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A Methodological Proposal for the Development of Natura 2000 Sites Management Plans
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This paper makes recommendations for the development of Management Plans for Natura 2000 Sites, enabling future managers and decision-makers to elaborate and implement their own plans more efficiently and in a more informed fashion. The original methodology entailed a 10 phase plan, starting with “Problem Classification and Stakeholder Identification” and ending with Revision and/or Reformulation of the Management Plan”. It was utilized during the Pico da Vara Special Protected Area Management Plan elaboration process in 2005 by SPEA, on the behalf of the LIFE Priolo Project. Subsequent feedback led to an improved, more complete and balanced methodology capable of avoiding the repetition of similar and future errors (about 80% of scheduled activities were achieved). Although it was not successful in obtaining full financing, this process succeed in characterizing the SPA and its conservation issues and in unifying the divergent interests of public and private organizations by involving them in the plan’s development . This proved that the success of effective Nature conservation and particularly of Natura 2000 depends on the synergy of fundamental practices, such as the production and sharing of accurate thematic geographic data (for characterization, analysis and monitoring), and also on guaranteeing the participation and co-responsibility of all stakeholders in the site management.
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... This failure is even more critical when the diagnostics and policy change demands that these integrated perspective implications are considered (e.g. Beddoe et al., 2009) and the importance of the institutional relevance, involvement, accountable empowerment and representativeness of stakeholders for an effective and successful decision-making and law enforcement process is recognized Gil et al., 2011b). ...
... Co-management methods in which all involved actors are learning and are included in the decision-making process and in the post-evaluation and adjustment procedures (e.g. Gil et al., 2011aGil et al., , 2011b. This is a particularly complex process due to the need of bringing together very different and normally opposed acting cultures (Leys and Vanclay, 2011): decision-makers, populations, among others. ...
... effect, the effect, the process of process of responsibility (insurance) costs, responsibility (insurance) costs, compensation compensation Therefore, trade-offs will only be successful when actively involving all actors. The unavailability or absence of some relevant stakeholders or even the unreliability of others such as, in too many cases, the administration may determine the partial or total failure of the management process (Gil et al., 2011b). However, considering the law and political challenges of ecological service provision presented by Ruhl and Salzman (2007, pp.167), ...
The paper analyses the current limitations of the constraints of decision and action processes in land-use, resource management and conservation policies and approaches, identifying their main factors, proposing alternative strategies to solve the present gaps and limitations. It identifies the need for a new paradigmatic approach based on innovative forms of involvement, commitment and individual and community rewarding systems. This approach is developed based on the characterization of the main drivers of land-use, resource management and conservation policies, namely α-perceptions (immediate and primary satisfaction) and k-perceptions (more mediate and complex consideration of satisfaction, implying long-term perceptions and collective benefits beyond the individual interests). It also analyses the effects of the introduction of new forms of income and incentives (such as trade-offs and payments for environmental services) or management approaches such as Ecological-Based Management or the use of Nature-Based Solutions. The main axioms and instruments necessary to build such a new paradigmatic approach (namely trade-offs, accountability and contractualization) are described. On this basis, it is possible to present a concept for an innovative institutional and social culture and a governance system aimed at an effective land-use, resource management and conservation policies. This governance concept is described and its sustaining individual, social and institutional drivers enunciated.
... Consequently, a large diversity of implementation approaches has been adopted, and can be seen as advantageous as it enables learning for improved future functioning [12]. To improve the practical implementation in most countries, the authors suggest the need for more communication and participation with stakeholders [13], the importance of inter-sectoral cooperation [8,14], the need for co-responsibility of all relevant stakeholders who are involved in the process [15], and an awareness of the socio-economic and cultural contexts in which conservation planning takes place [16]. Moreover, research also deals with challenges for the implementation of Natura 2000 in forests. ...
... Still, stakeholders felt that all their responses and proposals were not taken into consideration. To improve the perceived influence of stakeholders, project partners need to connect participation with co-responsibility [15]. ...
