.65 cm². In terms of viability, this formulation stored at ambient temperature showed a surface area percentage of T. asperelloides PSU-P1 ranging from 64.43 to 75.7%; the corresponding range for the formulation stored at cool temperature was 70.59–75.6%. For both formulations, percentage inhibition gradually decreased from 1 to 6 months, with ranges of 59.21–77% and 60.65–76.19% for formulations incubated at ambient and cool temperatures, respectively. Our findings suggest that the formulation developed in this study prolongs the viability of T. asperelloides PSU-P1 conidia by up to 6 months, effectively inhibits N. dimidiatum in vitro, and reduces stem canker in vivo.
... Fungal biofertilizers, which include the use of fungal inoculants (such as Trichoderma sp., Mycorrhiza sp., Gliocladium sp., and Chaetomium sp.), have been developed to deliver nourishment to the host plant while also protecting crops from infections such as fungi and bacteria. When working together as a microbial consortium, they stimulate plant growth, decrease abiotic stress conditions, and have an impact on a variety of biochemical changes and activities (Odoh et al., 2020;Kaewchai et al., 2009). With the long history of the use of fungal biofertilizers, there has been a growing demand in recent years to better understand their application and role as biofertilizers and BCAs in agriculture. ...
... In their interactions with these plants, they increase the uptake of phosphorus (P), potash (K), nitrogen (N), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), sulfur (S), copper (Cu), and boron (B) as well as other trace elements. Many important plant groups (such as trees, shrubs, herbs, epiphytes, helophytes, and xerophytes) interact with Mycorrhiza sp. in a mutualistic manner (Rai et al., 2013;Kaewchai et al., 2009). Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) and ectomycorrhizae (ECM) are two of the most studied and important mycorrhizae. ...
... Trichoderma harzianum variant T-22 was created through protoplast fusion of Trichoderma harzianum T-95 and T-12, and this variant was synthesized as a granular called RootShield® and a powder called PlantShield® by Biworks, Geneva, New York, to treat a variety of plant diseases. Trichoderma harzianum T-22 has been shown to be effective against a wide range of phytopathogenic fungi, including Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Botrytis cinerea, and Pythium in several crops (Kaewchai et al., 2009;Paulitz & Belanger, 2001). According to Etebarian et al. (2000), Trichoderma harzianum strain T-39 is commercially available under the trade name Trichodex, 20P from Makhteshim Ltd. for the managing of stem rot and pink rot of tomato induced by the pathogen Phytophthora erythroseptica. ...
Biopesticides and biofertilizers have materialized as attractive, environmentally friendly bio-inputs that are augmented for the management of disease and pest infestations and optimum plant growth. Their ability to satisfy plant nutrient needs without the application of artificial fertilizers is enormous. These bio-inputs (as microbial inoculants, which are supplied as macro-and micronutrients in available form to crops) help them develop
... Plant diseases caused by pathogens have resulted in a decreased crop yield, growth, and development. Pathogens including certain fungal strains are mainly accountable for causing diseases in plants leading to high loss of yield [14,[26][27][28]. Out of various ways to prevent yield losses due to pathogenic fungi, the use of synthetic fungicides is a widely practiced [14,27,29]. However, they may have destructive implications on the environment and human health [30][31][32], and it may also result in the resistance development of the pathogenic fungi infecting the plants [33]. ...
... Pathogens including certain fungal strains are mainly accountable for causing diseases in plants leading to high loss of yield [14,[26][27][28]. Out of various ways to prevent yield losses due to pathogenic fungi, the use of synthetic fungicides is a widely practiced [14,27,29]. However, they may have destructive implications on the environment and human health [30][31][32], and it may also result in the resistance development of the pathogenic fungi infecting the plants [33]. ...
... However, they may have destructive implications on the environment and human health [30][31][32], and it may also result in the resistance development of the pathogenic fungi infecting the plants [33]. Over time, once the pathogen develops resistance, the existing synthetic fungicides may become ineffective and the use of new fungicides will have to be implemented for future effective disease control [14]. A potentially effective and powerful method to control plant disease is using microorganisms as biocontrol agents as an alternative agro-practice [14,34]. ...
The over-use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers has resulted in favoring the selection of resistant plant pathogens and the reduction of soil fertility. Eco-friendly alternatives such as the use of biocontrol agents and biofertilizers should be practiced as substitutes to the synthetic chemicals in this present day. The use of fungi such as Trichoderma species as biocontrol agents has been widely practiced in forestry and industrial agriculture. Biocontrol agents are effective against many pathogenic fungi and benefit immensely in growth, health, and productivity of plants. They are also relatively less harmful as they are obtained from natural derivatives when compared to synthetic pesticides. Likewise, biofertilizers enable nitrogen fixation, solubilization of soil phosphates, and production of plant growth substances in the soil improving the soil health and fertility. The article reviews in detail the various beneficial aspects of Trichoderma species as biocontrol agent and biofertilizers as they are claimed as an effective and successful commercial agent in controlling various plant diseases and promote plant growth.
... for soil application wherein sodium alginate, aluminium silicate and sabudana powder were used for entrapment of bioagent conidia. Wettable powder and granule formulations of Trichoderma have also been reported for the control of Rhizoctonia solani (Kaewchai et al., 2009;Montealegre et al., 2010) [147,148] . It is clear that a formulation preserving viability of the biological control agent, e. g. fungal spores, of more than 70% for 4 months at 4 °C only is not suitable for everyday use in the field. ...
... for soil application wherein sodium alginate, aluminium silicate and sabudana powder were used for entrapment of bioagent conidia. Wettable powder and granule formulations of Trichoderma have also been reported for the control of Rhizoctonia solani (Kaewchai et al., 2009;Montealegre et al., 2010) [147,148] . It is clear that a formulation preserving viability of the biological control agent, e. g. fungal spores, of more than 70% for 4 months at 4 °C only is not suitable for everyday use in the field. ...
Trichoderma spp. are free-living fungi commonly widespread in soil and
root ecosystems. Trichoderma species are considered as one of the most active
antagonistic fungi, having broad spectrum biocontrol activity against several
phytopathogens. Their biocontrol activity is primarily due to the
mycoparasitism of pathogenic fungi, nutrient competition, antibiosis through
secretion of hydrolytic enzymes and secondary metabolites. Moreover, it also
induces plant defence network to empower the plant against invading
pathogens. Commercial application of Trichoderma either to increase crop
health or to manage plant diseases depend on the development of commercial
formulations with suitable carriers that support the survival of Trichoderma
for a considerable length of time. Solid state fermentation is an effective
method for the mass production of fungal biopesticides since it provides
micropropagules with higher conidia content. Oil based formulations are
prepared by mixing the conidia harvested from the solid state/liquid state
fermentation with a combination of vegetable/mineral oils in stable emulsion
formulation. Oil-based formulations are best for conidial biological control
formulations because of their greater ability to adhere to the substrate.
Moreover, such formulations slow down the desiccation process under
conditions of fluctuating environmental factors such as temperature and
relative humidity. Major research on biocontrol is centered with the use of
spores of Trichoderma directly to seed. Technologies become viable only
when the research findings are transferred from the lab to field. Though
Trichoderma has a very good potential in the management of diseases, it could
not be used as spore suspension under field conditions. Thus, the culture of
Trichoderma should be immobilized in certain carriers and should be prepared
as formulations for easy application, storage, comer - cialization, and field use.
... Many Trichoderma species, such as T. harzianum, T. atriviridae and T. asperellum have previously been reported as potential biocontrol agents against various plant pathogens (Haran et al., 1996). Trichoderma species are effective against a wide range of pathogens due to their rapid growth and diverse antagonistic mechanisms in inhibiting phytopathogens (Benítez et al., 2004;Harman et al., 2004;Vinale et al., 2008;Kaewchai et al., 2009;Viterbo et al., 2010;Błaszczyk et al., 2014). A number of Trichoderma species have been used commercially as biofertilizers such as T. harzianum, T. koningii, T. polysporum, T. reesei and T. viride. ...
... Mycoparasitism is a common mechanism by which there is an antagonistic direct contact with a pathogen. This can involve several stages, including pathogen recognition, binding to the target, enzymatic disruption of the fungus cell wall and assimilation of the cytoplasmic content (Benhamou and Chet, 1997;Vinale et al., 2008;Kaewchai et al., 2009;Rincón et al., 2009). Antibiosis is another mechanism by which there is an antagonistic interaction with a pathogen through the secretion of antimicrobial compounds or specific secondary metabolites that exhibit inhibitory properties and suppress pathogenic activity (Rincón et al., 2009). ...
Aims: The application of beneficial microbes is a suitable alternative to synthetic pesticides and fertilizers for agriculture. This study was aimed to evaluate the potential of a selected Trichoderma strain as a biocontrol agent against Rhizoctonia sp. and as a biofertilizer to improve paddy growth. Methodology and results: Four Bipolaris strains were identified via DNA barcoding as the cause of brown spot disease, whereas two Rhizoctonia strains were similarly identified as the cause of sheath blight disease in Brunei Darussalam. Eight Trichoderma strains were initially screened using confrontation assay and were found to substantially inhibit the growth of Rhizoctonia sp. Hybrid rice named BDR5 was treated with Trichoderma sp. UBDFM01 and/or Rhizoctonia sp. It was found that the selected strain showed the potential as a biofertilizer by significantly increasing the vigour index I, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and dry shoot weight of the rice plants. The pathogen negatively affected the plants by significantly reducing the vigour index II, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll a/b ratio, total chlorophyll, and total weight of grains. Trichoderma strain showed the potential as a biocontrol agent by significantly diminishing the negative effects of the pathogen on the chlorophyll a, chlorophyll a/b ratio and total chlorophyll. Conclusion, significance and impact of study: This study highlights the potential of Trichoderma sp. UBDFM01 as a biocontrol agent against Rhizoctonia sp. and also as a biofertilizer for rice plants. In addition, this study is the first to provide DNA-based evidence of Bipolaris sp. and Rhizoctonia sp. as the fungi that caused rice diseases in Brunei Darussalam.
... Since the issue of marketing and attracting relevant consumers is important in mass production and commercialization of biological agents, (Husen et al., 2007;Alimi et al., 2006;Kaewchai et al., 2009;Pereira et al., 2009;Amatuzzi et al., 2018;Oliveira et al., 2021), the issue of commercialization of the biological agent T. flavus and producing its various bio-formulations, including nanoformulations seems to be necessary. In recent decades, nanotechnology has expanded significantly in various chemical, pharmaceutical, medical and chemical pesticides areas. ...
... Bio-formulations such as Ketomium containing Chaetomium globosum and Ch. Cupreum containing T. harzianum and T. viride, Soil Gard containing Gliocladium virens, Trichodex containing T. harzianum, Pisolithus tinctonus and Glomus intraradices, Trichodermin containing T. harzianum and Protus WG containing Talaromyces flavus have been commercially registered outside of Iran so far (Shabgah et al., 2021;Koch, 1999;Kaewchai et al., 2009). In Iranian research, the use of Iranian bio-formulation called H-Trichomix has been reported. ...
Previous domestic and foreign studies have shown the significant effect of Talaromyces flavus on growth inhibition of some important plant pathogens including Verticillium dahliae, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum. In Iran, it is necessary to produce new formulations of this fungus based on modern technologies given the importance of attracting companies producing biological control agents and transferring the technical knowledge of mass production of formulations of these agents to them. In the present study, based on the method presented in the Pesticide Research Department of the Iranian Plant Protection Research Institute, two types of T. flavus formulations in the form of nano-capsules containing Talaromyces flavus with two forms of powder and suspension were prepared using nanotechnology. In the next step, during the greenhouse examination, the efficiency of each of these new formulations in concentrations of one to five per thousand for soil addition method and concentration of five per thousand for seed impregnation method (six treatments for each of the two new formulations) was compared with the registered formulation of Talaromin in two methods of seed impregnation and soil addition with healthy control and infected control to control cotton Verticillium wilt disease, in the form of a randomized complete block design with 16 treatments and 5 replications. After statistical analysis of the data obtained by Duncan's Multiple Range Test by MS TAT C software, the results showed that in terms of disease severity among treatments with the previous formulation (Talaromin) with each of the methods of soil addition and seed impregnation, there was no statistically significant difference between nano-suspension with each of the concentrations of one, four and five per thousand by the soil addition method and nano-powder with each of the concentrations of two and three per thousand by soil addition method, and the mentioned treatments were included in one statistical group in terms of disease severity with healthy control.
... Trichoderma harzianum is a biopesticide and a biofertilizer that improves soil conditions and has the ability as a biological agent to pathogenic fungal with various mechanisms such as parasitism, competition, and antibiosis [10]. The functions of multi-antagonist Trichoderma sp. and Gliocladium sp. were biological agents and biological fertilizers packaged in compost as P solvent and K solvent [11]. Yaqub and Shahzad's research [12] proved that combo-application of Trichoderma sp. and Gliocladium sp. on sunflower seeds increased plant root growth and plant height. ...
... Microbes, such as beneficial fungus and bacteria found in the soil rhizosphere, are critical for nutrition provision by solubilising organic materials [25]. Additionally, these rhizosphere microbes improve the availability of nutrients to plants, hence improving plant growth and production [11]. Our work demonstrates that the co-application of T. harzianum and S. narbonensis boosted the number of soil microbial communities compared to a control. ...
Based on the first research, Streptomyces narbonensis and Trichoderma harzianum mixed was a Biological Agents (BCAs) of tomato fusarium wilting. Another research found Streptomyces sp. and Trichoderma sp can be decomposers and growth hormone producers. This study examined S. narbonensis and T. harzianum as decomposers and Plant Growth Promoting Microorganisms for horticulture crops in various types of soils. Microorganism suspension was applied with a combination of S. narbonensis sp. and T. harzianum with different compositions (1:1; 2:1; 3:1 and 4:1) in liquid Glucose Potato Extract media, then microorganisms mixed was applied into three soil types Vertisol, Regosol, and Andisol. Each treatment was repeated three times. The growth of vegetative plants, the number of microorganisms, and physical-chemical soil were analysed 30 days after planting. The results of the soil conditions after the addition of the microorganism almost did not affect nutrient levels in the soil, but only affected the available P regosol soil and increased microbial abundance that affects the decomposition of C-organic.
... Ultimately, this enhanced nutritional provision should result in improved health and growth of trees accompanied with the most resilient isolates. 48 In addition, a wide range of other extracellular materials are released by soil fungus, such as enzymes and organic acids (such as fumaric acid, citric acid, and gluconic acid) that can change the bioavailability and speciation of heavy metals in soil. They possess a few heavy metal (HM) tolerance mechanisms, including precipitation, mineral weathering, bio-absorption, volatilization, intracellular metal compartmentalization into fungal cell walls, and metal sequestration or accumulation. ...
