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African Journal of Business Management Vol.6 (36), pp. 10003-10014, 12 September, 2012
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM
DOI: 10.5897/AJBM11.2286
ISSN 1993-8233 ©2012 Academic Journals
Full Length Research Paper
The impact of organizational support on work
spirituality, organizational citizenship behaviour and
job performance: The case of Zimbabwe’s small and
medium enterprises (SME) sector
Richard Chinomona
Vaal University of Technology, South Africa. E-mail: rchinos@hotmail.com.
Accepted 14 November, 2011
Notwithstanding the increasing alertness of the importance of organizational support on employees’
job performance in large firms, research efforts on the same and the mediating influence of workplace
spirituality and organizational citizenship behaviour focused on the SMEs sector context have largely
been scarce particularly in developing countries of Southern Africa. Therefore, the principal objective of
this study is to fill this void. Five research hypotheses are posited and a sample data of 320 collected
from the SME employees in Zimbabwe is used to empirically test the hypotheses. The results of this
study show that, organizational support positively influences SME employees’ workplace spirituality,
citizenship behaviour and consequently their job performance in a significant way. Managerial
implications of the findings are discussed and limitations and future research directions are indicated.
Key words: Organizational support, work spirituality, organizational citizenship behaviour, job performance,
small and medium enterprises (SMEs).
INTRODUCTION
Perhaps the most important asset for a firm is its
employees (Witt et al., 2002). Firms have continued to
expand very rapidly over the past decades, mainly as a
result of the improved employee job performance (Kahya,
2007). As a result of the professed importance of job
performance to firms’ growth in the organisational
behaviour, management literature and human resources
(HR) practice in particular, researches on the
antecedents of employee job performance have
continued to grow substantially (Werner, 2000; Van
Scotter et al., 2009). An extensive review of the HR and
related disciplines such as industrial and organizational
psychology literature reveal several streams of research
concentrating on employee training and job redesigning
among others, as a way of improving job performance
(Borman, 2004; Kahya, 2007). Recently, some
researchers have acknowledged organizational support
as an important antecedent of job performance (Stamper
and Johlke, 2003; Aselage and Eisenberger, 2003;
Podsakoff et al., 2009). Supportive organizations are
those that take pride in their employees’ welfare,
compensating them fairly, and looking after their needs
(Fasolo, 1995; Kraimer et al., 2001). It is argued that
organizational support can potentially stimulate important
employee behavioural outcomes at workplace such as
employee satisfaction and organizational commitment
among others that might consequently lead to enhanced
job performance (Randall et al., 1999). The panorama of
organizational support and job performance relationship
has been examined in the context of social exchange
relationship by some researchers (Aselage and
Eisenberger, 2003; Kraimer et al., 2001). This body of
research claims that when employees perceive to be
fairly treated by their firm, the likely avenue of their
reciprocation is ultimately improved performance
because a social exchange relationship develops
between the employees and the firm (MacKenzie et al.,
1993; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff et al., 2009). However,
despite the admitted importance of organizational support
and job performance by academicians and HR
practitioners, the mediating influence of workplace
spirituality and organization citizenship behaviour in this
10004 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.
relationship has rarely been investigated. Workplace
spirituality involves the effort to find one’s ultimate
purpose in life, to develop a strong connection to co-
workers and other people associated with work and to
have consistency or alignment between one’s core
beliefs and the values of their organization (Giacalone
and Jurkiewicz, 2004; Sass, 2000; Gibbons, 2000). As
noted by Sheep (2006), the emerging academic literature
on workplace spirituality is often characterized as vapid
and is still in need of enhanced scientific rigor.