The Natura 2000 network, which is one of the largest networks of protected areas in the world, is the core pillar in the European Union's biodiversity conservation policy. To achieve the national enforcement of Natura 2000 and to overcome implementation problems, effective policy measures are needed, and participation among different stakeholders is required. The aim of this paper was to evaluate the process of formulation of the Natura 2000 Management Program (2015-2020) in Slovenia based on a set of criteria and indicators for the evaluation of a participatory process, and to present the differences between the stakeholders' evaluations according to their role in the implementation process. For that purpose, stakeholders were divided into two groups-stakeholders from project partner's institution, and others. The research was done in two steps: First, in-depth semi-structured interviews with 17 representatives of the key stakeholders' institutions or organizations that were involved in the formulation of the Natura 2000 Management Program were carried out; in the second, a survey with 266 stakeholders involved in the formulation and decision-making process was conducted. Overall, the results show that the participatory process was well organized, independent and fair; however, not all of the requisite conditions for successful participation were fulfilled, as was shown with the sub-criteria of transparency. The only difference between the groups exists in the evaluations of the sub-criteria transparency of the process. The group of stakeholders from the project's partner institutions were more satisfied with the transparency of the process, as the average value was 3.36, compared to the others where the average value of satisfaction was 2.80. This indicates the need for an improved, novel, and innovative approach that leads to multi-level governance.
... Fewer research seem to also focus on the private areas of the Mediterranean and Southern Europe, especially those focused on the involvement of stakeholders and experts in the phases of perception of ecosystem services and management of a Natura 2000 site, with a few exceptions [18]. In addition, experts and stakeholders can participate in the formulation and implementation of the Natura 2000 in different ways, but there are no specific recommendations about participation [17]. ...
The Natura 2000 network is an ecological network covering the whole territory of the European Union to ensure the long-term maintenance of threatened or rare natural habitats and species of flora and fauna, including in metropolitan and rural areas. Some of the Natura 2000 sites have been subject to changes in ownership that have led to a fragmentation of the territory. Private entities may own areas within a Natura 2000 site and must ensure sustainable management of their property, especially from an ecological point of view. The case study is the Stellantis–La Mandria site, a private area owned by Stellantis, within the Natura 2000 site “ZSC IT1110079 La Mandria”, near Turin. The research proposes a participatory methodology, mainly addressed in this first phase to experts and professionals and aimed at the valorisation and management of private Natura 2000 sites previously considered as industrial sites, to allow a careful fruition and safeguarding of the natural heritage. The aim of the research is to provide a methodological approach and the first qualitative results useful to providing the owners with an indication for a more targeted management of the site; mapping the areas that provide ecosystem services (ES, especially cultural ones); mapping the areas that could be subject to future fruition; collaborating with the managing body to collect useful data for the future drafting of a new area plan. Two main research activities were carried out, a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis concerning the management and possible future fruition of the site and a participatory mapping of ES. It should be emphasised that the research allowed the first results to be obtained, which, on the one hand, make it possible to validate the methodology used to achieve the objectives and, on the other hand, the results will have to be implemented over time by involving numerous stakeholders among those who can access the private area. The results of the research highlight opportunities and threats with regard to the conservation of ecological–environmental characteristics and future fruition of the site. The participatory mapping identifies areas with different ecological value and, therefore, different management needs and identifies areas that could be used differently for future fruition. Overall, the results aim to meet some of the European Commission’s wishes regarding Natura 2000 sites, with particular reference to the involvement of different stakeholders and experts for the conservation of biodiversity and the integration of ecological and social aspects into the management and fruition plans.
... In contrast to top-down governance, which circumvents local communities in decision-making (Nita et al. 2018), a bottom-up participatory PA management approach involves a range of relevant stakeholders covering, for instance, local communities, scientists and environmental interest groups. More holistically, potential stakeholders in a power-sharing network for PA management purposes include (Gil et al. 2011(Gil et al. :1327: (i) public regional administration entities; (ii) public local administration; (iii) research centres; (iv) land-users; (v) landowners within or adjacent to the PA and (vi) environmental and rural development non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The latter has proven to be particularly influential and effective in promoting environmental policies at all levels of governance, ranging from local to global (Nita et al. 2018). ...
This chapter aims to contribute to the knowledge on participatory planning (PP) in the protected area (PA) management focusing on areas whose sustainability is significantly affected by excessive tourism activity. The existing literature has shown PP to be both crucial for successful PA management as well as one of the weaker links in current PA management processes. However, the analysis of PPs key features and their implementation in the PAs are not adequately covered in the literature. Thus, this chapter analyses the role and critical elements of successful PP process in PA using the case studies of two Croatian national parks (NP) that have been under significant visitor pressure over the past years (pre-COVID-19). Based on several criteria devised through a critical review of PP literature, an assessment of PP models in two NP is performed, and critical points requiring improvements identified.