Amidst the escalating concerns regarding the detrimental impact of harmful agrochemicals, the development of organic fertilizers has assumed paramount importance in curbing reliance on syntheticcounterparts within agricultural practices. Plant growth promoting fungi (PGPF) has emerged as a promising solution, owing to its capacity to enhance plant development via many pathways, including siderophore synthesis, phosphate solubilizationand indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production, along side other beneficial traits such as stress tolerance and biocontrol activity. The increasing awareness of the adverse consequences of harsh agrochemicals has prompted a shift towards organic biofertilizers, aligning with the principles of sustainable agriculture. Numerous countries have already begun implementing stringent regulations on use of harmful chemicals while actively promoting the adoption of microbe-based products to enhance plant growth. While it’s not feasible to completely eliminate synthetic agrochemicals overnight, the incorporation of biofertilizers can substantially reduce their usage. The principal goal of this comprehensive review is to delve into the pivotal role of PGPF in fostering environmentally responsible agriculture. Additionally, it digs into the emerging market trends linked with products based on PGPF.
... They control plant diseases in agricultural production through nutrient and ecological niche competition, pathogen parasitism, secretion of cell wall lyase and antibiotics, and induction of plant defense (De Silva et al. 2019). These species are used as biofertilizers for plant protection and growth promotion and as biocides to control of fungal, bacterial and nematode diseases (Kaewchai et al. 2009;Nuangmek et al. 2021;Luo et al. 2023;Rosado et al. 2024). Trichoderma contains more than 500 accepted species belonging to different clades (Gu et al. 2020;Species Fungorum 2024), and the Harzianum-clade is one of the largest clades with more than 100 species (Cao et al. 2024). ...
Trichoderma species are distributed worldwide and they play an important role in plant protection, growth promotion and also as biocontrol agents of plant diseases. In this study, a new species of Trichoderma was isolated from Azadirachta indica rhizosphere soils in Zhaoqing City, Guangdong Province, China. Based on the morphology and combined multigene phylogeny of nuclear internal transcribed spacer of rDNA region (ITS), translation elongation factor 1 alpha (tef1-α) and RNA polymerase second largest subunit (rpb2), a new Trichoderma species belongs to the Harzianum-clade was identified, namely Trichoderma azadirachtae sp. nov. Distinctions between the new species and its close relatives are discussed in detail.
... Owing to its multiple modes of action i.e. competition for nutrients and space, production of antimicrobial substances, mycoparasitism, and induction of systemic resistance in plants it is capable of managing phytopathogens in very nice way. It produces antimicrobial substances such as harzianic acid, gliotoxin, viridian, viridiol (Kaewchai et al. 2009) and some injurious molecules for the control of pathogens (Lang et al. 2015;Monfil and Casas-Flores 2014). ...
An Indigenous Trichoderma asperellum strain was isolated from the tea soil of Nagrakata, situated in Dooars region of West Bengal. Its liquid suspension was evaluated under field conditions at different locations in Assam, Darjeeling and Dooars for two seasons for the management of branch canker disease. Its effect on vegetative plant growth, natural enemies and phytotoxicity was also studied. Among seven treatments, there were four concentrations of T. asperellum in comparison with T. harzianum (market sample), copper oxychloride, and untreated control. Findings of the investigation showed that the disease protection level was the highest when indigenous Trichoderma was applied at a concentration of 1600 ml per hectare. The disease protection level was 4.06–4.28, 4.65–4.90 and 4.12–4.40 in Assam, Darjeeling and Dooars, respectively. It promoted vegetative growth in terms of increased green leaf yield. The same concentration could produce higher made tea per hectare as compared to untreated control. In the Assam it was 2227 and 2260 kg as compared to 1986 and 2015 kg in untreated control during the first and second year, respectively. In Darjeeling, it was 390 and 438 kg against 347 and 390 kg in control; similarly, in Dooars it was 1787 and 1840 kg against 1592 and 1640 kg per hectare in the first and second year, respectively. The tested antagonist was safe for Chrysoperla carnea and Oxyopes javanus without having phytotoxicity on tea plants. It is concluded that the native antagonist could be a promising option for the management of canker disease, especially for organic tea gardens.
... Some of the microorganisms used as biofertilizers include bacteria (Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azospirillum, Azobacter, Bacillus, and Pseudomonas species) and fungal species such as mycorrhizal fungi, Aspergillus Penicillium, Chaetomium and Trichoderma (Kaechai and Hyde, 2009;Seenivasagan et al., 2021).Microbial mechanisms of plant growth promotion include biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), synthesis of phytohormones, environmental stress relief, synergism with other microbial-plant interactions, inhibition of plant ethylene synthesis, as well as increasing availability of nutrients like phosphorus, iron and minor elements, and growth enhancement by volatile compounds (Ammar et al., 2023). However, the expression of such bacterial activities under laboratory conditions does not guarantee in mutual or symbiotic association with a host plant. ...
Biofertilizers are microbial-agro products containing mixed culture of microorganisms that promote plant growth, yield, soil quality and disease control. This study aimed to isolate, identify and screen microorganisms with biofertilizer potentials for application in farms. Soil samples were collected from farmland and waste-dump soils around University of Port Harcourt. The various microorganisms were isolated and estimated using nutrient agar, potato dextrose agar, cetrimide agar and Ashby’s agar. The microorganisms were screened for biofertilizer potentials based on nitrogen fixation, potassium and phosphate solubilization using Pikovskaya media. The results obtained from this study showed that thefarmland soil sample had a total heterotrophic bacterial and fungal counts of 5.045±0.02 and 4.220±0.02 Log10Cfu/gwhile the corresponding values in the waste-dump soil was 4.890±0.30 and 3.505±0.30 Log10Cfu/g respectively. After screening, the microorganisms with biofertilizer potentials were identified as Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus licheniformis, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Azotobacter chroococcum. Findings from this study have demonstrated that the microorganisms isolated from the farmland soil were more adept at nitrogen fixation and solubilizing insoluble potassium and phosphate compounds than their counterparts in waste-dump soil. These microorganisms have shown potentials to improve soil fertility and crop productivity in a sustainable way.
... Sordariomycetes was introduced by Eriksson & Winka (1997), and is the second largest class in Ascomycota (Kirk et al. 2008, Hyde et al. 2013, Luo et al. 2019. Sordariomycetes are important for their role as plant and human pathogens, saprobes, endophytes, and many species for producing diverse metabolites used in various fields (Kaewchai et al. 2009, Hyde et al. 2020, Chen et al. 2023. Based on DNA sequence data, Sordariomycetes was divided into five subclasses viz. ...
During a survey of saprobic fungi on coffee samples in Yunnan Province, China, in 2020 and 2022, fungal fruiting bodies on decaying Liberian coffee twigs were collected and isolated. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses of combined ITS, LSU, and RPB2 genes showed that the two isolated fungal strains belonged to a distinct species in Coniocessiaceae and were well separated from closely related genera with 73% ML and 0.92 PP statistical support. Morphologically, this distinct species can be differentiated from other genera in Coniocessiaceae by aseptate hamathecium, 4-8-spored asci with a flat apical ring, and fusiform ascospores, conical at the lower end. Based on morphology and phylogenetic analyses, the two fungal strains are described as a distinct new genus Pseudoconiocessia, within Coniocessiaceae. Pseudoconiocessia is introduced here with Pseudoconiocessia xishuangbannaensis as the type species.
... Several microorganisms and their association with crop plants are being exploited in the production of biofertilizers (Meena et al., 2014). The study of Sharma et al. (2011), Kaechai and Hyde (2009) and Amal and Heba (2023) deduced that there are groups of bacterial and fungal species that have beneficial effects on plant growth and can be used as biofertilizers and some of these organisms are Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Azotobacter, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas; mycorrhizal fungi, Penicillium, Chaetomium and Trichoderma, etc. Agro wastes and some industrial wastes have been utilized as substrates for the production of biofertilizers. For example, animal wastes and plant residues are effective organic materials used for the production of biofertilizer. ...
Biofertilizer is an important byproduct of fermentation and components of integrated nutrient management, as they are cost
effective and renewable source of plant nutrients to supplement the chemical fertilizers for sustainable agriculture. This study is
designed to optimize the production of liquid biofertilizer and enhance soil quality and plant productivity through the use of
selected microorganisms. The organisms used for the liquid biofertilizer production were Aspergillus niger, Penicillium
chrysogenum, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus licheniformis, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Azotobacter chroococcum. The proximate
compositions of the substrates (plantain peel and poultry waste) were ascertained. In the single factor optimization process
(w/v); 3% zinc sulphate was the optimum concentration for growth of Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas fluorescens, and 4%
for Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum, Bacillus licheniformis and Azotobacter chroococcum. With regards to carbon
source, 15% of plantain peel was the optimum concentration for growth of all organisms whereas, 1% of poultry waste was the
optimum nitrogen source for proliferation of Pseudomonas fluorescens. For Aspergillus niger and Bacillus cereus, 3% of
poultry waste was optimal whereas, 4% was optimal for Penicillium chrysogenum, Bacillus licheniformis and Azotobacter
chroococcum. Chemical composition of the fermentation broths including the consortium ranged from 0.019±0.00 -
0.042±0.00 (%) [organic nitrogen]; 0.074±0.00 - 0.119±0.00 (%) [inorganic nitrogen); 0.417±0.00 - 4.510±0.03 (mg/L) [total
phosphate]; 409.8±1.80 - 892.8±52.8 (mg/L) [total sulphate]; 77.50±0.01 - 97.73±0.75 (%) [total organic matter]; 217.25±0.22
- 319.82±1.03 (mg/L) [potassium]; 24.13±1.08 - 151.33±0.92 (mg/L) [calcium]; and 30.05±0.06 - 110.15±0.08 (mg/L)
[magnesium]. Plantain peel could be used as alternative and cheap substrate for microbial fermentation processes and as a
means of converting waste to wealth. The microbial cultures and the rich fermentation broth produced in this study have the
potential to enhance plant growth and increase food security, and its affordability and environment friendliness makes it
preferable to chemical fertilizer.
Keywords: Liquid biofertilizer, poultry waste, plantain peel, bacteria, fungi, sustainable agriculture
... Botanical pesticides are substances derived from plants that deter, stop, or kill pests. Plants with pesticidal qualities also include chemicals that affect nematodes, bacteria, fungi, and other plant diseases like viruses and fungi [Kaewchai et al. (2009) ...
... It also makes antibiotic metabolites like gliotoxin, which can kill bacteria, fungi, viruses, and tumours. Bioagents like G. catenulatum JI446 have been used to reduce the effects of damping-off disease, which is caused by P. ultimum and R. solani (Punja and Utkhede 2004;Kaewchai et al. 2009;Nissipaul et al. 2017). ...
By 2050, there will be the need to increase food production twice, in order to meet the needs of a growing population without significantly impacting the availability of arable land. Moreover, increases in the use of synthetic fertilizers for agriculture have, over time, degraded soil quality and disrupted the natural balance of soil microbes and their ecosystem. As a result, using biofertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers has long been recognized as a healthier strategy to mitigating some of the environmental repercussions and ensuring agricultural sustainability. Fungal biofertilizers have recently been pushed for many agricultural uses due to their potential to manage plant diseases and boost crop yield in an environmentally acceptable manner. Several fungal biofertilizers have been employed for commercial production, and they also play an essential role in stimulating plant growth and productivity, as well as enhancing soil fertility. Plant growth-stimulating fungi, compost-producing enzymatic fungi, phosphate (P)-solubilizing fungi, and potassium (K)-solubilizing fungi are all examples of fungal biofertilizers. P-solubilizing fungus helps plants in harnessing phosphate from soil-plant systems. They solubilize and mineralize organic and inorganic phosphate in the soil, boosting growth as well as production of crops. Utilization of P-solubilizing fungi as common phosphate fertilizers is nowadays become a promising strategy to enhance global agricultural productivity and soil fertility and reduce water pollution and the accumulation of toxic wastes. The present chapter will mainly focus on the current status, global trend of usage, and future challenges and opportunities in utilization of fungal biofertilizers.
... (Hypocreales, Pezizomycotina, and Ascomycota) has been most used biocontrol agent and biofertilizers in agriculture. Because of their exceptional abilities to combat plant pathogenic fungus, they produce secondary metabolites with bio-pesticide activities and bio-stimulants (Vinale et al. 2008;Kaewchai et al. 2009;Druzhinina et al. 2011;Sood et al. 2020). These cosmopolitan saprophytic fungi are naturally occurring fungus that interact extensively in the root, and foliar habitats and found in most soils, decaying woods, organic matter and endophyte of plant (Harman et al. 2004;Samuels 2006;Lee et al. 2012). ...
Trichoderma species (Hypocreaceae) is one of the world’s most common widely used plant growth-promoting fungus and, ecologically and economically important genus. A survey was conducted for species of the genus Trichoderma from 165 soil samples in Aydin province, Türkiye in 2018 and 2019. We obtained 88 isolates of the genus Trichoderma with macroscopic and molecular features were identified from soil samples. Single conidia colonies of Trichoderma isolates were cultured different media for morphological characteristics. Tr49 isolate was recognized Trichoderma guizhouense and this isolate isolation of soil samples from red beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris var. conditiva) field. The isolate was identified grounded on molecular and phylogenetic analysis with three gene (ITS; internal transcribed spacer, tef1-α; translation elongation factor 1 alpha, rpb2; RNA polymerase II subunit) primers. To our knowledge, this study provides the first report of Trichoderma guizhouense in soil in Türkiye.
... They are considered as anamorphic Hypocreales [28]. Trichoderma species are free-living and/or endophytic fungi that grow vigorously in soil and plant root ecosystems, they are known as ubiquitous saprophytic fungi [12, [29][30][31] as well as aboveground such as on rotting wood and other organic materials [17, [32][33][34][35]. Further, Trichoderma strains produce a few pigments, ranging from a greenish-yellow up to a reddish tinge and sometimes colorless strains might likewise be available. ...
Olive (Olea europeae L.) is one of the most important fruit trees of the Mediterranean regions. Biotic factors such as phytopathogenic diseases have a significant negative impact on olive productivity in the Mediterranean Basin including Algeria. Currently, phytopathogens management is focus mainly on the use of chemical pesticides which is not recommended because it leads to environmental pollution, development of chemical resistance, and its low cost-efficiency. Eco-friendly methods and alternative disease control measures such as the use of biocontrol agents and biofertilizer should be opted as alternatives to the use of synthetic chemicals. Trichoderma species associated with olive roots are known for their ability to produce antimicrobial compounds, such as antibiotics, volatile organic compounds and lytic enzymes that restrict phytopathogenic
strain growth. Besides, they are considered as plant growth promoting fungi (PGPF). This genus colonize the root systems of plants and promote their growth; it can increase nutrient availability and uptake in plants by fixing nitrogen, solubilizing phosphorus, producing several biomolecules and phytohormones. Moreover, it helps plants tolerate environmental stresses such as drought, salinity and diseases. In this work, we review pionnering and recent developments on several important biomolecules and functions that Trichoderma species isolated from olive rhizosphere soil exhibit to enhance plant growth and control phytopathogen diseases. Therefore, the use of highly competitive strains in open field in order to obtain consistent and better results in agricultural production activities.
