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The Benefits and Costs of Volunteering in Community Organizations: Review and Practical Implications

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The authors reviewed the literature of the benefits and costs associated with participation in voluntary organizations. The literature shows that benefits and costs can be measured, are related to participation, and can be managed by voluntary organization leaders. Therefore, understanding benefits and costs is important because they can be used to enhance participation in voluntary groups. Membership, activity level, and different organization types are ways in which researchers have examined benefits and costs. Researchers have also collapsed benefit and cost items into factors and constructed a direct ratio of benefits to costs. Practical implications of the research are discussed, and recommendations are given to refine future research efforts.
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... However, substantial time and effort from PGS members are required in order to uphold reliable conformity assessment practices (Cuéllar Padilla and Ganuza-Fernandez, 2018). Like other volunteer-based organizations, PGS need to continuously ensure the availability of sufficient time resources (Chinman and Wandersman, 1999). Many PGS initiatives depend on external support from NGOs or universities for this (Nelson et al., 2016;Home et al., 2017;Binder and Vogl, 2018;Montefrio and Johnson, 2019). ...
... Determining and accounting for PGS certification costs is important in order to make an informed decision in favor of or against PGS certification and to support effective PGS design and implementation (McCann et al., 2005). Accounting for required time resources is crucial if volunteer-based organizations such as PGS are to remain viable (Chinman and Wandersman, 1999), reinforcing the need to determine the resources required in the first place. Knowledge exchange in farm inspections is relevant to the role of PGS in supporting organic conversion processes and enhancing the diversity of organic farming systems (IFOAM-Organics International, 2019;Moura e Castro et al., 2019). ...
... Knowledge exchange in farm inspections is relevant to the role of PGS in supporting organic conversion processes and enhancing the diversity of organic farming systems (IFOAM-Organics International, 2019;Moura e Castro et al., 2019). It can also provide an important tangible benefit (Enengel et al., 2011), outweighing participation costs and upholding voluntary engagement (Chinman and Wandersman, 1999;Enengel et al., 2011;Cuéllar Padilla and Ganuza-Fernandez, 2018;Romagny et al., 2023). ...
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The importance of Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) as an alternative organic certification to third-party certification (TPC) has grown remarkably in recent years. PGS are argued to be less costly than TPC, and adopt the exchange of advice and knowledge as a key element of farm inspections. For these reasons, PGS are promoted as being more accessible for smallholder farmers in low-income countries and as a tool for supporting organic conversion and standard compliance, and ultimately contributing to food system sustainability. PGS certification costs have not yet been studied thoroughly and empirical studies on PGS farm inspections are rare. This paper applies a mixed-methods case study approach in a Costa Rican PGS initiative and explores explicit and implicit PGS certification costs and PGS farm inspections. The framework for assessing actor participation in PGS and transaction cost theory were used as the theoretical foundation. Semi-structured interviews (n = 10), PGS member surveys (n = 17), and participant observations of PGS farm inspections (n = 11) were conducted and complemented with data from internal documents and informal interviews. The results showed that reduced explicit costs for PGS certification were accompanied by substantial implicit costs in terms of the time dedicated to the PGS certification process. These implicit costs were largely attributed to the legal requirements for PGS, and were borne by only a few members, resulting in differences in total certification costs between PGS members. Despite legal formalization, information exchange was an important part of PGS farm inspections. Against the backdrop of small audit teams and low participation in farm inspections, PGS members implementing farm inspections nurtured transparency and an exchange of experience within the PGS. The study provides novel insight into PGS, and defines cost components and PGS characteristics affecting PGS certification costs that may also be relevant to other PGS initiatives and related fields of action.
... Research on prosocial participation has gone tangentially through the cost/benefit approach, probably because what some consider to be costs for social participants may even be benefits (Chinman & Wandersman, 1999;Jamison, 2003;Lee & Brudney, 2009;Smith, 1994). To better understand why people volunteer despite the obvious material costs present in organizational contexts, it has recently been proposed a new classification of benefits and costs (Vecina et al., 2021). ...
... It seems that although there does not appear to be a significant relationship between the quiet ego and a less reactive perception of the costs, the subjective costs do coexist with subjective benefits and have a significant negative impact on social participants' intention to continue participating in prosocial activities. This is in line with studies that have argued the relevance of the link between costs and benefits involved in volunteering and sustained prosocial activities irrespective of the instruments used to assess the costs and the benefits (Chinman & Wandersman, 1999;Clary & Snyder, 1999;Lee & Brudney, 2009;Vecina et al., 2021). ...