... España cuenta con el mayor número de reservas naturales de todo el continente europeo. Para su preservación, los planes de protección medioambiental requieren de una importante inversión pública que permita mejorar su conocimiento y facilite la sostenibilidad y gestión de acuerdo a directivas eficaces de conservación (Gil et al., 2011). El lago glaciar de Truchillas, situado en el límite entre León y Zamora, pasó a formar parte de este grupo de espacios protegidos gracias a su declaración en 1990 como Monumento Natural. ...
The principal objectives during the development of the lithotheca of the International Institute of Prehistoric Researches have been the creation of a reference collection about known outcrops of lithologic raws of archaeological interest, sampling, sistematic catalogation of the collected items and their integration on a public Geographic Information System for their use on research and public through diverse layers of information, data bases and widgets offered by this lithotheca. At the same time, different levels of geological, geographic, chronological and location information of dated archaeological sites have been integrated, allowing a wide variety of analysis.
... Nevertheless, studies on participation approaches usually focus more on the (lack of) involvement of affected land users rather than the involvement of conservationists or the public. A few studies draw attention to the need for a balanced involvement of all parties [27,51,52] and the need to connect participation with co-responsibility [107]. ...
Natura 2000 is the core pillar in the European Union’s (EU) biodiversity conservation policy. It is an EU-wide ecological network of protected areas that cuts across countries’ borders, administrative levels, policy sectors and socio-economic contexts. The network is established and managed according to the legally-binding provisions of the 1979 EU Birds Directive (79/409/EEC, revised in 2009) and the 1992 EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Natura 2000 aims to achieve biodiversity conservation and to combine it with the sustainable development of land and natural resources. It can allow for continuation of land uses (eg agriculture, forestry) as long as they do not significantly compromise conservation objectives for habitats and species within and beyond the network. The Natura 2000 network now covers almost 18% of the EU’s territory. Forests are of crucial importance for Natura 2000 and vice versa. Almost 50% of the whole coverage of the network is comprised of forests. This means that nearly 25% of the total forest area in the EU-28 is part of the EU-wide network of protected areas. Yet knowledge about the implementation of Natura 2000 in forests and its effects on biodiversity, forest management and other land uses across the EU is fragmented. This science-based study aims to narrow the gaps in the scholarly, practical and policy- related knowledge. It looks from policy, economic and ecological perspectives at the monitoring of forest biodiversity in Europe, as well as the challenges, achievements, effectiveness and efficiency of the implementation of Natura 2000 in forests in the EU- 28. The study provides conclusions and recommendations that can support decisionmaking in policy and practice.
... So far, only a few studies have investigated the establishment of conservation measures (also including plan-making processes); one reason behind the low interest of the academic literature might possibly be attributed to the low involvement of the academic world in the establishment of conservation measures (eventually included within management plans). Among these studies, Gil et al. [37], who propose a step-by-step methodology to prepare a Natura 2000 site management plan, tested in the Azores region in Portugal; Kovacs et al. [38], who analyze the way in which management plans were drafted for 25 Hungarian sites; and Cortina and Boggia [39], who define a methodology aimed at ascertaining whether, within a certain Natura 2000 site, the establishment of appropriate conservation measures is sufficient to pursue the directive's goals, or if a management plan is necessary. ...
“Natura 2000” is a coordinated network of protected areas that stretches across the European Union in compliance with two directives (the so-called “Habitats Directive” and the “Birds Directive”) that underpin the Union’s policies on biodiversity conservation. This study is aimed at assessing the implementation of the network by qualitatively analyzing how Special Areas of Conservation are being designated. Such designation process, which is being implemented, although with great delay, in a number of member states, entails the establishment of site-specific conservation measures that may be included within appropriate management plans or other development plans. A systematic documental analysis of official acts establishing Special Areas of Conservation and approving conservation measures and management plans was performed by taking Italy as a case study. The analysis focuses on four key topics, as follows: use of conservation measures and appropriate management plans; multi-level governance of the Natura 2000 sites, in terms of involved institutions and tiers of government; stakeholders’ inclusion in the designation process; and the relationship between conservation measures and the wider spatial planning system. The results show significant differences regarding the implementation of the Natura 2000 network and highlight potential general hindrances to completing the designation process in the European Union.
... These include a significant area of habitat patches that presented the highest degradation levels and the lowest quality class. This fact may create relevant conservation issues related with private land-use and shall require stakeholder-based (including landowners) management planning, increasing the need for an integrated island-based approach and the implementation of further protected areas (as proposed by Gil et al., 2011) in which this spatial assessment could supply a major contribution. These results also demonstrate that conservation action has to go beyond current protected areas, going in line with recent studies in the Azorean Archipelago Costa et al., 2013;Fonseca et al., 2011;Martín et al., 2010). ...