... Furthermore, several chemicals viz: Validamycin, Carbendazim, Mancozeb, Benodanil (Sharma & Rai, 1999), Propiconazole (Hulagappa, 2012;Nasir et al., 2012;Reddy et al., 2013) effectively manage MLB disease in maize. In addition, some fungal strains such as Trichoderma spp., Gliocladium virens, Fusarium oxysporum, and Pythium oligandrum have been found effective and have been commercialized to control pathogens (Kaewchai et al., 2009;Sibounnavong et al., 2012;Talubnak & Soytong, 2010). However, some studies demonstrated that the integration of different chemicals/organic or integrated disease management (IDM) components is more effective in managing MLB as compared to any single component (Malathi et al., 2002;Ons et al., 2020). ...
Maydis leaf blight (MLB) is a prevalent disease, caused by the necrotrophic plant pathogen Bipolaris maydis (Nisikado and Miyake), affecting maize worldwide. Depending on environmental conditions, MLB can lead to yield losses of up to 40% or more. The existing management approach of chemical disease control is expensive and unsustainable. Hence the need to evaluate an integrated approach of chemical and biocontrol/botanical agents for its sustainable management. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of three management modules namely organic, chemical, and integrated disease management (IDM) against this disease in maize. The effectiveness of three modules was tested at three hot spot locations (Ludhiana, Karnal, and Delhi), during 2019 and 2020. The chemical module was most effective in controlling the disease followed by the IDM module, with control rates of 54.16% and 45.87% in Ludhiana and 52.92% and 44.69% in Karnal, respectively. Conversely, the organic module showed the lowest effectiveness. Notably, at the Delhi location, the standard control (foliar spray with Mancozeb 75WP@ 2.5 g/l water) proved most effective, achieving a disease control percentage of 64.29%, followed by the IDM module at 50.00%. The chemical module exhibited the highest increase in yield at Ludhiana (86.47%) and Karnal (52.92%), compared to other treatments. Overall, based on location-wise averages, the chemical module gave the highest mean percent disease control at 52.36% and mean percent yield increase at 49.18%. This study emphasizes the benefits of integrated disease management and underscores the enhanced efficacy of chemicals when compared to the positive control.
... The most widespread EcM product inoculum is Pisolithus tinctorius with a wide host range that can be applied as a vegetative mycelium peat vermiculite carrier used in nursery and forestry plantations (Gentili and Jumpponen 2006;Sebastiana et al. 2018). Other fungi used are Rhizophagus (formerly Glomus), Sebacinales and Trichoderma species (Kaewchai et al. 2009;Molla et al. 2012). The market value of mycorrhiza-based biofertilizers was USD 271.8 million in 2021 (Market Data Forecast 2022e). ...
Fungi provide ecological and environmental services to humans, as well as health and nutritional benefits, and are vital to numerous industries. Fermented food and beverage products from fungi are circulating in the market, generating billions of USD.
However, the highest potential monetary value of fungi is their role in blue carbon trading because of their ability to sequester
large amounts of carbon in the soil. There are no conclusive estimates available on the global monetary value of fungi, primarily because there are limited data for extrapolation. This study outlines the contribution of fungi to the global economy and provides a first attempt at quantifying the global monetary value of fungi. Our estimate of USD 54.57 trillion provides a starting point that can be analysed and improved, highlighting the significance of fungi and providing an appreciation of their value. This paper identifies the different economically valuable products and services provided by fungi. By giving a monetary value to all important fungal products, services, and industrial applications underscores their significance in biodiversity and conservation. Furthermore, if the value of fungi is well established, they will be considered in future policies for effective ecosystem management.
... Furthermore, the biological control method is environmentfriendly and safe for humans and animals, which provides long-time prevention of plant diseases through the antagonistic microorganism colonization in soil and rhizosphere (Wan et al., 2008;Wu et al., 2009). In short, due to the advantages of low toxicity and pollution, safety, and efficiency, biocontrol technology has been intensively applied to field control in recent years with remarkable effects (Kaewchai et al., 2009). ...
To establish a safe, efficient, and simple biocontrol measure for gray mold disease caused by Botrytis cinerea, the basic characteristics and antifungal activity of KRS005 were studied from multiple aspects including morphological observation, multilocus sequence analysis and typing (MLSA–MLST), physical-biochemical assays, broad-spectrum inhibitory activities, control efficiency of gray mold, and determination of plant immunity. The strain KRS005, identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, demonstrated broad-spectrum inhibitory activities against various pathogenic fungi by dual confrontation culture assays, of which the inhibition rate of B. cinerea was up to 90.3%. Notably, through the evaluation of control efficiency, it was found that KRS005 fermentation broth could effectively control the occurrence of tobacco leaves gray mold by determining the lesion diameter and biomass of B. cinerea on tobacco leaves still had a high control effect after dilution of 100 folds. Meanwhile, KRS005 fermentation broth had no impact on the mesophyll tissue of tobacco leaves. Further studies showed that plant defense-related genes involved in reactive oxygen species (ROS), salicylic acid (SA), and jasmonic acid (JA)-related signal pathways were significantly upregulated when tobacco leaves were sprayed with KRS005 cell-free supernatant. In addition, KRS005 could inhibit cell membrane damage and increase the permeability of B. cinerea. Overall, KRS005, as a promising biocontrol agent, would likely serve as an alternative to chemical fungicides to control gray mold.
... There are various fungicides like validamycin, carbendazim, mancozeb, benodanil and (Sharma and Rai, 1999), propiconazole (Hulagappa, 2012;Nasir et al., 2012;Reddy et al., 2013) have been found to effectively inhibition of pathogen and management of MLB disease of maize. Further, some fungal strains such as Trichoderma spp., Gliocladium virens, Fusarium oxysporum, and Pythium oligandrum have been found effective and commercialized to control the pathogens (Kaewchai et al., 2009;Talubnak and Soytong, 2010;Sibounnavong et al., 2012). However, studies had shown that the combined effect of T. harzianum, T. virens, and T. viride was most effective in inhibiting mycelia growth (Kumar et al., 2009b). ...
Maydis leaf blight (MLB) is a prevalent disease affecting maize worldwide, caused by the necrotrophic plant pathogen Bipolaris maydis (Nisikado and Miyake). Depending on environmental conditions, MLB can lead to yield losses of up to 40% or more. To combat this disease, various chemical and biocontrol/botanical agents have been developed and proven effective. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of different combinations of disease management components as an alternative approach. The effectiveness of three modules, namely organic, chemical, and IDM, was tested in hot spot locations, namely Ludhiana, Karnal, and Delhi, during 2019 and 2020. Results indicated that the chemical module demonstrated superior disease control, achieving percentages of 54.16 and 52.92 at Ludhiana and Karnal, respectively. The IDM module also showed promising results, with disease control percentages of 45.87 and 44.69 at Ludhiana and Karnal, respectively. Conversely, the organic module exhibited the least effectiveness. Notably, at the Delhi location, the standard control (Foliar spray with Mancozeb 75 WP @ 2.5 g / l water) proved most effective, achieving a disease control percentage of 64.29, followed by the IDM module at 50.00. The chemical module exhibited the highest percent increase in yield (PIY), with figures of 86.47 and 52.92 at Ludhiana and Karnal, respectively, compared to other treatments. This study highlights the superior efficacy of the chemical and IDM modules in comparison to the positive control (check). Consequently, these modules present alternative strategies for effectively managing MLB.
... 7 In recent years, several fungal biofertilizers have also been produced for application and have been formulated for large-scale crop production. 13 The application of fungal biofertilizers is necessary due to their critical functions in boosting production, encouraging plant growth, enhancing plant health, and improving soil fertility. 14 Additionally, their application to soil strengthens the soil's structure and reduces the proliferation of phytopathogens. ...
The use of chemical fertilizers has been associated with a persistent decline in soil fertility, which
is also detrimental to soil health. Biofertilizers have been reported to be better alternatives to
chemical fertilizers. In this study, the mycofertilizer potentials of the species Aspergillus and
Penicillium were investigated. The fungi were isolated from the rice (Oryza sativa Linn)
rhizosphere and identified using cultural and molecular methods. The fungal isolates were
examined for protease synthesis, nitrogen fixation, cellulose breakdown, and phosphate
solubilization using standard methods. The mycofertilizer potentials of the isolates were screened
for in an in-situ experiment that was carried out in the greenhouse using a pot experimental
method. Isolates that solubilized phosphate and also produced cellulase and protease were selected
for the greenhouse experiment. Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum proved to be the
best candidates among the isolates. The results of the greenhouse pot experiment showed that after
30 days of planting, rice (O. sativa) in the control group had the best performance, but after 63
days of planting, the rice in the pot inoculated with both A. niger and P. chrysogenum had the best
performance, followed by the plant inoculated with A. niger, while the plant in the control group
had the least average growth. Plants in the test groups had significant growth compared to the
plants in the control group. These isolates could be used in the production of mycofertilizer for
the growth of grain crops that are known not to fix nitrogen.
... According to Kaewchai, Soytong, and Hyde (2009), a biofertilizer is a microbial inoculum or assemblage of living microorganisms that exerts direct or indirect benefits for plants, increasing growth and crop yield, for example, through different mechanisms. Many microorganisms are able to solubilize phosphorus or potassium, decompose organic material, fix nitrogen, or oxidize sulfur in soil, thereby improving agricultural production through increasing nutrient supply (Reddy and Saravanan 2013). ...
... The fungus attacks the plant at all stages of its growth and is more dangerous in the early stages of plant (Jabr et al., 2008). Agricultural chemical applications by using chemical pesticides have become less useful and more dangerous in the remote perspective due to these applications are not consistent with modern trends that work to protect the environment from pollution as well as an emergence of the resistance characteristic in those pathogens against the pesticides (Calhelha et al., 2006;Kim and Hwang, 2007;Kaewchai et al., 2009). Numerous attempts have been conducted to find alternatives to these pesticides. ...
A laboratory study was conducted at a college of agriculture, university of Diyala during 2018 to assess the synergistic effectiveness of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and plant extracts Myrtus communis and Populus euphratica in the inhibition of Rhizoctonia solani growth in vitro. Results showed that S. cerevisiae recorded increment in inhibition percentage of R. solani growth in the first and second methods 75.55 % and 46.66 % respectively as compared with control 0 %. The effective concentration (EC50) of M. communis extract in the yeast S. cerevisiae and R. solani reached 9120 ppm and 3311 ppm respectively, whereas the effective concentration (EC50) of P. euphratica extract in the yeast S. cerevisiae and R. solani reached 8709 ppm and 3019 ppm respectively. The inhibitory activity of S. cerevisiae with M. communis and S. cerevisiae with P. euphratica against R. solani growth reached 82.22% and 78.88% respectively compared with control 0%.
... In recent years, several mycofungicides have been patented and registered for plant disease control. Mycofungicide formulations include wettable powders and granules based on C. globosum, C. cupreum, Trichoderma harzianum, and others (Kaewchai et al. 2009). The application of liquid formulation (Shanthiyaa et al. 2013) or isotonic formulation (Arunkumar et al. 2021) of C. globosum as tuber treatment and soil application resulted in a reduction of late blight disease incidence (72%) and black scurf disease (71%), respectively, on potato. ...
Abiotic and biotic factors conspire to keep crop output at a bare minimum. In agricultural production, to combat these factors, beneficial microorganisms are used to boost yields and as a substitute for synthetic fertilizers and fungicides. The genus, Chaetomium is well-known for its fast, saprophytic colonization, similar to that of Trichoderma. Chaetomium spp. produce a variety of compounds that stimulate plant growth and inhibit pathogen infestation. There is very little research attempting to understand the metabolic and physiological changes that occur in crops following exposure to Chaetomium spp., which might be beneficial in protecting them against harmful environmental conditions. This chapter summarizes current knowledge regarding the antagonistic activity of Chaetomium spp. against a variety of oomycetes and fungal diseases of crop plants. During antagonism, Chaetomium spp. produce an array of antibiotics and secondary metabolites in their associated environment, thereby preventing pathogen entry and colonization of plant tissues and reducing the harmful microbial population. This leads to the development of biopesticide formulations, which improves crop productivity and disease management strategy. The goal of this chapter is to keep readers up to date on current breakthroughs in the scope, biopesticide production, production economics, and market potential of the genus Chaetomium, as well as the issues that researchers and entrepreneurs will face in the coming years.KeywordsAntagonist
Chaetomium globosum
FormulationProduction technologyBenefit-cost analysis
... Chemical control has proven successful by controlling pathogens, but the collateral damage due to the widespread use of pesticides and mineral fertilizers that negatively affect human and animal health and revive non-target soils prompted researchers to find other means and alternatives with less impact on the environment , Mehdizadeh et al. (2021)]. Therefore, recent studies have resorted to the use of plant residues and plant extracts with biological resistance agents to reduce the damage of pathogens and environmental pollution [Kaewchai et al. (2009), Yassin et al. (2013, Mehdizadeh (2016)]. T. harzianum is described as the most important species of Trichoderma in biological control, as it has many genes that have a role in destroying the cell wall of pathogens, such as Tri5 Gene, which is responsible for producing Trichothecene, which inhibits the production of DNA and protein in the cells of pathogens and then inhibits their growth [Sharma et al. (2011]. ...
This study was conducted in the Plant Pathology Laboratory at the College of Agriculture, Al-Muthanna University, and aimed to assess the effect of the toxic filtrate of Trichoderma harzianum and the alcoholic extract of myrtle leaves on protecting the seeds and seedlings of the cucumber plant from infection with the fungus Rhizoctoni solani. Results showed that inhibiting the growth of the pathogenic fungus was achieved when 20% of alcoholic extract of Myrtus communis leaves gave the lowest diameter growth of R. solani at 10.34 cm 2 , while T. harzianum toxic filtrate was 18.76 cm 2 compared to the control treatment of 26.70 cm 2. Soaking of cucumber seeds with T. harzianum filtrate and alcoholic extract of M. communis did not affect the percentage of germination of cucumber seeds, while the damping-off percentage of seeds was 0.00%, whereas seed soaking treatments with the toxic filtrate of T. harzianum and alcoholic extract of M. communis in the presence of reduced virulent effect of R. solani. Results showed that the soaking of the seeds with the toxic filtrate of T. harzianum and the alcoholic extract of M. communis leaves and in the presence of the pathogenic fungus R. solani at a concentration of 20% had the highest length of shoots of healthy cucumber seedlings, reaching 10.55 and 10.90 cm, respectively, compared to the comparison. Also, the highest dry weight of healthy cucumber seedlings was 0.973 and 1.062 g, respectively, compared to the control treatment.
... Certain soils can produce ethylene when a biochar amendment is applied . Inoculating plants with bacteria from the genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Trichoderma has been demonstrated to improve growth and disease resistance (Gravel et al., 2007;Kaewchai, 2009;Kloepper et al., 2004). A high-throughput method that does not rely on culture was used to study the bacteria associated with pepper roots. ...
Phytosanitary concerns are part of today's agricultural environment. The use of chemicals to treat plant diseases is both a source of pollution and allows pathogens to become resistant. Additionally, it can improve the chemical, physical, and biological properties of soil. Therefore, the soil environment is more conducive to healthy plant growth. By improving the chemical, physical, and biological attributes of soil, biochar can enhance plant resistance. Agricultural success has been attributed to biochar's acidic pH, which promotes beneficial soil microorganisms and increases soil nutrients; it is also porous, which provides a home and protects soil microorganisms. By improving soil properties, biochar becomes even more effective at controlling pathogens. The article also discusses the benefits of biochar for managing pathogens in agricultural soils. In addition, we examine several research papers that discuss the use of biochar as a method of combating soil-related pathogens and plant diseases. Biochar can be used to combat soil-borne diseases and other conditions.