Organizational citizenship behaviour refers to employees’
willingness to remain with the organization, employee
actions that surpass their job description and employee
proactive behaviour beyond job responsibilities (Chiang
and Hsieh, 2011). Given the aforementioned importance
of employee workplace spirituality and citizenship
behaviour to firm performance, the dearth of research on
the mediating influence of the two on the organizational
support and job performance relationship is indeed
astonishing and now warrant academic scrutiny and
empirical inquiry. Perhaps the most compelling argument
for investigating the impact of organizational support on
workplace spirituality, organizational citizenship
behaviour and job performance by this current study
derives from the fact that previous studies on these
constructs have mostly focused on large sized firms and
therefore little is known about the same in the small-to-
medium sized enterprises (SMEs hereafter) context. This
is surprising also and very unfortunate given that SMEs
are widely regarded as the vehicle for employment
generation, economic growth and development in both
developed and developing countries (Chinomona and
Pretorius, 2011). Furthermore, these prior studies have
been largely conducted in developed countries
(Chinomona et al., 2010) and therefore, little is known on
the same from the developing parts of the world such as
African countries – Zimbabwe in particular. Hence, this
lacuna deserves empirical inspection in the case of a
neglected context of SMEs in the developing countries. In
view of the aforementioned research gaps, the purpose
of the current research is three-fold. Firstly, from the
perspective of employees in the SME sector, this
research seeks to investigate the effects of employee
perceptions of organizational support on their job
performance in Zimbabwe. Secondly, an examination of
the mediating influence of employee workplace spirituality
and citizenship behaviour in the organizational support
and job performance relationship is explored. Thirdly, an
attempt is made to utilize the social exchange theory
developed in the sociology discipline to provide a
theoretical grounding to the current research on SMEs.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Social exchange theory
The oasis of social exchange theory is the exchange
theory. The fundamental premise of social exchange
theory is that, parties involved in exchanges voluntarily
provide benefits, invoking obligation from the other party
to reciprocate and providing some benefit in return (Yoon
and Lwaler, 2005). The reciprocated benefits can be in
the form of economic rewards or social benefits (Yoon
and Sur, 2003). Therefore, social exchange is defined as
“voluntary actions of individuals that are motivated by the
returns they are expected to bring and typically do in fact
bring from others” (Blau, 1964). The underlying principle
of social exchange theory demonstrates that reciprocated
benefactions create social bonds among exchange actors
(Konovsky and Pugh, 1994). This is because social
exchanges builds up feelings of personal obligation,
gratitude, and trust among partners, all of which lay a
foundation of social solidarity and micro social order even
without binding contracts (Yoon and Sur, 2003; Thye et
al., 2002).
Relating the social exchange theory to the current
study, this research submits that, an effort by SME
owners or managers to create a supportive organizational
environment is likely to stimulate a positive perception of
fairness in their employees. Furthermore, as a result of
this perceived fair treatment and in accordance to social
exchange theory, SME employees’ workplace spirituality
will be raised and citizenship behaviours enhanced in
reciprocation. For that reason, the SME employees’
workplace spirituality and citizenship behaviour will
eventually lead to improved job performance, hence the
SMEs’ improved competiveness, viability and profitability
in the long term.
Perception of organizational support
Perceived organizational support (POS) is defined in the
current study as the extent to which SME employees
perceive that their contributions are valued by their
organization and that the SME owners care about their
well-being and welfare. Perception of organizational
support is thought to develop over time through multiple
interactions between employees and their employers and
to reflect the degree to which employees perceive that
their work organizations are committed to them
(Eisenberger et al., 1990; Wayne et al., 1997). With
regard to social support, Kraimer et al. (2001) argued that
POS constitutes a viable source of support for employees
since it encompasses their welfare and social support.
Therefore, perceived greater organizational support (POS)
is expected to result in greater affective attachment and
feelings of obligation to the organization (Shore and
Wayne, 1993). Besides, the extant literature asserts that,
employees’ perceptions that their organization supports
and cares about them are positively related to work
attendance (Eisenberger et al., 1986), job performance
(Eisenberger et al., 1990), citizenship behaviours (Shore
and Wayne, 1993), job satisfaction (Eisenberger et al.,
1997) and affective organizational commitment (Wayne
et al., 1997). Empirically, Jones et al. (1995) also showed
that POS is negatively related to levels of work stress,
while Babakus et al. (1996) and Stamper and Johlke
(2003) found that high levels of POS are negatively
associated to role conflict and role ambiguity respectively.
Workplace spirituality
According to Milliman et al. (2003), an important trend in
business in the twenty-first century, which focus on
employee spirituality in the workplace. Indeed, the topical
appearance of workplace spirituality as a subject of
interest in many business magazines and many books
bear testimony to this. Notably too, the growing body of
literature on workplace spirituality by academicians has
continued to offer a number of insights (Shellenbarger,
2000; Gunther, 2001).