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In this paper, we argue that the quiet ego, defined as an inclusive identity oriented toward long-term growth in desirable and adaptive ways for oneself and others, can be expressed and developed by participating in the social sphere. The objectives of this study are: 1) to analyze the measurement quality of the Quiet Ego Scale (QES) in a sample of Spanish individuals with different levels of prosocial participation (Study 1; N = 238); and 2) to analyze how the QES is related to participants’ perceived benefits and costs and their intention to continue participating in prosocial activities, in a new sample of individuals who actively participate as volunteers, community leaders, activists, and so on (Study 2; N = 288). Our findings showed that the QES has adequate psychometric properties for use in samples of Spanish individuals who perform various social activities. Furthermore, the results suggest a positive chain of relationships, that is, a quiet ego is related to individuals’ perception of three specific benefits associated with prosocial participation (Benefits from the activities, Benefits of giving, and Benefits of sharing with similar people), and these benefits to their intention to continue performing such activities. These findings can help non-profit organizations sustain social participation based on perceived personal benefits and the dimensions of a quiet ego.
... Using volunteers in non-profit organizations' co-production increases accountability (Tuurnas et al., 2016) since it amplifies the scaling up of ideas and enhances a high sense of belonging (de Wit et al., 2019), and the benefit and cost ratio increases in favor of gaining skills and experience (Chinman & Wandersman, 1999). Combined with proficient coordinators and positive leadership in Science as Capacity Building co-production types, these factors contribute to achieving an equitable balance and continuous improvement in volunteering collaborations. ...
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GeoTraductores is an collaborative initiative between Eos, Planeteando, andGeoLatinas that aims to provide Spanish‐speaking communities access to current scientific findings. This goal is accomplished by translating science articles originally published in English on AGU's Eos.org, within their Science News magazine, into Spanish. This cross‐organizational initiative has translated, edited, and published over 150 articles, breaking the language barrier for Spanish‐speaking communities. Our experience since 2020 has allowed us to tailor an efficient co‐production model, which starts with (a) the selection of articles of interest to translate, followed by (b) the translation, reviewing, and editing process by volunteers, and (c) the publication and social media dissemination of the translated article. The tangible impact of GeoTraductores is evident in the substantial surge of visitor traffic to the Eos website between 2020 and 2023, particularly from Latin American countries. Notably, increases exceeding 85% were observed in Colombia, Mexico, and Panama, with 20% or greater growth in Chile, Brazil, Costa Rica, Peru, and Ecuador, confirming the initiative's success in meeting a genuine need. This impact extends globally, with Spain experiencing a 40% increase in visitors. Our co‐production model is possible thanks to the contribution of around 40 GeoTraductores, mainly women (85%), who are native Spanish speakers or bilingual (Spanish and English speaking). These early‐career scientists, through their volunteer work, enhance their bilingual communication skills while breaking down language barriers in science communication. The Eos‐Planeteando‐GeoLatinas co‐production model fosters science democratization for Latin America while promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion in Earth Sciences, one translation at a time.
... Us s'attendent a recevoir, car ils ont donne. Chinman et Wandersman (1999), apres avoir fait une revue des recherches pertinentes, concluent que la theorie psychologique de 1'echange social est effectivement predominante dans le volontariat. Par ailleurs 1'insistance sur la realite du quasi-altruisme semble un des moyens efficaces pour recruter des volontaires et favoriser 1'expansion d'une organisation sans but lucratif. ...
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Résumé En plein coeur de la révolution actuelle du travail, comment le volontariat s'insère-t-il dans les nouvelles pratiques du travail? À l'aide de recherches pertinentes, complétées par quelques résultats d'une recherche menée auprès de 500 adultes en situation de discontinuité professionnelle, nous apportons certains éléments de réponse à cette question. Nous examinons notamment les notions du volontariat, ses liens avec le travail et la cohésion sociale, la notion du projet de volontariat et sa nécessité à être défini au même titre que le projet professionnel. Toutes ces données laissent croire que la formation continue doit préparer encore davantage les adultes à défmir et à réaliser un projet de participation sociale à deux volets: un projet professionnel et un projet de volontariat. Des implications pratiques sont proposées. Daily work is in the midst of a revolution. How, in these circumstances, does volunteering fit with work? This paper uses recent published work, and research on 500 adults who have had careers characterized by discontinuity, to answer that question. It considers links between volunteering, work and social cohesiveness, and analyzes notions of volunteering as "project" and as work. Continuing education should provide programs that help adults to plan and to realize social participation, understood as work and as volunteering.