In the present era, the world needs high production of crops to fulfill the demand for food. For this reason, farmers use chemicals and fertilizers to increase crop production, but this increase in yield causes damage to the environment. To prevent the harmful effects of chemicals and fertilizers, eco-friendly approaches are needed to ensure environmental and human health. For the innovative view of sustainable agriculture, biofertilizers are important replacements of chemicals for growing demands and crop production. Use of beneficial microorganisms is a new strategy to improve plant growth and crop productivity. The role of microbial populations, particularly fungi, is pivotal in solubilizing and mineralizing soil nutrients essential for plant growth. Among these microbial populations, certain fungi such as Trichoderma, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Phoma, or Piriformospora may act as plant growth-promoting fungi (PGPF). They showed effectiveness in significantly boosting plant growth, improving germination, seedling strength, biomass production, root hair development, photosynthetic efficiency, flowering, and overall yields. Furthermore, PGPFs exert control over foliar and root pathogens by inducing systemic resistance (ISR) in the host plants. The exceptional capabilities of some PGPFs originate from their ability to enhance nutrient absorption, stimulate the production of phytohormones and alter plant gene expression by activating signaling pathways. This chapter offers a succinct overview of the interactions between plants and their associated PGPFs, shedding light on their role in fostering enhanced plant growth and inducing systemic resistance against invading pathogens.
Background and objectives Legumes are widely regarded as one of the most significant protein sources in human and animal food chains. The common bean is the primary legume crop, accounting for 85% of global bean production. The scientific community's primary priority is to develop innovative techniques to assure food security in addition to agricultural product safety, while simultaneously implementing realistic plans to reduce the usage of pesticides and artificial fertilizers. Among the investigated solutions, the utilization of beneficial microbes is one of the key components in establishing a green rotation in agricultural systems across the world. This study aimed to evaluate the endophytic role of native Beauveria species on the development and biochemical characteristics of common beans. Materials and methods Spore suspension (1 × 10 8 ml-1) was produced after a 10-day culture of the species. The spore suspension was introduced to the soil after the seeds had been disinfected during planting. To assess the fungus's establishment in the plants, samples were collected up to 25 days following inoculation. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications for each treatment, and parameters such as dry and fresh root and shoot weight, plant height, root length, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, phenol, proline, and polyphenol oxidase enzyme were determined. SAS software was used to analyze the data, and Duncan's multiple range test was used to compare means at a P-value of <0.05. Results Beauveria species injected with 1 × 10 8 ml-1 spores per milliliter were re-isolated by cultured bean root, stem, and leaf tissues in PDA culture media, confirming endophytic fungi. These two Beauveria species were capable of establishing systematic colonization in tissues from all bean organs. The study found that employing B. pseudobassiana and B. bassiana, as well as integrating these two species, raised bean plant height by 37.7, 20.2, and 41.4%, respectively, compared to the control treatment. Similarly, applying these treatments increased root length by 15.5, 24.5, and 32.7%, respectively, compared to the control treatment. According to the findings of this study, B. pseudobassiana, B. bassiana, and the mixture of these two fungal species increased the dry weight of the aerial sections of beans by 50.6, 36.9, and 72.6 percent, respectively. Furthermore, the use of B. bassiana, B. pseudobassiana, or a mixture of these two
Fungal taxa can be found almost anywhere and China is recognized as one of the most diverse regions globally. Within Asia, China leads major fungal hotspot studies, with Yunnan Province noted for its high plant and fungal diversity compared to other regions in the country. The Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), is a leading research institute with a botanical garden focused on the taxonomy and phylogeny of plants, fungi, lichen, and related projects. This study introduces new and known taxa from KIB collections based on comprehensive morphological and molecular analyses. Detailed morphological descriptions, illustrations and multigene phylogenetic analyses were used to identify four taxa within the class Dothideomycetes (Pleosporales). This includes a new genus (Paracrassiperidium), a new species (P. fusiforme), and two previously known species (Chaetopyrena penicillata and Pseudokeissleriella bambusicola). The new genus is characterized by dome-shaped, semi-immersed to immersed ascomata with a thick-walled peridium, a hamathecium composed of branched pseudoparaphyses, cylindrical to cylindric-clavate pedicellate asci with a well-developed ocular chamber, and fusiform, hyaline to light brown, septate ascospores.
The escalating use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides to boost crop production has led to the depletion of natural resources, contamination of water sources, and environmental crises. In response, the scientific community is exploring eco-friendly alternatives, such as fungal-based biofertilizers and biopesticides, which have proven effectiveness in enhancing plant health and growth while sustainably managing plant diseases and pests. This review article examines the production methodologies of these bioproducts, highlighting their role in sustainable agriculture and advancing our understanding of soil microorganisms. Despite their increasing demand, their global market presence remains limited compared to traditional chemical counterparts. The article addresses: 1) the production of biofertilizers and biopesticides, 2) their contribution to crop productivity, 3) their environmental impact and regulations, and 4) current production technologies. This comprehensive approach aims to promote the transition towards more sustainable agricultural practices.
Abstract
The extensive use of chemicals to increase agriculture productivity has disturbed the delicate ecological balance, resulting in pathogen resistance and health risks for other living beings, including humans. A growing interest has been shown in finding eco-friendly and safe ways to increase sustainable agriculture productivity. Fungal endophytes are a significant component of plant micro-ecosystems and have been found in many plant species. They solubilize insoluble phosphates and produce plant growth-promoting hormones, including auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. Fungal endophytes are common in many plant species and are an important component of plant micro-ecosystems. Fungal endophytes are an important component of plant micro-ecosystems and have been found in a wide range of plant species. They dissolve insoluble phosphates and produce plant growth hormones such as auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. Because of the beneficial activities of fungal endophytes, research on the plant-fungus relationship has increased dramatically in recent years. Recently, genetically modified endophytes were used by researchers to improve plant productivity and defensive properties.
Biochar is also known as charcoal that is produced by the process of thermal degradation of biomass in anaerobic conditions such as pyrolysis. The liquid and gaseous biofuels are produced by pyrolysis. The pyrolysis platform is getting more and more attention all over the world due to the following four reasons: (i) renewable biofuels can be produced through pyrolysis; (ii) pyrolysis can be used to treat a lot of waste biomass and turn it into a fuel source; (iii) the addition of biochar to the soil results in the long-term sequestration of CO2 that produced in the atmosphere, and (iv) the addition of biochar into the soil enhances the soil fertility and productivity of crops. Biochar is not widely used in agriculture at the moment because the agronomic importance of biochar in crop production, soil health, and mechanisms involved in soil fertility had not been yet widely determined and understood. On small farming, the biochar has direct effect on nutrient supply and it has also many indirect effects such as it improves the water and nutrient holding capacity, pH, conversion of P and S, cation exchange ability of soil, physical properties of soil, and population of soil microbes (mycorrhizal fungi). It also neutralizes the phytotoxic substances in the soil. The application of biochar in the soil increases the population of microbes in the rhizosphere through unidentified mechanisms, and it also enhances the populations of useful microorganisms that encourage growth of plant and resistance toward the biotic stresses. According to a few pieces of evidence, it has been seen that biochar also plays a significant role in the protection of plants against various foliar pathogens and soil-borne disease. There are many signs that show biochar enhances the ability of canopy to control the broad spectrum because it triggers responses in both the induced systemic resistance (ISR) and systemic acquired resistance (SAR) pathways. This chapter shows that application of biochar in soil improves the relations between soil, plant, and microbes that may play a role in health of plant. One of the major advantages of biochar application to the soil potentially enhances the plant responses toward the disease.
Economically and agriculturally important fungal species exhibit various lifestyles, and they can switch their life modes depending on the habitat, host tolerance, and resource availability. Traditionally, fungal lifestyles have been determined based on observation at a particular host or habitat. Therefore, potential fungal pathogens have been neglected until they cause devastating impacts on human health, food security, and ecosystem stability. This study focused on the class Sordariomycetes to explore the genomic traits that could be used to determine the lifestyles of fungi and the possibility of predicting fungal lifestyles using machine learning algorithms. A total of 638 representative genomes encompassing 5 subclasses, 17 orders, and 50 families were selected and annotated. Through an extensive literature survey, the lifestyles of 553 genomes were determined, including plant pathogens, saprotrophs, entomopathogens, mycoparasites, endophytes, human pathogens and nematophagous fungi. We first tried to examine the relationship between fungal lifestyles and transposable elements. We unexpectedly discovered that second-generation sequencing technologies tend to result in reduced size of transposable elements while having no discernible impact on the content of protein-coding genes. Then, we constructed three numerical matrices: 1) a basic genomic feature matrix including 25 features; 2) a functional protein matrix including 24 features; 3) and a combined matrix. Meanwhile, we reconstructed a genome-scale phylogeny, across which comprehensive comparative analyses were conducted. The results indicated that basic genomic features reflected more on phylogeny rather than lifestyle, but the abundance of functional proteins exhibited relatively high discrimination not only in differentiating taxonomic groups at the higher levels but also in differentiating lifestyles. Among these lifestyles including plant pathogens, saprotrophs, entomopathogens, mycoparasites, endophytes, and human pathogens, plant pathogens exhibited the largest secretomes, while entomopathogens had the smallest secretomes. The abundance of secretomes served as a valuable indicator for differentiating plant pathogens from mycoparasites, saprotrophs, and entomopathogens, as well as for Mycosphere 14(1): 1530-1563 (2023) www.mycosphere.org ISSN 2077 7019 Article Doi 10.5943/mycosphere/14/1/17 1531 discriminating endophytes from entomopathogens. Effectors have long been considered disease determinants, and indeed, we observed a higher presence of effectors in plant pathogens than in saprotrophs and entomopathogens. However, surprisingly, endophytes also exhibited a similar abundance of effectors, challenging their role as a reliable indicator for pathogenic fungi. A single functional protein group could not differentiate all lifestyles, but their combinations resulted in accurate differentiation for most lifestyles. Furthermore, models of six machine learning algorithms were trained, optimized, and evaluated based on the labeled genomes. The best-performance model was used to predict the lifestyle of 83 unlabeled genomes. Although insufficient genome sampling for several lifestyles and inaccurate lifestyle assignments for some genomes, the predictive model still obtained a high degree of accuracy in differentiating plant pathogens. The predictive model can be further optimized with more sequenced genomes in the future and provide a more reliable prediction. It can serve as an early warning system, enabling the identification of potentially devastating fungi and facilitating the implementation of appropriate measures to prevent their spread.
Now and in the future, meeting the global demand for healthy food for the ever-increasing population is a crucial challenge. In the last seven decades, agricultural practices have shifted to the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to achieve higher
yields. Despite the huge contribution of synthetic fertilizers in agronomy, their adverse effects on the environment, natural microbial habitat, and human health cannot be underrated. Besides, synthetic fertilizers are manufactured from non-renewable sources such as earth mining or rock exploitation. In this context, understanding and exploiting soil microbiota appears promising to enhance crop production without jeopardizing the environment and human health. This chapter reviews the historical as well as current research efforts made in identifying the interaction between soil microbes and root exudates for crop improvement. First, microbial consortium viz. bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa are briefly discussed. Then, the application of bio-stimulants followed by genome editing of microbes for crop improvement is summarized. Finally, the perspectives and opportunities to produce bioenergy and bio-fertilizers are analyzed.
Description of the subject. The use of chemical fungicides tends to be prohibited because of their harmful effects on agricultural production and the environment. In terms of peanuts (Arachis Hypogaea L.), it leads to the rot of pods, collar and the melting of sowing caused by the Aspergillus niger. The use of microbial biopesticides is therefore one of the alternatives for the protection of crops.
Objectives. The aim of this study is to contribute in search of a better understanding of the mechanism of action, and the ways of rationalization of the use of the Bacillus velezensis GA1 and S499, as agents of biological wrestling. He assesses, in vitro, the effects of these two strains of Bacillus on the growth of Aspergillus niger.
Method. To understand their mechanism of action, the antifungal actions of the Bacillus velezensis GA1 and S499 and four mutants of B. velezensis (∆ itu-∆ on, ∆ fen-∆ on, ∆ itu- ∆ fen and ∆ sfp) presenting spectra of synthetic cyclical lipopeptides known on the same strain of A. niger were sought in vitro.
Results. The results demonstrate that Bacillus velezensis GA1, S499 and a mutant, ∆ fen-waste, have effectively inhibited the growth of A. niger while the other mutants, not synthesizing iturine, have presented no sensitive antagonistic effect.
Conclusion. The inhibition observed does not depend on a competition between the stumps used but a result of antibiotic. It depends on the ability of strains to produce iturine.
The water-level fluctuation zone (WLFZ) of Wudongde reservoir of the upper Yangtze river is a completely new aquatic-terrestrial transitional zone, and its plant degenerate issue is attracting global concerns. Uncovering the unknown rhizosphere microbiome of dominant plants of this zone is helpful in understanding the plant-microbe interactions and their growth under the largely varying environment. Here, a first exploration of the rhizosphere bacterial and fungal communities of wilted (JB) and unwilted (JA) Argemone mexicana L. individuals from the WLFZ of Wudongde reservoir was carried out using high-throughput sequencing and MetaCyc metabolic pathway analyses. The results showed that rhizosphere of wilted A. mexicana L individuals exhibited a higher microbial richness and diversity than the unwilted ones, irrespective of the bacterial and fungal communities. It was noted that 837 common bacterial amplicon sequence variants (ASV) and 92 common fungal ASV were presented in both JA and JB with 3108 bacteria and 212 fungi unique to JA, and 3569 bacteria and 693 fungi unique to JB. Linear discriminant analysis effect Size (LEfSe) analyses indicated that the taxa that had the most contribution to observed differences between both JA and JB was Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Ascomycota for JA, and Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobia, Basidiomycota and Ascomycota for JB. Organic compound conversion pathway (degradation/reduction/oxidation) was consistently highly represented in the rhizosphere microbiomes of both JA and JB. Overall, this study provides insights into the rhizosphere microbiome composition, diversity and metabolic pathways of both wilted and unwilted A. mexicana L. individuals in the WLFZ of Wudongde reservoir, and the results give valuable clues for manipulating microbes to support plant growth in such a recently-formed WLFZ under a dry-hot valley environment.
Filamentous fungi grow by extending and branching hyphae through soil pores, which creates an interconnected fibrous network known as mycelium. Fungal mycelium can cross-link and entangle soil particles, which reduces pore size and alters pore structures. Fungal mycelium can also secret hydrophobic compounds, increasing the water repellency of soils. This study investigated the effect of fungal mycelium on the hydraulic properties of sands, including soil water retention curve (SWRC), soil water repellency, and hydraulic conductivity. Ottawa 20/30, 50/70, and 100/200 sands were treated with a filamentous, non-pathogenic, and saprotrophic fungus, Trichoderma virens (ATCC 9645). The results showed that fungal mycelia increased air entry suction up to 11.8-fold and water repellency at sand surface from hydrophilic to extreme water repellency after 10 days of fungal growth. Hydraulic conductivities of fungal-treated sands reduced (up to 21-fold at 20 days of fungal growth) with increasing fungal contents. The reduced hydraulic conductivities of fungal-treated sands can be maintained even under starvation condition (i.e., absence of nutrients). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images presented fungal mycelia modified pore structures by cross-linking and entangling sand particles.