According to Gibbons (2000), workplace spirituality
involves a sense of wholeness, connectedness at work
and deeper values. Milliman et al. (2003) conceptualized
workplace spirituality to have three core dimensions, that
is, purpose in one’s work or “meaningful work” (individual
level), having a “sense of community” (group level), and
being in “alignment with the organization’s values” and
mission (organization level). From a spirituality viewpoint,
meaningful work refers to the employees’ ability to search
and find deeper meaning and purpose, living their
dreams, expressing their inner life needs and contributing
to others at their workplace (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000;
Neal, 1998). In other words, work is viewed as a vocation
and a calling, as a way to create greater meaning and
identity (Moore, 1992). Sense of community is concerned
with interactions between employees and their co-
workers (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000).
The premise is that, employees see themselves as
connected to each other and that there is some type of
relationship between one’s inner self and the inner self of
other employees (Neal and Bennett, 2000; Maynard,
1992; Miller, 1992). Alignment with organizational values
implies that employees experience a strong sense of
alignment between their personal values and their
organization’s mission and purpose.
The belief is that, an employee’s purpose is larger than
one’s self and as such should contribute to others or
society (Mitroff and Denton, 1999; Ashmos and Duchon,
2000). In this study, workplace spirituality is defined as
the recognition by SME employers that their employees
have an inner life that is nourished by meaningful work,
sense of community and alignment with the company’s
values.
Organizational citizenship behaviour
In the current study organizational citizenship behaviour
refers to SME employees’ willingness to remain with the
Chinomona 10005
company, their actions that surpass their job description,
and their proactive behaviour beyond job responsibilities
(Chiang and Hsieh, 2011). Thus SME employees’
citizenship behaviour refers to that behavioural motivation
to go beyond the normal call of duty through cooperation
among colleagues, self-improvement, and creating a
positive organizational image (Cho and Johanson, 2008).
The extant organizational behaviour literature indicates
that, such innovative and spontaneous behaviours by
employees can greatly contribute to the operation and
performance of an organization (Morrison, 1996; Stamper
and Van Dyne, 2003; Williams and Anderson, 1991).
Organizational citizenship behaviour has been
conceptualized by some researchers as a multi-
dimensional construct with five dimensions namely
altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy
and civic virtue (Yoon and Sur, 2003; Ravichandran and
Gilmore, 2007). Altruism is a discretionary behaviour that
helps other persons with respect to organizationally
relevant tasks or problems, for instance, voluntarily
helping less skilled or new employees (Organ, 1990).
Conscientiousness is a discretionary behaviour that
employees carry out well beyond the minimum required
level, for example, working long days and voluntarily
doing things besides duties (Yoon and Sur, 2003).
Sportsmanship consists of actions that employee refrain
from complaining or doing petty grievances (Raub, 2008).
Courtesy consists of actions that help prevent work-
related problems with others (Walz and Niehoff, 2000).
Civic virtue reflects behaviours, in which an employee
responsibly engages, that show concern for the
organization and employee initiative in recommending
how the organization can improve its operations (Koys,
2001). However, despite the noted dimensions of
organizational citizenship behaviour, the current study will
conceptualize it as a composite construct following the
recent works of Jung and Yoon (2011).
Job performance
According to Kahya (2007), the most important
dependent variable in industrial and organizational
psychology is perhaps job performance. Job performance
in the current study refers to job related behavioural
outcomes, SME employee’s productivity and the
achievement of a company’s expectations and
requirements such as efficiency and awareness (Babin
and Boles, 1996). A review of organizational behaviour
literature indicates that job performance has two distinct
dimensions namely, task performance and contextual
performance (Borman, 2004). Task performance is
defined as the proficiency with which employees perform
activities that are formally recognized as part of their jobs
and contribute to the company’s technical core (Borman
and Motowidlo, 1993). In other words, it is the use of
technical skills to achieve specialized tasks for core job
10006 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.
Figure 1. Conceptual model.
responsibilities (Van Scotter, 2000). Contextual
performance refers to employees’ efforts that are not
directly related to their main task function but are
important because they shape the organizational, social
and psychological context that serves as the critical
catalyst for task activities and processes (Werner, 2000).
Although task performance traditionally has received
more attention than contextual performance, researchers
have begun to empirically demonstrate that contextual
performance yields a competitive advantage for
organizations (Witt et al., 2002).
CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS
Drawing from the social exchange theory, the extant
literature from HR, industrial psychology and
organizational behaviour aforementioned, a conceptual
model is developed in Figure 1. The model consists of
four constructs, that is, one predictor – SME employees’
perception of organizational support, two mediators –
SME employees’ workplace spirituality and SME
employees’ organizational citizenship behaviour and one
outcome variable – SME employees’ job performance.