A methodological approach for the conservation status assessment of Azorean natural habitats in Pico Island (Portugal) is presented, using the InVEST Habitat Quality model. This spatial analysis-based study was focused on a selected group of 33 endemic plant species occurring in Pico Island and protected under the Habitats Directive's Listed Habitats for Macaronesia Region. The InVEST model combines information present in a Land Cover map with data on threats to habitats and habitats response, producing habitat quality and degradation maps as outputs, both represented in a score ranging from 0 to 1. Results showed that at higher altitudes habitats present better quality status, mostly due to the absence of the main threats such as Invasive Alien Species and Pasturelands. The study also showed that most areas with higher conservation quality are covered by the Pico Island Natural Park (a set of protected areas). Habitat patches showing higher degradation levels are located outside of the protected areas, supporting the increasing need for an integrated island-based conservation approach. This model valuation scheme might be used as an effective decision-support tool to prioritise areas for conservation actions and management in all nine Azorean Island Natural Parks, as well as in other small Macaronesian islands.
Research in Macaronesia has led to substantial advances in ecology, evolution and conservation biology. We review the scientific developments achieved in this region, and outline promising research avenues enhancing conservation. Some of these discoveries indicate that the Macaronesian flora and fauna is composed of rather young lineages, not Tertiary relicts, predominantly of European origin. Macaronesia also seems to be an important source region for back-colonization of continental fringe regions on both sides of the Atlantic. This group of archipelagos (Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary Islands, and Cabo Verde) has been crucial to learn about the particularities of macroecological patterns and interaction networks on islands, providing evidence for the development of the General Dynamic Model of oceanic island biogeography and subsequent updates. However, in addition to exceptionally high richness of endemic species, Macaronesia is also home to a growing number of threatened species, along with invasive alien plants and animals. Several innovative conservation and management actions are in place to protect its biodiversity from these and other drivers of global change. The Macaronesian Islands are a well-suited field of study for island ecology and evolution research, mostly due to its special geological layout with 40 islands grouped within five archipelagos differing in geological age, climate and isolation. A large amount of data is now available for several groups of organisms on and around many of these islands. However, continued efforts should be made towards compiling new information on their biodiversity, to pursue various fruitful research avenues and develop appropriate conservation management tools.
The Habitats Directive provides for the setting up of Natura 2000, a coherent European ecological network of special areas of conservation as well as for the protection of these sites. The sites are characterised by the presence of specific habitat types as listed in Annex I of the Directive and of species as listed in Annex II. This contribution will focus on semi-natural habitats and the legal boundaries the Directive imposes on their management. Management measures affecting semi-natural habitats of Natura 2000 sites can fall under two different legal regimes. The first regime is comprised of the strict site protection requirements of Art. 6(2) − (4) of the Habitats Directive. They have been clarified by extensive jurisprudence. However, as it is indicated in Art. 6(3), at least the appropriate assessment under this provision does not apply to measures “directly connected with or necessary to the management of the site”. Such measures should fall under the second legal regime, laid down in Art. 6(1). Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the distinction between site management measures and other plans or projects as well as the legal boundaries applicable to the former. It will be demonstrated that the strict protection standard of Art. 6(3), absence of reasonable scientific doubt that the plan or project will not significantly affect the site, cannot be transposed to the management of semi-natural habitats because, irrespective of scientific uncertainty or doubt, some management strategy for semi-natural habitats needs to be chosen. Moreover, the necessity to decide on site management in the light of uncertainty also affects the question whether a measure needs to be considered directly connected with or necessary to the management of the site. Therefore, at least as far as EU law is concerned, only manifest errors with regard to both questions need to be sanctioned. Accordingly, judicial control needs to focus on the decision making process, that is procedural issues such as the collection of the relevant information, relying on the best available science, stakeholder participation or the duty to give reasons.
Proceedings of the 12th Conservation Workshop for the Biodiversity of Arabia, 7-9 Feb 2011. Compiled by Mike Knight, Philip Seddon and Kevin Budd
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the development of the idea of "stakeholder management" as it has come to be applied in strategic management. We begin by developing a brief history of the concept. We then suggest that traditionally the stakeholder approach to strategic management has several related characteristics that serve as distinguishing features. We review recent work on stakeholder theory and suggest how stakeholder management has affected the practice of management. We end by suggesting further research questions.