In modern-day agricultural practices, the application of microbes as biofertilizers is considered an important component of sustainable organic farming and ecofriendly practices, so biofertilizers are used instead of chemical fertilizers that cause environmental pollution, which severely affects human health. Microorganisms like plant growth–promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), fungi, algae, etc., have also shown biofertilizer-like exertion in modern agronomic practices. These microbes live in the rhizosphere and have the movability to invade plant roots and enhance their development. Microbes’ positive impacts are achieved through various mechanisms, such as phosphorus solubilization, nitrogen fixation, plant nutrient and phytohormone development, antimetabolites to sustain root growth, pathogen defense, and recovery from stressful environmental conditions. This is the key reason why many microbes are increasingly being used. The goal of this review is to focus on the importance of microbial fertilizers and their advantageous effects on plants in promoting sustainable agriculture.KeywordsMicrobesBiofertilizersSustainable agriculture
The Himalayan region of Jammu and Kashmir constitutes a natural depository of the rich biodiversity of India. Mushrooms are non-timber forest resources that have been utilized as a source of food since time immemorial, but only a few species are used for pharmaceutical purposes due to the absence of scientific information and indigenous knowledge. If identified properly, these mysterious specimens could be used for numerous ailment prevention and treatment methods. In this chapter, 20 mushroom species found to have a wide range of bioactive chemicals and great medicinal potential are identified. All these species are described based on their morphological details, along with habit, habitat, traditional names, medicinal properties, and ethnomycological uses.
The Sordariomycetes is a specious, morphologically diverse, and widely distributed class of the phylum Ascomycota that forms a well-supported clade diverged from Leotiomycetes. Aside from their ecological significance as plant and human pathogens, saprobes, endophytes, and fungicolous taxa, species of Sordariomycetes produces a wide range of chemically novel and diverse metabolites used in important fields. Recent phylogenetic analyses derived from a small number of genes have considerably increased our understanding of the family, order, and subclass relationships within Sordariomycetes, but several important groups have not been resolved well. In addition, there are various paraphyletic or polyphyletic groups. Moreover, the criteria used to establish higher ranks remain highly variable across different studies. Therefore, the taxonomy of Sordariomycetes is in constant flux, remains poorly understood, and is subject to much controversy. Here, for the first time, we have assembled a phylogenetic dataset containing 638 genomes representing the 156 genera, 50 families, and 17 orders and 5 subclasses of Sordariomycetes. This data set is based on 1124 genes and results in a well-resolved phylogenomic tree. We further constructed an evolutionary timeline of Sordariomycetes diversification based on the genomic data sets. Our divergence time estimate results are inconsistent with previous studies, suggesting estimates of node ages are less precise and varied. Based on these results, we discuss the higher ranks of Sordariomycetes and empirically propose an unprecedented taxonomic framework for the class.
India is a developing country and is highly dependent on agriculture, and there is an ever-increasing pressure to continue innovation to ensure food security. The green revolution in India was dependent on input-intensive technologies, and though the gains were impressive, they also had major undesirable effects on the environment. The harmful effects of chemical pesticides on humans, rhizosphere health, and non-pests have encouraged searching for a natural and renewable source of integrated plant disease management (IPDM). Different fungal formulations and metabolites have been studied along with their delivery system to reduce pest infestation and increase yield. Myco-biocontrol is a targeted approach where the fungus proliferates at the cost of the pest. Various factors ranging from isolation to shelf life, field performance, and marketing have been responsible for the popularity of a myco-biocontrol product. This chapter focuses on the theoretical and practical aspects of myco-pesticides, their delivery systems, components, and efficiency in exploiting their potential in disease management. In addition, the potential importance of bioformulations in the management of crop diseases and their role in maintaining sustainable agriculture systems are discussed.KeywordsBiopesticidesMycopesticidesFormulationsNanoformulationsAdjuvantsManagement
In several regions of Africa, the daily diet is partly dependent on the edible products from wild animals, plants, and mushrooms, driven by their availability, wide distribution in the local environment, and the low incomes of the general population. The documentation of ethnomycological information is particularly important to validate or correct the identification of specimens and the preservation of these natural resources with cultivation potential, thus improving their consumption and utilization for medicinal purposes. The number of wild edible mushroom species consumed varies between different regions of Africa, with around 300 species being documented in the literature. However, despite its rich biodiversity, the African continent is still underexploited, which is reflected in poor food contribution to populations that are often in need. Here, the safe use of mushrooms is guided by the insufficiency of studies that validate their nutritional and medicinal properties, since they are key factors in the suppression of protein deficiency in the everyday diet of the populations and a source of bioactive compounds useful for the formulation of added‐value functional products. Thus, it becomes essential to investigate African mushrooms, not only from the identification point of view, but also in terms of nutritional, chemical, and bioactive characterization, hence deepen the knowledge about this valuable natural resource. Bearing these in mind, the main objective of this study is to systematize the knowledge available in scientific publications and specialized websites, thus gathering information about the valuable profits that come from using these widely appreciated natural products.
Fungi are a diverse and highly abundant group of organisms found in soils worldwide. Understanding fungi is essential as they are key drivers of below-ground ecosystem functions. Taxonomy is a fundamental discipline, acting as the initial step toward biodiversity, ecology, and biotechnology studies. Both culture-dependent and -independent methods are employed in the taxonomic investigations of soil-dwelling taxa. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) is a genomic based method widely applied in global studies that has revealed numerous unculturable soil taxa. However, this method is limited by its inability to link physical specimens to species identification. Culturing methods result in specimens that can be used to obtain genetic sequences and morphological data in applied studies. Thus, combining both methods is an important trend in taxonomic studies. This review discusses how culturing is important for soil fungal discovery and describes the main culturing methods. It also briefly addresses the role of HTS in taxonomy and its drawbacks, and the potential to combine both culture-dependent and independent methods to gain better insights into soil fungi.
Soil microbial communities regulate a myriad of critical biogeochemical functions in forest ecosystems. Anthropogenic disturbances in natural forests could drive major shifts in plant and microbial communities resulting in substantial biogeochemical alterations. We evaluated the effect of anthropogenic disturbances in the soils of Andean temperate forests with different levels of degradation: i) mature forest (MF), ii) secondary forest (SF), iii) degraded forest (DF), and iv) deforested site converted into a prairie (DP). We quantified total soil carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous (TC, TN, and TP), and available nutrient stocks. The soil microbial community structure (i.e., composition, diversity, and abundance) was assessed under each condition from amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) obtained via NGS-Illumina sequencing and subsequent microbiome analysis. There were no significant differences in TC, TN, and TP across the forested states (MF, SF, DF). The deforested site condition presented significantly higher soil TC, TN, and TP and the lowest C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios. The DP soil microbiome was significantly more diverse in bacteria (D′ = 0.47 ± 0.04); and fungi (H′ = 5.11 ± 0.33). The bacterial microbiome was dominated by Proteobacteria (45.35 ± 0.89 %), Acidobacteria (20.73 ± 1.48 %), Actinobacteria (12.59 ± 0.34 %), and Bacteroidetes (7.32 ± 0.36 %) phyla in all sites. The soil fungal community was dominated by the phyla Ascomycota (42.11 ± 0.95 %), Mortierellomycota (28.74 ± 2.25 %), Basidiomycota (24.61 ± 0.52), and Mucoromycota (2.06 ± 0.43 %). Yet, there were significant differences at the genus level across conditions. Forest to prairie conversion facilitated the introduction of exotic bacterial and fungal taxa associated with agricultural activities and livestock grazing (~50 % of DP core microbiome composed of unique ASVs). For example, the ammonia-oxidizing bacteria community emerged as a dominant group in the DP soils, along with a reduction in the ectomycorrhizal fungi community. The surface soil microbial community was surprisingly resistant to forest degradation and did not show a clear succession along the degradation gradient, but it was strongly altered after deforestation.
Drought is a major abiotic stress factor affecting plant growth and production, while utilizing beneficial endophytic fungi is one of the most promising strategies for enhancing plant growth and drought tolerance. In the current study, a pot experiment was conducted to investigate the beneficial effects of dark septate endophyte (DSE) (Macrophomina pseudophaseolina, Paraphoma radicina) and Trichoderma (Trichoderma afroharzianum, Trichoderma longibrachiatum) inoculum on Astragalus mongholicus grown in sterile soil under drought stress, alone, or in combination. The addition of Trichoderma enhanced the DSE colonization in roots regardless of the water condition. Under well-watered conditions, M. pseudophaseolina inoculation significantly enhanced the biomass and root length of A. mongholicus. The two DSE and Trichoderma inoculum significantly improved calycosin-7-O-β-D-glucoside content. However, M. pseudophaseolina + T. afroharzianum inoculation better promoted root growth, whereas co-inoculation had higher active ingredient contents compared with single inoculation, except for P. radicina + T. afroharzianum. Under drought stress, DSE and Trichoderma inoculum significantly improved root biomass, root length, calycosin-7-O-β-D-glucoside content, and activities of nitrate reductase and soil urease. P. radicina + T. afroharzianum and P. radicina + T. longibrachiatum better increased root length, and all combinations of DSE and Trichoderma had a greater impact on the increase in formononetin content compared with the single treatments. Additionally, Trichoderma relies on antioxidant enzymes, growth hormones, and the redox system (ascorbic acid–glutathione) to resist drought, while DSE strains have an additional osmotic regulation system in addition to the drought resistance function possessed by Trichoderma, and the effect of co-inoculation (especially M. pseudophaseolina + T. longibrachiatum and P. radicina + T. afroharzianum) on plant physiological parameters was greater than that of single inoculation. This study provides a new research direction for the effects of DSE and Trichoderma on medicinal plant cultivated in dryland.
Maize is a global principal crop, after wheat and rice. Maydis leaf blight (MLB), also known as Southern Corn Leaf Blight (SCLB), caused by Cochliobolus heterostrophus is a massive foliar disease in maize of fungal origin and prevalent in warm (20–30 °C), humid (>80%) temperate to tropical regions of the world. It has noted signification in the agricultural history due to its epidemic propositions in 1970 in the United States. At present, the primary form of C. heterostrophus is Race ′O′, which can cause around 40% yield losses in maize. Symptoms appear as small lesions with a dark brown margin and straw to light brown coloured center to absolute foliage blight. In spite of much availability of management practices, the use of host-plant resistance together with other integrated disease management practices may contribute effectively to the sustainable management of diseases. Both, qualitative and quantitative resistances have been reported in the literature, but quantitative is preferable over qualitative one, as it is non-race specific and highly durable. The different quantitative trait loci (QTLs) identified for MLB resistance have been mapped on chromosomes 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 9. Considering MLB as an important disease in India, we recommend confirming these findings and identifying new genomic regions using Indian maize germplasm as well. The progress made in the area of genomics may revolutionize the understanding of interactions between host and pathogen, and the identification and deployment of MLB resistance genes in the breeding programme.
U. (2007). The mycobiota of the cactus weed Pereskia aculeata in Brazil, with comments on the life-cycle of Uromyces pereskiae. Fungal Diversity 25: 127-140. A survey of the fungi associated with the cactus weed Pereskia aculeata, conducted in Southeastern Brazil, revealed three phytopathogenic fungi. Pseudocercospora pereskiae sp. nov., a new cercosporoid fungus, found associated with leaf spots on P. aculeta is described and illustrated. This is the second species in Pseudocercospora reported on a host belonging in the family Cactaceae, the other being Pseudocercospora opuntiae a fungus that attacks Opuntia sp. in Mexico. The other fungi collected on P. aculeata were the leaf spot fungus Cercospora apii and the rust Uromyces pereskiae. The polyphagous species Cercospora apii is reported for the first time on a member of the Cactaceae. Our observations indicated that Uromyces pereskiae and Aecidium pereskiae are two distinct heteroecious rust fungi, infecting two distinct Pereskia spp., viz. P. aculeata and P. grandiflora, respectively, and do not pertain to a single autoecious rust species as previously assumed. The potential use of these species as classical biological control agents of P. aculeata is discussed.
Fungal pathogens of the invasive riparian weed Hedychium coronarium from Brazil and their potential for biological control. Fungal Diversity 28: 85-96. This paper gives an account about fungi collected during a survey in southern Brazil for pathogens of the riparian weed, Hedychium coronarium. This is a pantropical weed of the family Zingiberaceae which is exotic and aggressively invades wet ecosystems in Brazil. The surveys were conducted between July of 2004 and March of 2006 and resulted in a list of seven fungi. Gonatophragmium mori, Leptosphaeria sp., Mycosphaerella hedychii, Pseudocercospora hedychii and Veronaea hedychii sp. nov. appear to be pathogenic to H. coronarium and are fully described. Curvularia lunata var. aeria and Chalara aurea are considered to be of dubious pathogenic status and are only listed with minor comments. No previous surveys of pathogens of H. coronarium have been made in the native habitat (Himalayas) or in exotic situations. Such results are of importance for classical biological control. Superfluous introductions of fungal species as biocontrol agents can now be avoided in case they later appear in surveys in the centre of origin as they are clearly ineffective in controlling this weed in Brazil.
Rice brown spot, caused by Bipolaris
oryzae, can be a serious disease causing a considerable
yield loss. Trichoderma harzianum is an effective
biocontrol agent for a number of plant fungal diseases.
Thus, this research was carried out to investigate the
mechanisms of action by which T. harzianum antagonizes
Bipolaris oryzae in vitro, and the efficacy of
spray application of a spore suspension of T. harzianum
for control of rice brown spot disease under field
conditions. In vitro, the antagonistic behavior of T.
harzianum resulted in the overgrowth of B. oryzae by
T. harzianum, while the antifungal metabolites of
T. harzianum completely prevented the linear growth
of B. oryzae. Light and scanning electron microscope
(SEM) observations showed no evidence that mycoparasitism
contributed to the aggressive nature of the
tested isolate of T. harzianum against B. oryzae.
Under field conditions, spraying of a spore suspension
of T. harzianum at 108 spore ml�1 significantly
reduced the disease severity (DS) and disease incidence
(DI) on the plant leaves, and also significantly
increased the grain yield, total grain carbohydrate, and
protein, and led to a significant increase in the total
photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a and b and
carotenoids) in rice leaves.