Conceivably, the SME employees’ perceptions of
organizational support in their respective SMEs influence
their workplace spirituality, citizenship behaviour and
consequently their job performance. Detailed
explanations of the associations between these
constructs are provided in the hypotheses developed
hereafter.
Small and medium enterprises (SME) employees’
perception of organisational support and workplace
spirituality
For most workers, most of their precious time is spent at
work. As a result of this, the quality of working life has
become a major phenomenon at the workplace and many
companies have responded by becoming more
supportive to their employees’ plight (Randall et al., 1999).
Perhaps organisational support can be expected to be
high in SMEs where the majority of the employees might
be family members, relatives or acquaintances. The SME
employees’ level of perception of organisational support
reflect their inner most feelings that their company cares
about their welfare. When the SME employees perceive
that their company is willing to lend a helping hand; they
are likely to personally feel respected, cared for, and
recognized, and therefore, consequently find deeper
meaning and purpose in their work (Pfeffer, 2003). In this
regard, the SME employees will view their work as a
vocation or a calling, and the workplace as a place where
they get greater meaning and identity (Moore, 1992;
Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003). In accordance with the
social exchange theory, the current study submit that if
SMEs employers create a supportive workplace, in
reciprocation their employees are likely to respond by
displaying a positive work attitude, show appreciation,
identify with the company and exhibit diligent
performance. Consequently they will find greater
meaning in their work and feel a sense of belonging and
their values aligned to that of their company. Previous
studies have found a positive relationship between
organisational support and workplace spirituality (for
example, Morrison, 1996). In view of that, a positive
linkage between SME employees’ perception of
organisational support and their workplace spirituality can
safely be deduced. Hence, the following hypothesis is
postulated:
H1: The higher the level of SME employees’ perception of
organisational support, the higher their level of workplace
spirituality.
Small and medium enterprises (SME) employees’
perception of organisational support and citizenship
behaviour
When SME employees perceive to be treated fairly in
their supportive organisation, they might feel that they are
recognized as valuable emotional and intellectual beings
(Kim and Mauborgne, 1998), and not just “human
resources” (Podsakoff et al., 2009). This feeling of
recognition will tend to make the SME employees feel
important to their company, develop trust with their
company and therefore, become more willing to offer
concrete suggestions conducive to their company’s
growth. Such reciprocal behaviours are consistent with
self-initiated actions manifest in organisational citizenship
behaviours and social exchange theory. The extant
organisational behaviour literature also indicate that when
organisations are supportive, their employees are likely to
develop a sense of duty and are willing to reciprocate
with more cooperative and supportive actions, and with
greater loyalty, commitment, enthusiasm, work effort and
productivity, thus better performing their jobs and
contributing to organisational performance (Gouldner,
1960; Settoon et al., 1996; Eisenberger et al., 2001).
Therefore, in line with the social exchange theory, the
current study put forward that when SME employees
perceive their company to be supportive they are likely to
transcend beyond their normal call of duty by
reciprocating via extra citizenship behaviours. Prior
empirical studies have supported a positive relationship
between perception of organisational support and
organisational citizenship behaviour (Eisenberger et al.,
1990; Piercy et al., 2006; Podsakoff et al., 2000; Wayne
et al., 2002). Based on the foregoing discussion, this
study therefore, posits the following hypothesis:
H2: The higher the level of SME employees’ perception of
organisational support, the higher their level of
organisational citizenship behaviour.
Small and medium enterprises (SME) employees’
workplace spirituality and organisational citizenship
behaviour
The opportunity to do meaningful work is also likely to
improve the SME employees’ self-esteem, hope, health,
Chinomona 10007
happiness and personal growth. As a result of this, the
SME employees bring their entire selves (physical,
mental, emotional and spiritual) to the company, regard
their work as a mission and more than as a mere job.
Eventually, this in turn will likely make them to become
more committed to perform beyond their normal duties
and responsibilities in order to facilitate the achievement
of their company’s goals (Gavin and Mason, 2004).