The invasive Clethra arborea has a dual-role in the diet of the Azores bullfinch, a critically endangered bird species endemic to the island of São Miguel
(Azores, Portugal). This is a crucial winter food resource but it lowers the availability of native laurel forest species
that compose most of the bird’s diet throughout the year. The removal of this and other invasive alien species is part of
current laurel forest habitat restoration programmes, disregarding the impact on the Azores bullfinch population. In order
to evaluate the first responses of the Azores bullfinch to habitat restoration, we studied bird diet, foraging behaviour,
food availability and habitat occupancy in managed (without C. arborea) and control areas. Significant increases in the availability of native food resources in managed areas were noticeable in
the diet, particularly the intake of Ilex perado ssp. azorica and Prunus lusitanica ssp. azorica flower buds. In most of the studied months birds heavily used and foraged in managed over control areas. The one exception
was in December, when a resource-gap occurred in managed areas, which may be overcome in the short-term due to re-establishment
of native plants following removal of invasive aliens.
KeywordsAzores-
Clethra arborea
-Endangered species-Habitat restoration-Laurel forest-
Pyrrhula murina
In 2007 the Archipelago of the Azores, one Autonomous Portuguese Region, decided to develop a major assessment of the Protected Areas Network. As a result, the Regional Government decided to re-classify the Network in a more coherent, operational, manageable and visible/understandable system. The Geography team proposed a challenge that was accepted and developed: to create a Regional Protected Areas system based on a new management model and new legal instruments. This implied a total revision of the existing legal regional system and instruments. Two basic units were defined: The Island Natural Parks and the Azores Marine Park. The assemblies of the terrestrial areas classified under the system in each island compose the Island Natural Park (INP). Therefore, there are nine INP, as much as islands in the Azores Archipelago. The new classification and the re-classification of the pre existing areas were built according to the IUCN Category System. However, specific features were considered at several levels: geographic, environment, cultural, politic and institutions. The areas from 12 to 200 miles were proposed to be the Marine Park of the Azores witch is a totally new classification in Portugal. In the Marine Park is proposed that some special areas will also have different classification based on the IUCN method. The Coastal Areas, and one Marine Area in the terrestrial sea (up to 12 miles) were included in the INP. This represented a new strategy for coastal conservation as the Coastal Management Plans were considered as a source of information concerning new natural areas.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the development of the idea of "stakeholder management" as it has come to be applied in strategic management. We begin by developing a brief history of the concept. We then suggest that traditionally the stakeholder approach to strategic management has several related characteristics that serve as distinguishing features. We review recent work on stakeholder theory and suggest how stakeholder management has affected the practice of management. We end by suggesting further research questions.
Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach was first published in 1984 as a part of the Pitman series in Business and Public Policy. Its publication proved to be a landmark moment in the development of stakeholder theory. Widely acknowledged as a world leader in business ethics and strategic management, R. Edward Freeman’s foundational work continues to inspire scholars and students concerned with a more practical view of how business and capitalism actually work. Business can be understood as a system of how we create value for stakeholders. This worldview connects business and capitalism with ethics once and for all. On the 25th anniversary of publication, Cambridge University Press are delighted to be able to offer a new print-on-demand edition of his work to a new generation of readers.
The processes for making decisions on objectives and management actions were identified in nine easily available management planning guides, all aimed at UK protected sites (Sites of Special Scientific Interest, Natura 2000, Ramsar, etc), and compared. They varied considerably between guides, to the extent that no two guides recommend identical processes. Processes were sometimes entirely absent, and usually incomplete. Poor guidance on decision-making may result in plans that are ineffective or damaging to the conservation of sites. The reasons for inconsistency are explored, suggestions are made for improving and testing of management planning guidance, and questions are raised about best practice and the value of a standard approach in planning the management of sites.
Management Planning for Protected Areas: A Guide for Practitioners and their Bosses. Management Planning for Protected Areas
- Eurosite
Eurosite, 2005. Management Planning for Protected Areas: A
Guide for Practitioners and their Bosses. Management
Planning for Protected Areas. Peterborough. UK. ISBN 186716-884-4.
The CMS Management Planning Guide
- M Alexander
Alexander, M., 2010. The CMS Management Planning Guide.
Talgarth, Wales, UK: CMS Consortium, 205p.
Pico da Vara/Ribeira do Guilherme Special Protected Area Management Plan. Lisbon: Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves
- A Gil
Gil, A., 2005. Pico da Vara/Ribeira do Guilherme Special
Protected Area Management Plan. Lisbon: Sociedade
Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves, 101p.