Keywords Antagonism � Antifungal � Biological
control � Brown spot � Mycoparasitism � Rice
The tropical rainforests of Xishuangbanna in southwestern China are located at the northern margin of the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia. They harbour a high diversity of animals and plants. We investigated the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soil under trees in these forests in order to establish if these fungi are also highly diverse. One hundred and eighteen rhizosphere soil samples were collected from a tropical rainforest in Xishuangbanna, and 525 arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spores (or sporocarp) samples were obtained using the wet-sieve method. Twenty-seven species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were identified from the collections. The species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were of the genera Acaulospora (9 species), Gigaspora (1 species), Glomus (13 species), Sclerocystis (3 species) and Scutellospora (1 species). Acaulospora and Glomus were dominant at the study site. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi spore density ranged from 25 to 2550 per 100 g soil (average 675), and the species richness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi ranged from 1-7 (average 4.4). Although tropical rainforests support a high diversity of plants, their associated symbiotic fungi are not as diverse as we had expected, possibly because arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are not specific to their host plants.
Summary
Trichoderma harzianum preparations was used in two successive field experiments in commercial strawberry nurseries and fruiting fields. Disease
severity ofRhizoctonia solani in daughter plants was reduced by 18–46 % in the treated nursery plots. Infestation of nursery soil with the pathogen, as
tested by planting beans in soil samples was reduced by the Trichoderma treatment by up to 92% as compared to the untreated
control. A rapid decline of the disease was observed in soil fromT. harzianum treated plots, successively planted with bean seedlings. More isolates ofTrichoderma sp. antagonistic toR. solani, were found in the infested field as compared to the non infested one.Trichoderma harzianum treated plants, transferred to the commercial field gave a 21–37% increase in early yield of strawberries. A combined treatment
in the nursery and in the fruiting field resulted in a 20% yield increase as compared to control plots.
The solubilization of inorganic phosphates by microorganisms supplies phosphates for plant nutrition and increases their growth. The solubilization of CaHPO4 (Ca- P) and AlPO4 (Al- P) by Aspergillus niger using several carbon and nitrogen sources was studied. Solubilization of Ca- P was enhanced when the carbon sources were mannitol, maltose, galactose and glucose (in that order). Galactose, sucrose and maltose were the carbon sources that enhanced the solubilization of Al- P. More extensive growth, acid production, and decrease in pH were obtained in the Al- P medium than in the Ca- P medium, however, the quantity of solubilized phosphate was 12% less. Phosphate solubilization was related to acid production, pH drop and fungal growth in the culture medium. The results of a study carried out under abiotic conditions showed that organic acids solubilize more Ca- P than Al- P. Evaluating the effect of the nitrogen source, the solubilization of Ca- P or Al- P decreased in the following order: glycine > NH4Cl > NaNO3 and NH4NO3 > urea > (NH4) 2SO4, respectively. Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH4 (+)- N) sources were the most effective in the production of acids and in lowering of the pH.
The diversity of fungi found on woody litter of three genera of plants in the family Magnoliaceae is reported and the communities are compared. Saprobic fungi were investigated from 150 samples of decaying woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii. Two-hundred and thirty-nine fungi were identified comprising 92 ascomycetes, 4 basidiomycetes and 143 anamorphic fungi. Corynespora cassiicola (60% frequency of occurrence) was the most common taxon found on Magnolia liliifera samples. Ellisembia opaca and Phaeoisaria clematidis with 27.5% frequency of occurrence were the dominant species from Manglietia garrettii, while Annellophora phoenicis and Ellisembia adscendens (18%) were the most commonly encountered species from Michelia baillonii. Distinct fungal communities were found on samples of the three tree species. In terms of the numbers of taxa recovered, fungi were more diverse on Michelia baillonii than on the other two genera, although the common genera of fungi obtained from woody litter of each host were similar. Seasonal effect on the fungal communities was investigated. Dry season samples supported a significantly more diverse fungal community than samples from the wet season. Relatively few species of woody fungi recorded in this study had been previously recorded from wood samples by other researchers.
2007). Distribution and diversity of Epichloë/Neotyphodium fungal endophytes from different populations of Achnatherum sibiricum (Poaceae) in the Inner Mongolia Steppe, China. Fungal Diversity 24: 329-345. There has been a recent surge in interest on grass-endophyte symbiosis as it exerts a strong influence on the agricultural ecosystem. Our understanding of incidence of infection and diversity of endophytic fungi in grasses is vital so as to discover new grass-endophyte associations and their beneficial effects. In this paper, we have documented the patterns of distribution and diversity of Epichloë/Neotyphodium fungal endophytes in a perennial bunchgrass, Achnatherum sibiricum (Poaceae) from the Inner Mongolia Steppe. We investigated yearly, seasonal and spatial variations in infection frequency of Epichloë/Neotyphodium endophytes in A. sibiricum from four study sites, i.e., Hulingol (HLG), West Ujimqin (WUM), Plot I and Plot II of Inner Mongolia Grassland Ecosystem Research Station of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (IMGERS). We also analysed correlations of infection frequency and diversity of endophytic fungi with selected soil factors and the growth characteristics of A. sibiricum in the four sampling sites. The infection frequencies of endophytic fungi were not significantly related to the soil factors or growth status of A. sibiricum, although variations in the infection frequencies among four A. sibiricum populations were observed during the summer. Twenty-seven isolates of Neotyphodium were obtained from the four A. sibiricum populations and categorized into 9 morphotypes based on colony morphology, growth rate, and conidial size on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. The greatest morphotypic diversity of Neotyphodium was observed in A. sibiricum population from IMGERS-Plot II. This observation was consistent with its highly heterogeneous habitat because the plot had been enclosed for more than 20 years. There was a significant (P < 0.05) trend for the conidial length of Neotyphodium to gradually increase from the eastern China to the western China populations of A. sibiricum. In addition, we observed A. sibiricum plants from HLG and WUM showing Epichloë stromata on their flowering culms. Our study suggests that the endophytic fungi in natural (wild) A. sibiricum populations are highly diverse and may have different life histories.
Arbuscular Mycorhizal (AM) fungi are ubiquitous and form symbiotic relationships with roots of most terrestrial plants. Their associations benefit plant nutrition, growth and survival due to their enhanced exploitation of soil nutrients. These fungi play a key role in nutrient cycling and also protect plants against environmental and cultural stresses. The establishment of AM fungi in the plant root has been shown to reduce the damage caused by soil-borne plant pathogens with the enhancement of resistance in mycorrhizal plants. The effectiveness of AM fungi in biocontrol is dependent on the AM fungus involved, as
well as the substrate and host plant. However, protection offered by AM fungi is not effective against all the plant pathogens and is modulated by soil and other environmental conditions. AM fungi generally reduce the severity of plant diseases to various crops suggesting that they may be used as potential tool in disease management. AM fungi modify the quality and abundance of rhizosphere microflora and alter overall rhizosphere microbial activity. These fungi induce changes in the host root exudation
pattern following host colonization which alters the microbial equilibrium in the mycorrhizosphere. Given the high cost of
inorganic fertilizers and health hazards associated with chemical pesticides, AM fungi may be most suitable for sustainable
agriculture and also for increasing the yield of several crops through biocontrol of plant pathogens. This chapter provides
an overview of mechanisms of interaction which take place between soil-borne plant pathogens and AM fungi on different plants.
The availability of new tools and techniques for the study of microbial interactions in the rhizosphere may provide a greater
understanding of biocontrol processes in the near-future.
KeywordsArbuscular mycorrhiza-biocontrol-plant diseases-plant pathogens-rhizosphere
Pycnidial fungi belonging to the genus Ampelomyces are common intracellular mycoparasites of the Erysiphaceae worldwide. As a part of a project which aimed to isolate and test potential biocontrol agents of powdery mildew infections of economically important crops in China, a total of 23 Ampelomyces isolates were obtained from many different species of the Erysiphaceae in five provinces of China. In addition, four new Ampelomyces isolates were obtained in Europe for this study. Mycoparasitic tests showed that all the 27 new isolates produced intracellular pycnidia in the conidiophores of Podosphaera xanthii and/or Golovinomyces orontii when these powdery mildew species were inoculated with conidial suspensions of the isolates. This confirmed that the new isolates can be identified as Ampelomyces mycoparasites and they were not confused with other pycnidial mycoparasites of powdery mildew fungi. The ITS sequence of the nuclear rRNA gene of the 27 new isolates were analyzed together with 20 sequences of other Ampelomyces isolates determined in earlier studies. The ITS sequences of some isolates obtained in China were identical with those of some European and/or North American isolates which indicates a global distribution of these mycoparasites. At the same time, 16 Chinese isolates formed a distinct group, which was only distantly related to the already known groups of the European and the North American Ampelomyces isolates. Ampelomyces mycoparasites with similar or identical ITS sequences were found in different powdery mildew hosts in China. Also, mycoparasites with different ITS sequences were isolated from the same powdery mildew species during this study. Thus, no correlation was found between the ITS sequences of the mycoparasites and the host fungi and host plants where they came from.
Plant growth promotion induced by the antagonistic fungus, Pythium oligandrum, is the result of a complex interaction which includes an indirect effect through control of pathogens in the rhizosphere and/or a direct one mediated by plant-induced resistance. The present study shows an increased plant growth associated with direct interaction between P. oligandrum and roots, which is mediated by a fungus-produced auxin compound, tryptamine (TNH 2). In vitro experiments provided evidence that P. oligandrum metabolised specifically indole derivatives, such as tryptophan and indole-3-acetaldehyde, to produce THN2 through the tryptamine pathway. When P. oligandrum grew in sterile root exudates, it also produced an auxin-like compound. Additional experiments on P. oligandrum-root interaction showed that, in amended nutrient solution of plants, the antagonist metabolised Trp into TNH2 and that root absorption of this newly formed auxin-compound in appropriate concentrations was associated with enhancement of plant growth. This phenomenon was observed only when nutrient solution was amended with low tryptophan (Trp) concentrations, i.e. 0.05 and 0.1 mM; higher concentration (0.5 and 1 mM Trp) induced abnormal root development. Similar experiments were performed with Pythium group F, a minor pathogen known for its ability to produce auxin-compounds through the tryptamine pathway. In this case, irregular root development was always noticed with all Trp concentrations added to the nutrient solution of plants. Moreover, Pythium group F colonization of roots was associated with leakage of auxin-compounds in the nutrient solution. Our results, therefore, highlight that the production of similar auxin-compounds by two Pythium species has contrary effects on plant development.
Fungi of the genus Trichoderma are used as biocontrol agents against several plant pathogenic fungi like Rhizoctonia spp., Pythium spp., Botrytis cinerea and Fusarium spp. which cause both soil-borne and leaf- or flower-borne diseases of agricultural plants. Plant disease control by Trichoderma is based on complex interactions between Trichoderma, the plant pathogen and the plant. Until now, two main components of biocontrol have been identified: direct activity of Trichoderma against the plant pathogen by mycoparasitism and induced systemic resistance in plants. As the mycoparasitic interaction is host-specific and not merely a contact response, it is likely that signals from the host fungus are recognised by Trichoderma and provoke transcription of mycoparasitism-related genes.
In the last few years examination of signalling pathways underlying Trichoderma biocontrol started and it was shown that heterotrimeric G-proteins and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases affected biocontrol-relevant processes such as the production of hydrolytic enzymes and antifungal metabolites and the formation of infection structures. MAPK signalling was also found to be involved in induction of plant systemic resistance in Trichoderma virens and in the hyperosmotic stress response in Trichoderma harzianum. Analyses of the function of components of the cAMP pathway during Trichoderma biocontrol revealed that mycoparasitism-associated coiling and chitinase production as well as secondary metabolism are affected by the internal cAMP level; in addition, a cross talk between regulation of light responses and the cAMP signalling pathway was found in Trichoderma atroviride.
Several Trichoderma strains have been reported to be effective in controlling plant diseases, and the action of fungal hydrolytic enzymes is considered as the main mechanism involved in the antagonistic process. Strain Trichoderma harzianum T334 is a potential biocontrol agent against plant pathogenic fungi with the ability to produce low levels of proteases constitutively. To improve its fungal antagonistic capacity, mutagenetic program was undertaken for the construction of protease overproducing derivates. The mutant strains were obtained by means of UV-irradiation and were selected for p-fluorophenyl-alanine resistance or altered colony morphology. It was revealed by means of specific chromogenic protease substrates that both trypsin-like and chymotrypsin-like protease secretion was elevated in most of the mutant strains. The profiles of isoenzymes were different between the mutants and the wild-type strain, when examined by gel filtration chromatography. Certain mutants proved to be better antagonists against plant pathogens in in vitro antagonism experiments. This study suggests the possibility of using mutants with improved constitutive extracellular protease secretion against plant pathogenic fungi.
Chaetomium globosum Kunze, has been identified as a potential antagonist of Cochliobolus sativus (S. Ito & Kurib.) Deschler ex Dastur. (Syn = Drechslera sorokiniana). Production of antifungal compounds by Chaetomium globosum (Cg) and their role in suppression of spot blotch of wheat caused by this fungus under in vitro and in vivo has been evaluated. Interaction between Chaetomium globosum isolates and C. sativus showed mycoparasitism by isolates Cg 1 and Cg 6 whereas isolates Cg 2, Cg 3, Cg 4 and Cg 5 showed antibiosis. Syringe filtered culture extracts of Cg 2 completely inhibited mycelial growth of C. sativus in liquid broth. In vitro bioassays were undertaken by amending the medium with crude extracts and agar diffusion method in order to assess the fungistatic activity of crude extracts from culture filtrates of different isolates of Chaetomium globosum. Significant differences in antagonism between isolates were observed. Antifungal metabolite profiling, on TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography) plates identified 13 compounds in isolate Cg 2, 11 compounds in Cg 3 and 7 compounds in Cg 6. Isolate Cg 1 produced only two faint bands and Cg 5 produced two bands of the same Rf value but of higher intensity. The production of antifungal compounds by isolates was positively correlated with antagonism to C. sativus on seedlings in glasshouse studies. The results showed high antifungal metabolite production by isolate Cg 2, which also gave maximum bioefficacy under laboratory and glasshouse conditions.
The ability of seedlings to establish can depend on the availability of appropriate mycorrhizal fungal inoculum. The possibility that mycorrhizal mutualists limit the distribution of seedlings may depend on the prevalence of the plant hosts that form the same type of mycorrhizal association as the target seedling species and thus provide inoculum. We tested this hypothesis by measuring ectomycorrhizal (EM) fine root distribution and conducting an EM inoculum potential bioassay along a gradient of EM host density in a pinyon-juniper woodland where pinyon is the only EM fungal host while juniper and other plant species are hosts for arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. We found that pinyon fine roots were significantly less abundant than juniper roots both in areas dominated aboveground by juniper and in areas where pinyon and juniper were co-dominant. Pinyon seedlings establishing in pinyon-juniper zones are thus more likely to encounter AM than EM fungi. Our bioassay confirmed this result. Pinyon seedlings were six times less likely to be colonized by EM fungi when grown in soil from juniper-dominated zones than in soil from either pinyon-juniper or pinyon zones. Levels of EM colonization were also reduced in seedlings grown in juniper-zone soil. Preliminary analyses indicate that EM community composition varied among sites. These results are important because recent droughts have caused massive mortality of mature pinyons resulting in a shift towards juniper-dominated stands. Lack of EM inoculum in these stands could reduce the ability of pinyon seedlings to re-colonize sites of high pinyon mortality, leading to long-term vegetation shifts.