Workplace spirituality is therefore expected to energizes
the SME employees and equip them with the enthusiasm
to pursue extra citizenship behaviours at work (Moxley,
2000). Such citizenship behaviours might be in the form
of creative or innovative thinking that can result in
improved company performance. In this regard, the SME
employees might be willing to view any self-initiated extra
work they do for their company as having a spiritual
significance to them (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003;
Pfeffer, 2003). Thus an association between SME
employees’ workplace spirituality and their citizenship
behaviour can be conjectured. Previous studies have
also provided support for the positive influence of
workplace spirituality on organizational citizenship
behaviour (Milliman et al., 2003). Therefore, drawing from
this deliberation, H3 is proposed as follows:
H3: The higher the level of SME employees’ workplace
spirituality, the higher their level of organisational
citizenship behaviour.
Small and medium enterprises (SME) employees’
workplace spirituality and job performance
Researches on workplace spirituality indicate that, when
individuals experience a strong sense of alignment
between their personal values and their organisation’s
mission and purpose, their spirit is nurtured and their
identification with the organisation is strengthened
(Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003). This person-
organisation fit characterized by value alignment is noted
in the extant organisational behaviour literatures to
motivate the employees to increase their job performance
(Wrzesniewski, 2003). Furthermore, the spillover effect
from workplace spirituality into personal/family life may be
expected to enhance satisfaction with family, marriage,
leisure activities and social interactions, enabling
employees to live an integrated life (Pfeffer, 2003), which
in turn may improve their organisational commitment and
job performance (Bromet et al., 1990; Jurkiewicz and
Giacalone, 2004). Accordingly, SME employees’
workplace spirituality will presumably lead to greater
enthusiasm, effort, sense of “calling” commitment and
improved job performance at their respective companies.
Empirical evidences from previous researches have also
supported the existence of a positive linkage between
workplace spirituality and job performance (Lloyd, 1990;
Gavin and Mason, 2004; Jurkiewicz and Giacalone,
2004). Similarly, the current study hypothesizes that:
10008 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.
H4: The higher the level of SME employees’ workplace
spirituality, the higher their level of job performance.
Small and medium enterprises (SME) employees’
citizenship behaviour and job performance
A cross examination of the management literature reveal
that effective organisational operation requires
employees to be willing to surpass their job descriptions
and be proactive beyond their job responsibilities (Koys,
2001). Such innovative and spontaneous behaviours are
essential and can greatly contribute to the employee’s job
and overall organisational performance (Chiang and
Hsieh, 2011).
There are several reasons noted in the extant
literatures indicating why organisational citizenship
behaviour improves job performance. For instance,
aggregate citizenship behaviour is noted to improve
overall job performance through employees’ proactive
cooperation and assistance among coworkers (Williams
and Anderson, 1991; Podsakoff et al., 1997). Also when
courteous employees, for example, inform each other
about non-routine demands, therefore allowing them to
take steps to mitigate problems, improved performance
might result.
Accordingly, it is anticipated by this study that, the SME
employees’ citizenship behaviours corresponded with
increased cooperation among the employees, their
proactive assistance in resolving problems for each other
and their willingness to surpass their job descriptions, will
most likely lead to their overall improved job performance
at their workplace. A positive relationship between
organisational citizenship behaviour and job performance
has also been supported in the previous studies (Cho
and Johanson, 2008; Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 1994;
Yoon and Suh, 2003; Chiang and Hsieh, 2011). Drawing
from the foregoing reflections, this study postulates that:
H5: The higher the level of SME employees’
organisational citizenship behaviour, the higher their level
of job performance
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sample and data collection
The data used for this study were collected fr om the SME
employees in Chitungwiza – the third largest city in Zimbabwe. The
sample included employees in both the manufacturing and service
sector. College students in Chitungwiza were recruited to assist
with the distribution and collection of the questionnaires after
permission was sought from the SME owners or managers.
The questionnaires clearly stated that the anonymity of the
participants would be guaranteed and that the study was purely for
academic purposes. Of the total of 450 questionnaires which were
distributed, 320 of the returned questionnaires were usable,
therefore, providing 71.1% response rate.
Measurement instrument development
Research scales were operationalized mainly on the basis of
previous work. Proper modifications were made in order to fit the
current research context and purpose. Some five-item sc ales
adapted from Chiang and Hsieh (2011) previous works were used
to measure “organizational support”. “W orkplace spirituality” used a
twenty-one item scale measure adopted from Milliman et al. (2003),
while “organizational c itizenship behaviour” used a five-item scale
from Joon and Yoon (2011). Finally, a six-item scale to measure
“job performance” was adopted from Chiang and Hsieh (2011). All
the measurement items were measured on a 7-point Likert-type
scales that was anchored by 1= strongly disagree to 7= strongly
agree to express the degree of agreement. Individual scale items
are listed in Appendix
Data analysis
Profile
Small and medium enterprises (SME) employees who answered
the questionnaires belonged to both service and manufacturing
sectors in Zimbabwe – Chitungwiza in particular. The descriptive
statistics presented in Table I show the gender, age, marital status
and the number of employees in the company, respondents
working experience, monthly salary, type of industries and the type
of products produced.