... The costs of social activism and engagement according to the research The consequences of social engagement and activism have sometimes been the subject of research and analysis (Bosi, 2007;Bosi, Giugni & Uba, 2016;Chinman & Wandersman, 1999;DeMartini, 1983;Vestergren, Drury & Chiriac, 2017). Instead, many authors emphasise the positive effects of activism on individuals, including, in particular, the impact on their health, such as stress reduction, increased empowerment, improved mental well-being (Klar & Kasser, 2009), personal development and deepened knowledge (Bosi, 2007;Klar & Kasser, 2009;Ballard, Ozer, 2016). ...
... Whereas dependency-oriented helping provides immediate assistance that relieves the recipients' predicaments and is relatively effortless, for example, it does not substantively solve the recipients' problems and could lead to dependence and an asymmetry in social dominance between helpers and recipients (Hardy and Van Vugt, 2006;Nadler, 2002Nadler, , 2018. By contrast, although autonomy-oriented helping could improve recipients' long-term situation by equipping them with the necessary knowledge and potentially reduce between-group inequality (Nadler, 2002), it incurs higher time, financial, and psychological costs (e.g., lack of long-term incentives, lack of appreciation) for the donors (Anisman- Razin and Levontin, 2020;Chinman and Wandersman, 1999). ...
... There is little literature that addresses the potential negative consequences of volunteering (Rutherford et al., 2019). Reported costs for volunteers include frustration at not making a difference; feeling unappreciated; and difficulties with the time commitment (Chinman & Wandersman, 1999;Leger & Letourneau, 2015;Trickey et al., 2018). In studies of one-to-one perinatal support, there was an emotional load for some volunteers in being exposed to mothers' distress and social circumstances, making it challenging to maintain boundaries and remain nonjudgemental. ...
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Background Mental health difficulties are common in the perinatal period. Peer support has been proposed as a way to improve emotional wellbeing, but the evidence base for third sector programmes is undeveloped. The overall aim of this research was to deepen understanding of what it is about perinatal mental health peer support in the third sector that works, for whom, in what circumstances, in what respects, and why. Setting Parents in Mind, a pilot third sector programme offering one-to-one and group perinatal peer support from trained volunteers at three sites in England. Methods A critical realist, mixed methods, theory-based process evaluation, supported by a realist review. An initial theory of change was used to guide the evaluation. Quantitative programme data and data from mothers’ self-report questionnaires were analysed with descriptive and inferential statistics. Qualitative interviews with 20 supported mothers, 27 volunteers, six staff and three trainers were analysed using realist principles and some techniques from Grounded Theory. Retroduction was used to explore configurations of contexts, mechanisms and outcomes and construct a final theory of change. Results 182 mothers received peer support from 77 volunteers. Three-quarters of mothers were White British, nearly half were socio-economically disadvantaged, and three-quarters had a previous history of mental health difficulties. There were many contextual differences between the three sites, and local and national adaptations were made. The final theory of change included 16 programme theories linking contextual factors to mothers’ individual choices to use peer support, based on a mother’s beliefs about the utility of talking to others and to peers specifically; social expectations; her relationship with health and social care professionals and mental health services; perceived practical benefits; and ability to overcome barriers to access. A further 16 programme theories explained positive impact on mothers, including through feeling understood and accepted, normalisation, social comparison and information sharing; and 12 theories explained negative impact on mothers, where key peer support mechanisms were absent or through negative social comparison. Eight programme theories explained the positive impact on volunteers, based on their own experience of peer support and insight into mental health during training, gaining skills and confidence, and satisfaction at helping others; and seven theories explained the negative impact on volunteers, because of feeling emotionally ‘triggered’, stressful social dynamics between volunteers, and distress if they did not feel their support was helping mothers. Individual mothers and volunteers were affected in different ways, depending on their individual backgrounds, personalities, social situations, resources, experiences, beliefs, and needs. Parents in Mind had robust processes to keep volunteers and mothers emotionally safe, and all participants considered the benefits of peer support to greatly outweigh the risks. Conclusions: The Parents in Mind peer support model is safe and capable of enabling positive change for both mothers and volunteers through multiple contextualised pathways. Outcome measures should recognise that mothers (and volunteers) benefit from peer support in a range of ways, and programmes should be aware of the potential for negative effects in order to mitigate these. Programmes should work with local communities to understand what they want so that the peer support offer is adapted flexibly to their needs.
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