A beta-1,3-glucanase was detected, using laminarin as substrate, in the culture broth of Chaetomium sp. Major activity was associated with a 70 kDa protein band visualized on a polyacrylamide gel. beta-1,3-Glucanase was purified by a one-step, native gel purification procedure. Optimal activity was observed at pH 6.0 and 30 degrees C (over 30 min). It could degrade cell walls of plant pathogens including Rhizoctonia solani, Gibberella zeae, Fusarium sp., Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Phoma sp. The N-terminal amino acid residues of the purified beta-1,3-glucanase are PYQLQTP, which do not exhibit homology to other fungal beta-1,3-glucanases suggesting it may be a novel enzyme.
We studied the fungicidal activity of a biological preparation from the fungi of the genus Chaetomium against soil phytopathogenic fungi Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum. The inhibitory effect of the preparation under study depended on its concentration, duration of storage, and growth characteristics of pure cultures of the phytopathogens. The highest (98.8%) inhibitory activity was observed on day 3 of the interaction with Rhizoctonia solani. After a 2-year storage, this preparation was capable of inhibiting the growth of the phytopathogens only at high doses. The preparation precluded the development of bare patch and increased the productivity of potato plants. The preparation may serve as an alternative to chemical fungicides for plant protection.
An extracellular beta-1,3-glucanase with antifungal properties was secreted by the novel mycoparasite, Periconia byssoides. The glucanase has a molecular mass of 35 kDa estimated by SDS-PAGE. Its optimum activity was at pH 6.0 and 50 degrees C (over 2 h). The purified beta-1,3-glucanase was capable of degrading cell walls, and inhibiting mycelia growth and spore germination of plant pathogenic fungi including Fulvia fulva, Fusarium sp. and Rhizoctonia solani. The N-terminal amino acid residues of the purified beta-1,3-glucanase are LKNGGPSFGA, which do not have any homology with previously described glucanases, suggesting it may be a novel member of the fungal beta-1,3-glucanases.
We describe a technique for isolating mycorrhizal fungi from roots of orchids. This technique involves selection and treatment of roots, preparation of pelotons, treatment of pelotons, culture of pelotons so that fungal hyphae grow out and strain purification. The technique is considered better because 1) problems of fungal and bacterial contamination are resolved, 2) endophytic bacteria are suppressed and also used to promote hyphal growth from the pelotons, 3) live and dead pelotons, and those from which fungi are culturable or unculturable can easily be identified, providing increased isolation efficiency, 4) a single taxon can be isolated from a single peloton containing several mycorrhizal taxa, 5) slow-growing mycorrhizal taxa can easily be isolated. The implications and potential use of this technique in future studies is discussed.
The ability of thirty-one fungal strains isolated from Nigerian cultivated farmland to solubilize rock phosphate and tri-calcium phosphate (TCP) was investigated. pH, titratable acidity, available phosphorus, total phosphorus and organic acid released were analysed as a measure of solubilization ability in liquid based medium containing rock phosphate and TCP. Isolated fungal species belong mainly to the genera of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Fusarium, Mucor, Ovularopsis, Tritirachium and Geotrichum. Apart from Geotrichum, all the isolates were able to solubilize phosphate rock and TCP. Phosphate solubilization was accompanied by a decrease in the pH of the medium by all the strains; however, this decrease differed significantly among isolates (p<0.05). The production of fumaric, acetic, gluconic, lactic and succinic acids accompanied solubilization of TCP, while citric, fumaric, malic and tartaric acid were detected in extracts of phosphate rock medium. Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed in the type and amount of organic acids produced by the fungi species Aspergillus terreus produced the highest amount of fumaric acid (264.45 mg/100 mL in TCP medium, while A. niger produced the highest amount of malic acid (18.20 mg/100 mL) in rock phosphate medium Succinic acid was the least produced of the acids.
Isolates of Trichoderma, Penicillium, and Aspergillus were tested against Trametes versicolor and Neolentinus lepideus by agar interaction tests and by measuring the toxicity of culture filtrates. Some isolates were able to over-grow and kill both of the decay fungi in agar culture but others were totally ineffective. Although the filtrate from most isolates produced some growth inhibition of the two target fungi, the extent of the control varied widely. Three fungi that produced the greatest inhibitory effects (two Trichoderma and one Aspergillus isolate) were subsequent-ly tested against a range of brown-and white-rot Basidio-mycetes. The filtrates of all three isolates produced varying degrees of inhibition against each of the Basidiomycetes. However, the Aspergillus filtrate generally produced greater inhibition and was more effective against the white-rot Basidiomycetes. The implications of the results on the testing and use of nondecay antagonistic fungi for the biological control of wood decay are discussed. At present, broad-spectrum poisons are the only prac-tical method of ensuring that most wooden materials will remain free from fungal decay. While certain physical methods will protect wood from decay (e.g., excluding mois-ture), these are often not practical for many wooden com-modities which, by the nature of their use, are subjected to fluctuating environmental conditions. Increased con-cern over the environmental effects of chemical biocides and associated legislative constraints on the use of some chemical treatments has meant that radical alternatives are now being sought to replace these preservatives. One possible alternative approach for protecting wood is the use of biological control systems, where microorganisms could be used to inhibit colonization and decay by wood-rotting fungi. The basic concept is to employ the natural ecological antagonisms of selected organisms (most often micro fungi) against target wood decay fungi. The idea of using biological control as a means of protecting wood from decay is not new. Early studies on the use of biological control in wood have examined decay control in tree stumps (33), felled timbers (21,22), and electrical distri-bution poles (32).
There is an increasing need to find alternatives to high-intensity agriculture. Intensively managed agrosystems are inefficient and lead to reduced ecosystem functioning and environmental degradation. These effects are predicted to magnify under the warmer, drier climate of the future. Plant growth-promoting microbes promise to replace or supplement many destructive, high-intensity practices. Symbiotic fungi, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in particular, may be useful in agrosystems, but their use has languished for decades. The benefits of using AMF are undeniable, so why haven't they been incorporated into cropping systems? Research shows that AMF functioning may be much more complex than previously thought. Until we can elucidate their functional variation, and classify it on a useful taxonomic level, practical applications of AMF cannot move forward.
The biofungicide AQ10, a pelleted formulation of conidia of Ampelomyces quisqualis, did not significantly reduce the size of colonies of the cucurbit powdery mildew (Podosphaera xanthii) in detached squash leaf culture but did reduce the amount of inoculum produced by each colony. No significant reduction in colonization of powdery mildew colonies by AQ10 was observed when it was sprayed in conjunction with the fungicides myclobutanil at 10 μg/ml or triadimefon at 100 μg/ml, suggesting that it is not sensitive to the fungicides at these concentrations. The spray adjuvant AddQ did not increase percent colonization by A. quisqualis but reduced the size of mildew colonies when used alone or with AQ10.
Sclerotinia blight, caused by Sclerotinia minor, is an important disease of peanut in North Carolina. The effectiveness of Coniothyrium minitans, a mycoparasite of sclerotia of Sclerotinia spp., was studied in a 5-year field experiment and in eight short-term experiments in northeastern North Carolina. The 5-year experiment was initiated in November 1999 to evaluate the effectiveness of repeated soil applications of C. minitans (commercial formulation, Contans WG) at 2 and 4 ka ha(-1) in reducing Sclerotinia blight. In addition, individual commercial peanut fields were selected in 2001 and 2002 to evaluate a single application of C minitans at 4 kg ha-1. No differences were found between the 2 and 4 kg ha(-1) rates of C minitans in reducing Sclerotinia blight. In 2002, there was less disease in plots receiving applications of C. minitans for either 1 or 3 years compared with the nontreated control; whereas, in 2003, C. minitans applications for 1, 2, or 3 years reduced disease and the number of sclerotia isolated from soil. A single application of C. minitans reduced sclerotia in only two of the eight short-term experiments. The integration of consecutive years of soil applications of C. minitans at 2 kg ha(-1) with moderately resistant cultivars and fungicide applications may aid in the management of Sclerotinia blight in peanut.
Soil-based arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal consortia were developed from the soil of natural tea rhizosphere (NTR) and cultivated tea rhizosphere (CTR) located in the Indian Himalayan region. Plant growth promotion following inoculation with these consortia was studied. Bioassays were conducted under greenhouse conditions using maize and wheat as test plants. Both treatments (NTR and CTR) significantly increased the growth of maize and wheat plants to different degrees. A subsequent bioassay was conducted with tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] plants. Both AM fungal consortia were found to promote growth of tea plants significantly in non-sterilized acidic soil. Data suggest that crude consortia can promote plant growth; more efficiently in case of AM fungal consortia developed from NTR compared to CTR where cultural practices can reduce the potential of native AM fungi. The NTR consortium has significant potential as a biofertilizer in tea plantations of colder regions.
The effects of the mycoparasites Coniothyrium minitans and Trichoderma atroviride on the suppression of alfalfa blossom blight caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum were evaluated under indoor and field conditions. When T. atroviride (9·0 × 104 conidia/floret) + S. sclerotiorum (6·0 × 103 ascospores/floret) or C. minitans (9·0 × 104 conidia/floret) + S. sclerotiorum (6·0 × 103 ascospores/floret) were applied to detached young alfalfa florets, T. atroviride effectively inhibited saprophytic growth of S. sclerotiorum, whereas C. minitans showed no inhibition under the same conditions. When T. atroviride (6·9 × 104 conidia/floret) + S. sclerotiorum (6·0 × 103 ascospores/floret) or C. minitans (6·9 × 104 conidia/floret) + S. sclerotiorum (6·0 × 103 ascospores/floret) was applied to young alfalfa petals in vivo just after pollination, the percentage of pod formation was higher for T. atroviride+S. sclerotiorum than that for C. minitans+S. sclerotiorum, and the percentage of pod rot was lower for T. atroviride+S. sclerotiorum than that for C. minitans+S. sclerotiorum. However, when they were applied to senescent petals attached to developing pods of alfalfa at 9·2 × 104 conidia/floret together with S. sclerotiorum at 4·5 × 103 ascospores/floret at 14 days after pollination, C. minitans was more effective than T. atroviride in suppressing sclerotinia pod rot and seed rot of alfalfa. Field experiments showed that three applications of C. minitans (5·4 × 106 conidia mL−1) or T. atroviride (5·4 × 106 conidia mL−1) at a 7-day interval to blossoms of alfalfa effectively suppressed sclerotinia pod rot in two out of three annual trials. Coniothyrium minitans effectively suppressed sclerotinia seed rot in all three years, whereas T. atroviride was not effective against seed rot in any of the trial years. The efficacy of C. minitans was not significantly different (P > 0·05) from benomyl (250 µg ai mL−1). This study suggests that C. minitans has potential as a biocontrol agent to control blossom blight of alfalfa caused by S. sclerotiorum.
The effects of Coniothyrium minitans inoculum quality and an 8-week interval between inoculum application and crop planting on sclerotinia (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) disease in three successive lettuce crops were investigated in a glasshouse trial. Spore suspensions of three isolates of C. minitans (Conio, IVT1 and Contans) applied at 108 CFU m−2 and a standard Conio maizemeal–perlite application (06 L m−2, 1011 CFU m−2) were assessed for their ability to control S. sclerotiorum. Only the maizemeal–perlite inoculum (isolate Conio) consistently reduced sclerotinia disease. In the third lettuce crop only, isolates IVT1 and Contans formulated by Prophyta and isolate IVT as an oil–water formulation, all applied as spore suspensions, reduced disease at harvest compared with the untreated control. Recovery, viability and C. minitans infection of sclerotia buried during the 8-week period prior to each of the three lettuce crops, and of sclerotia formed on the crop, were tested. Only the maizemeal–perlite inoculum (isolate Conio) reduced the recovery of sclerotia buried in soil for weeks between inoculum application and crop planting, reducing their viability and increasing infection by C. minitans. Eight weeks was sufficient to enable C. minitans to infect sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum, and may account for disease control. After harvest of the second and third crops, maizemeal–perlite treatment (isolate Conio) reduced the number and viability of sclerotia recovered on the soil surface and increased infection by C. minitans compared with spore-suspension treatments. The effect of inoculum concentration and the influence of soil temperature (varying with time of year) on infection of sclerotia by C. minitans are discussed.
Field studies were conducted over 3 years at several locations in Alberta and Manitoba, Canada to evaluate the impact of phosphate fertiliser containing varying concentrations of Cd on grain yield and P, Zn and Cd concentration in durum wheat grain. The effect of a seed treatment with Penicillium bilaii , a phosphate‐solubilising fungus, was also examined. P bilaii had little effect on crop yield, nutrient concentration or the concentration of Cd in the grain under the conditions of this study. Fertilisation with monoammonium phosphate consistently increased Cd concentration and Cd/Zn ratio and decreased Zn concentration in durum wheat. Increases in Cd concentration in durum wheat were unrelated to Cd concentration in the fertiliser, although the concentration of Cd in the fertiliser sources varied from 0.2 to 186.0 µg g ⁻¹ . Increased Cd concentration with phosphate application may be related to high ionic strength, reduced pH and enhanced root proliferation in the microregion around the fertiliser granules. Enhanced root development in response to phosphate fertilisation may increase the accumulation of Cd. Reduction in Zn accumulation associated with phosphate application may also contribute to the increase in Cd concentration in durum grain, possibly through enhancement of Cd translocation to the grain. While reduction in Cd concentration in phosphate fertilisers will reduce long‐term Cd accumulation in soils, use of low‐Cd fertiliser at commercially practical levels of fertilisation is unlikely to reduce Cd concentration in durum wheat in the year of application.
© 2002 Society of Chemical Industry
Two antibacterial furano-polyenes, (−)-musanahol (1) and 3-epi-aureonitol (5), and a fatty acid, linoleic acid (8) were isolated from the laboratory cultures of a Chaetomium sp. accessed from tomato fruits, and grown on YMG medium (yeast extract, glucose, malt extract and water) at pH 5.8–6.0. The structure of compound 1, a new furano-polyene, was elucidated by spectroscopic methods that include extensive 2D NMR experiments, double resonance experiments, Mosher's method and PM3 calculations. (−)-Musanahol (1) and 3-epi-aureonitol (5) were present in the culture filtrate of the fungus. 3-epi-Aureonitol (5) completely inhibited the growth of Streptococcus pyogenes at 15.63 μg/mL and Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella choleraesuis and Corynebacterium diphtheriae at 31.25 μg/mL, whereas (−)-musanahol (1) lacked the antimicrobial potency of compound 5 in spite of the similarities in their structures. Linoleic acid (8) was isolated from the mycelia of the fungus; it inhibited the growth of S. aureus and Bacillus subtilis at a minimum concentration of 15.62 μg/mL.Graphical abstract
The potential of an antibiotic-producing isolate of Chaetomium globosum (CgA-1) to suppress Diaporthe phaseolorum f. sp. meridionalis (Dpm) in soybean stubble was studied in field microplots of no-tillage, minimum-tillage, and shallow plowing. Mature soybean stems colonized in vitro with Dpm were spread on the soil surface and C. globosum ascospore suspension, without nutrient supply, was sprayed over the entire plot prior to any tillage operation. Perithecial formation and survival of Dpm in soybean stems, concomitantly with colonization by C. globosum, were monitored for a 180-day period (mid-autumn through winter and mid-spring), which is the normal interval between soybean harvest and sowing. The proportion of soybean stem segments occupied by Dpm and number of perithecia formed decreased linearly with time and showed a strong negative correlation with increase in the occupation by C. globosum. At the end of the study, which coincided with the soybean sowing season, the soybean stubble was free from viable Dpm and was colonized by C. globosum. The effectiveness of C. globosum in eliminating the pathogen from surface-borne residue or harrowed-in residue was similar but much slower than in the shallow-plowed microplots. C. globosum successfully competed with major interfering fungi such as, Trichoderma, Nigrospora, and Fusarium in colonizing the soybean stems above and under the soil surface. The data provide strong evidence for use of the antibiotic-producing isolate of C. globosum to control soybean stem canker disease.