Table 1, shows that males dominate the SMEs sector and
constitute 63.1% of the workforce. The most active age group in the
participating SMEs is that between 31 to 60 years which constitute
53.4% of the total workforce, followed by those below 30 years and
then above 60 years, constituting 31.6 and 15%, respectively.
Employees who are single occupy 64.1% and the remainder is
married. The profile indicates that more than half of the participating
SMEs employed 20 or fewer workers, while more than a quarter
had a workforce between 21 - 50 employees and a minority of them
had between 51-100 employees. Participants with less than 5 years
work experience c onstituted 47.2% followed by those with between
6 and 10 years work experience who constituted 32.2% and the
remainder had above 10 years work experience. The majority of the
participants consisting of 42.2% earned below US$200 a monthly,
while 32.8% earned between US$200 – US$400 and the remainder
earned above US$400. The study also indicated that the majority of
the participants belonged to the s ervice sector which occupied
59.7%, while the manufacturing sector occupied the remainder.
Descriptive statistics, measure reliability and validity
As Table 2 illustrates SME employees’ perceptions of
organizational support was above average (Mean=4.748), implying
that employee perceived the level of SMEs support t o be fairly high.
The SME employees had also a fair agreement with the workplace
spirituality construct (Mean=4.815), suggesting that employees felt
spiritually motivated by the working environment at their SMEs. The
SME employees identified their level of organizational citizenship
behaviour to be above average too (Mean=4.700), reflecting that
employees were committed to working extra hard beyond their call
of duties for their respective SMEs. The degree of agreement on
job performance was also above average (Mean= 4.707), that is,
employees somewhat agreed that individual job performance was
good.
The study checked for both convergent and discriminant validity
of the measurement instruments. Individual item loadings for the
research constructs ranged from 0.69 - 0.89 and therefore, above
the recommended 0.5 (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Karatepe,
2006) - indicating acceptable individual item convergent validity as
sixty-nine percent or more of each item’s variance was shared with
Chinomona 10009
Table 1. Sample demographic characteristics.
Parameter Frequency %
Gender
Male 202 63.1
Female 118 36.9
Total 320 100
Age
≦30 101 31.6
31-60 171 53.4
≧ 60 48 15
Total 320 100
Marital status
Married 205 64.1
Single 115 35.9
Total 320 100
Number of employees
≦20 169 52.8
21-50 91 28.4
≧ 51 60 18.8
Total 320 100
Participants working experience
≦ 5 years 151 47.2
5-10 years 103 32.2
≧ 10 years 66 20.6
Total 320 100
Monthly salary in US dollar
≦ US$200 135 42.2
US$200-US$400 105 32.8
≧ US$400 80 25
Total 320 100
Industry
Manufacturing 129 40.3
Service 191 59.7
Total 320 100
its respective construct. Discriminant validity was established by
checking if the AVE value was above the recommended value of
0.5 and greater than the highest shared variance (SV) value
(Fornell and Larcker, 1981). In addition, the correlation between
research constructs was less than the marginally acceptable value
of 0.85 (Hulland, 1999).
As such, all the methods used revealed an adequate level
of discriminant validity. All related results are shown in Tables 2 and
3, respectively.
Reliability of measures was checked by examining item-to-total
and Cronbach alpha coefficients, composite reliability values and
AVE values. The item-to-total ranged from 0.67 - 0.81 and therefore,
were above the recommended 0.5 (Nunnally, 1978) while the
Cronbach alpha coefficients were all above 0.9, hence also above
10010 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.
Table 2. Accuracy analysis statistics.
Research constructs
Descriptive
statistics* Cronbach’s test C.R. AVE Factor
loading Highest S.V.