The understanding of microbial biodiversity in peatlands has grown considerably over the past two decades. This is encouraging, given the global distribution of peatlands and their potentially increasing significance under a changing climate, particularly as it pertains to carbon cycling. The purpose of this review is to compile a comprehensive list of fungi that have been reported from peatlands and to summarize their general roles in these ecosystems. To date, 601 species of fungi have been identified globally from peatlands. Ascomycetes are the largest group with 276 species (46%), followed by basidiomycetes (243 species, 40%), zygomycetes (55 species, 9%), and chytridiomycetes (26 species, 4%). The most species-rich genera are Penicillium (48 species), Galerina (41 species), and Mortierella (20 species). The 20 most common fungal genera account for 252 of the 601 species (42%) in peatlands. From a functional perspective, most fungi in peatlands are saprobes and are involved in the decomposition of organic matter. A better understanding of this group of fungi will allow us to better predict carbon dynamics in the future.
Microorganisms have been proposed as early indicators of wetland change; however, there is often too little information to reliably use microbial parameters for this purpose. The objective of this study was to document how nutrient loading, plant community, and season affected arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (expressed as percent colonized root length), other fungi (estimated by ergosterol concentration), and bacteria (quantified by direct counts) in soil and detritus, and thereby to broadly evaluate the potential of native microorganisms to serve as indicators of wetland integrity. Dominant wetland plant communities (Panicum, Cladium, Typha, Salix, mixed herbaceous, and deep-water slough) were sampled seasonally from nutrient-impacted and reference areas of a central Florida wetland with historic nutrient loading (only Cladium occurred in both impacted and reference areas). Nutrient impact increased soil and detrital ergosterol and bacterial counts in some plant communities and seasons (e.g., Cladium sampled in the fall); however, the nutrient effect was confounded by interactions with the plant community and season. Nutrient impact reduced AM root colonization in samples from impacted compared to reference Cladium communities during summer and fall; however, there were again significant interactions with season and other plant communities. We conclude that before soil fungi and bacteria can be used as indicators of wetland integrity background values for each plant community and season need to be well documented.
Mangifera indica showed highest percentage (100%) of mycorrhizal colonization in Rajshahi University Campus, Bangladesh that was used as a stock plant in pot culture experiment. These root pieces have the ability to serve as a source of mycorrhizal inoculum for crop plants. After using mycorrhizal inoculum, the soil nutrients as well as root colonization for rice plants were greatly affected. Soil nutrients were increased (nitrogen-0.03 times and phosphorus 8 times compared to sterile soil), whereas the percentage of rice roots colonization of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) was also increased 9 times after mycorrhizal inoculation. Mycorrhizal enrichment greatly improved the soil nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus as well as growth of rice plants.
Several microorganisms are known to produce tensio-active compounds (biosurfactants). They have emerged out as successful
alternative to synthetic surfactants. The enormous diversity of biosurfactants makes them interesting for application in several
areas. Rhamnolipids are one such heterogeneous group of compounds which has been studied as a model system and acquired a
status as potential performance-effective molecules in various fields, like production of speciality chemicals, additives
for environmental remediation and biological control agent.
This paper describes a factorial trial designed to investigate the delivery systems of fungal biological agents (Clonostachys rosea), applied as single strain or as strain mixture, in comparison with copper hydroxide as a chemical standard against Moniliophthora roreri in cocoa. Application techniques compared were motorised mistblowers fitted with rotary atomisers and hydraulic sprayers fitted with cone nozzles giving a narrow angle of spray. The third factor was the presence or absence of an emulsifiable rape-seed adjuvant oil in the tank mixture. Copper fungicide was the best agent for moniliasis control and resulted in the highest yield. Both the mycofungicides reduced sporulation of the pathogen. Net reduction of inoculum was best for the hydraulic sprayer-applied copper fungicide and the motorised mistblower-applied single-strain biocontrol agent. Overall, directional hydraulic sprays were found to be somewhat superior to the motorised mistblower technique, with its dissipated cone of spray. Addition of the adjuvant oil was the least important of the factors, but efficacy depended on the agent used, with a significant enhancement in the efficacy of copper with oil but a detrimental effect on C. rosea.
A study was conducted to investigate production of antifungal substances (AFS) by Coniothyrium minitans (Cm), a mycoparasite of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Ss), in modified Czapek-Dox (MCD) broth and potato dextrose broth (PDB), and effects of AFS of Cm on mycelial growth and
germination of sclerotia and ascospores of Ss and incidence of leaf blight of oilseed rape caused by Ss. Results showed that
mycelial growth of Ss was reduced by 41.6 and 84.5% on 3day-old cultures grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA) amended with
10% (vv−1) of cultural filtrates of Cm grown in MCD (MCDcm) after incubation for 6 and 15days, respectively, and by 2.7 and 15.7% on PDA amended with 10% (v v−1) of cultural filtrates of Cm grown in PDB for 6 and 15days, respectively. In addition to retardation of mycelial growth,
morphological abnormality of Ss such as hyphal swellings and cytoplasm granulation were also observed in colonies grown on
PDA amended with cultural filtrates of MCDcm. Sclerotia of Ss soaked in the filtrates of MCDcm for 24h remained viable, but their ability to undergo myceliogenic germination on PDA was delayed, compared to sclerotia
treated with MCD. Germination of ascospores of Ss was unaffected on PDA amended with 10% of the filtrates of MCDcm. However, germ tubes of Ss were shortened and deformed by the formation of hyphal swellings in the treatment of MCDcm. Treatment of leaves of oilseed rape with cultural filtrates of MCDcm reduced incidence of leaf blight caused by Ss, compared to the controls (water or MCD). This study suggests that AFS produced
by Cm plays an important role in the suppression of mycelial growth and germ-tube development of ascospores of Ss and that
there is potential for using AFS of Cm to control leaf blight of oilseed rape caused by ascospores of Ss.
Coniothyrium minitans isolate Conio grew on both maizemeal-perlite and ground maizemeal-perlite, producing high numbers (1.6×107 conidiag−1 inoculum) of germinable conidia. Coniothyrium minitans isolate Conio applied as a preplanting soil incorporation of maizemeal-perlite inoculum at full application rate (0.6lm−2; 1011 colony forming units (cfu)m−2) significantly reduced Sclerotinia disease in a sequence of three lettuce crops grown in a glasshouse. No reduction in disease was achieved with any of the reduced rate treatments (108cfum−2) of a range of C. minitans isolates (Conio ground maizemeal-perlite at reduced rate, Conio and IVT1 spore suspensions derived from maizemeal-perlite, IVT1 spore suspension derived from oats and Contans® WG spore suspension). After harvest of the second and third crops, C. minitans maizemeal-perlite at full rate reduced the number and viability of sclerotia recovered on the soil surface and increased infection by C. minitans compared with spore suspension and reduced rate maizemeal-perlite inocula. Coniothyrium minitans was recovered from the soil throughout the trial, between 105 and 107cfucm−3 in maizemeal-perlite inoculum full rate treated plots and 101–104cfu cm−3 in all other inoculum treated plots.
Pot bioassays were set up corresponding to the inoculum used in the glasshouse, with the addition of Conio ground maizemeal-perlite at a rate corresponding to the full rate maizemeal-perlite. Coniothyrium minitans maizemeal-perlite and ground maizemeal-perlite at full rate significantly decreased carpogenic germination, recovery and viability of sclerotia and increased infection of sclerotia by C. minitans in comparison with spore suspension treatments, reflecting results of the glasshouse trials. Additionally, reduced maizemeal-perlite treatment also decreased apothecial production, recovery and viability of sclerotia compared with the spore suspension treatment, despite being applied at similar rates. Simultaneous infection of sclerotia by several isolates of C. minitans was demonstrated. Inoculum level in terms of colony forming unitscm−3 of soil appears to be a key factor in both control of Sclerotinia disease and in reducing apothecial production by sclerotia.
The fungicide Vitavax RS and the seed polymer Extender were sequentially applied to canola seed to determine their effect on the fungal inoculum, Penicillium bilaiae. In the laboratory, the fungicide was applied at the recommended rate of 23.4ml kg–1, and the polymer was applied by the manufacturer. Significant death of P. bilaiae occurred after 2.5 days on the Vitavax RS-treated seed and after 1.5 days with the seed treated with both Vitavax RS and Extender. In field treatments, the seed was sown at six sites in the fall just prior to freeze-up. Results from the laboratory experiment indicate that there should be no harmful effects of the Vitavax RS and Extender on the P. bilaiae at the time of seeding because the seeds were sown within 2h of inoculation. The environmental extremes in 2001 and 2002 resulted in large variations in the data. P. bilaiae did not increase yield under these conditions.
Trichoderma ATCC 20476 based biofungicides have been marketed continuously on a small scale for 20 years. A more recently developed application for these biofungicides is the treatment of strawberries against the gray mold Botrytis cinerea. That application is examined in terms of Lockwood''s criteria for ethics in biological control. Unaddressed risks resulting from the current scramble for market share in northern Europe are pointed out.
ABSTRACT The colonization of dead onion leaves by Botrytis aclada and the fungal antagonists Aureobasidium pullulans, Chaetomium globosum, Glio-cladium catenulatum, and Ulocladium atrum and the interactions between B. aclada and each of the four antagonists were studied at the microscopic and ultrastructural level. This approach was used in an attempt to understand the colonization pattern of these fungi and the nature of the biocontrol activity of the antagonists that have shown a potential to suppress spore production of Botrytis spp. on necrotic plant tissues. When applied alone, B. aclada and U. atrum were found throughout the leaf tissues in high densities after an incubation period of 6 days at 18 degrees C in a moist chamber. C. globosum and G. catenulatum colonized only the outer portions of the leaf, whereas A. pullulans appeared to be concentrated in the leaf stomata. When pathogen and antagonists were applied together, ultrastructural observations revealed that cells of B. aclada were plasmolyzed in the presence of G. catenulatum, suggesting a reaction to antifungal molecules. Antibiosis also seemed to be involved, albeit to a lesser extent, in the antagonistic interactions between B. aclada and A. pullulans or C. globosum. No evidence of direct parasitism was recorded. On the other hand, U. atrum appeared to completely exclude B. aclada from dead onion tissues when both fungi competed for the substrate. Ultrastructural observations of the in vitro interaction between the two fungi did not reveal parasitism or antibiosis by either fungus. Based on previous records of its biocontrol potential and observations of its colonizing properties, it appears that U. atrum can compete for and utilize necrotic tissues rapidly and extensively, thus, excluding competitors without any other antagonistic action.
Anthracnose fruit rot is an economically important disease that affects pepper production in Indonesia. Strong resistance to two causal pathogens, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and C. capsici, was found in an accession of Capsicum chinense. The inheritance of this resistance was studied in an F(2) population derived from a cross of this accession with an Indonesian hot pepper variety ( Capsicum annuum) using a quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping approach. In laboratory tests where ripe fruits were artificially inoculated with either C. gloeosporioides or C. capsici, three resistance-related traits were scored: the infection frequency, the true lesion diameter (averaged over all lesions that actually developed), and the overall lesion diameter (averaged over all inoculation points, including those that did not develop lesions). One main QTL was identified with highly significant and large effects on all three traits after inoculation with C. gloeosporioides and on true lesion diameter after inoculation with C. capsici. Three other QTL with smaller effects were found for overall lesion diameter and true lesion diameter after inoculation with C. gloeosporioides, two of which also had an effect on infection frequency. Interestingly, the resistant parent carried a susceptible allele for a QTL for all three traits that was closely linked to the main QTL. The results with C. capsici were based on less observations and therefore less informative. Although the main QTL was shown to have an effect on true lesion diameter after inoculation with C. capsici, no significant QTL were identified for overall lesion diameter or infection frequency.
The relatively slow germination rate of Coniothyrium minitans limits its control efficiency against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Pre-germinated conidia of C. minitans enhanced its efficiency significantly: in foliar experiments with oilseed rape, hyphal extension of S. sclerotiorum was inhibited by 68%, while formation of sclerotia was completely inhibited when pre-germinated conidia were applied.
Starch industry wastewater was investigated to assess and improve its potential as a raw material for the conidia production of biocontrol fungi, Trichoderma viride. The wastewater was tested with and without supplements of glucose, soluble starch, meat peptone and probable conidiation inducer chemicals in shake flask culture. Addition of complex carbon source (soluble starch, 1% and 2% w/v) produced maximum conidia ( approximately 3.02 and 4.2 x 10(10)CFU/mL, respectively). On the other hand, glucose addition as a simpler carbon source was either ineffective or, reduced conidia production (from 1.6 x 10(8) in control to 3.0 x 10(7)CFU/mL in 5% w/v glucose supplement). Supplement of nitrogen source showed a small increase of conidia concentration. Propionic, maleic and humic acids, EDTA, pyridine, glycerol and CaCO(3) were examined as probable conidiation inducers and showed effect only on initial rate of conidiation with no increase in final conidia concentration. Intra and extracellular ATP correlation with spore production showed dependence on growth media used and conidia concentration at the end of fermentation. Addition of carbon and nitrogen sources showed an increase in protease activity (from 0.4985 to 2.43 IU/mL) and entomotoxicity (from 10448 to 12335 spruce budworm unit (SBU)/microL). Entomotoxicity was improved by 11% in fermenter over shake flask when starch industry wastewater was supplemented with meat peptone.
Chaetomium cupreum has a potential as biocontrol agent against a range of plant pathogens on the basis of production of antifungal metabolites, mycoparasitism, competition for space and nutrients, or various combinations of these. To explore genes expressed in C. cupreum, a cDNA library was constructed from mycelium and 3,066 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were generated. Clusters analysis enabled the identification of 1,471 unigenes with 392 contigs and 1,079 singleton sequences. Putative functions were assigned to 874 unigenes that exhibited strong similarity to genes/ESTs in public databases putatively containing genes involved in cellular component, molecular function, and biological process. Other 597 ESTs representing novel genes showed no significant similarity to public database resource of NCBI. A proportion of genes was identified related to degradation of pathogen cell wall, antifungal metabolite production, as was estimated in the biocontrol fungus. The paper described is a first step towards the knowledge of the C. cupreum genome. The results present the useful application of EST analysis on C. cupreum and provide a preliminary indication of gene expression putatively involved in biocontrol.