Mean SD Item-total
α-Value
Employee perception
of organizational
support
EPOS1
4.75 1.32
0.81
0.91 0.92 0.69
0.89
0.40
EPOS2 0.80 0.84
EPOS3 0.80 0.85
EPOS4 0.76 0.79
EPOS5 0.73 0.77
Employee work
spirituality
EWS1
4.81 1.27
0.67
0.96 0.96 0.52
0.70
0.38
EWS2 0.69 0.70
EWS3 0.70 0.71
EWS4 0.69 0.70
EWS5 0.70 0.71
EWS6 0.71 0.73
EWS7 0.71 0.73
EWS8 0.74 0.75
EWS9 0.74 0.75
EWS10 0.71 0.72
EWS11 0.72 0.73
EWS12 0.74 0.75
EWS13 0.74 0.76
EWS14 0.70 0.72
EWS15 0.72 0.73
EWS16 0.67 0.69
EWS17 0.67 0.69
EWS18 0.70 0.72
EWS19 0.68 0.69
EJP20 0.69 0.70
EWS21 0.70 0.72
Employee
organizational
citizenship behaviour
EOCB1
4.70 1.24
0.70
0.90 0.90 0.65
0.77
0.40
EOCB2 0.77 0.81
EOCB3 0.80 0.84
EOCB4 0.77 0.82
EOCB5 0.70 0.79
Employee
job performance
EJP1
4.70 1.22
0.74
0.91 0.90 0.69
0.79
0.30
EJP2 0.77 0.82
EJP3 0.80 0.84
EJP4 0.76 0.79
EJP5 0.76 0.79
EJP6 0.73 0.78
*Scores: 1, Strongly disagree; 4, neutral: 7, strongly agree; C0.R0., composite reliability; AVE, average variance extracted; S0.V0., shared
variance; a, significance level p<00.05; b, significance level p<00.01; c, significance level p<00.001; measurement model fits: χ2/df=20.9612;
GFI=00.93; CFI=00.98; IFI=00.98; NFI=00.97; RMR=00.49 and RMSEA=00.800.
the recommended 0.7 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). The AVE values
were all above the recommended 0.5 (Fraering and Minor, 2006)
while the Composite reliability values were above the
recommended 0.7 (Fornell and Lacker, 1981). All these results
provided evidence for excellent acceptable levels of research scale
reliability and validity.
Confirmatory factor analysis
To validate the research model fitness a confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) was conducted using LISREL version 8.8 statistical
software program. Acceptable model fit was indicated by chi-square
value over degree of freedom (χ2/df) of value between 1 and 3, with
Chinomona 10011
Table 3. Descriptive statistics and correlations between constructs0.
Research constructs EPOS EWS EOCB EJP
Employee perceptions of organizational support (EPOS) 10.000
Employee workplace spirituality (EWS) 00.790 10.000
Employee organizational citizenship behaviour (EOCB) 00.725 00.817 10.000
Employee job performance (EJP) 00.730 00.797 00.815 10.000
Table 4. Results of structural equation model analysis.
Path Hypothesis Coefficients
Employee perception of organizational support (EPOS) Employee
workplace spirituality (EWS) H1 00.84c
Employee perception of organizational support (EPOS) Employee
organizational citizenship behaviour (EOCB) H2 00.24c
Employee workplace spirituality (EWS) Employee organizational
citizenship behaviour (EOCB) H3 00.67c
Employee workplace spirituality (EWS) Employee job performance (EJP) H4 00.31c
Employee organizational citizenship behaviour (EOCB) Employee job
performance (EJP) H5 00.62c
Structural model fits: χ2/df=20.9612; GFI=00.93; CFI=00.98; IFI=00.98; NFI=00.97; RMR=00.49 and RMSEA=00.800; a, significance
level p<00.05; b, significance level p<00.01; c, significance level p<00.0010.
the values of goodness-of-fit index (GFI), comparative fit index
(CFI), incremental fit index (IFI) and normed fit index (NFI) equal to
or greater than 0.90; and the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA) value to be equal to or less than 0.08 while
root mean square residual (RMR) value to be less than 0.5 (Hair et
al., 2006). Recommended statistics for the final overall-model
assessment showed acceptable fit of the measurement model to
the data: χ2/df was 2.961; GFI=0.93; CFI=0.98; IFI=0.98; NFI=0.97;
RMR=0.49 and RMSEA=0.80. Since an acceptable CFA
measurement model fit was obtained, the study proceeded to the
next stage of checking the structural model fitness and hypothesis
testing.
Structural equation modelling
Structural equation modelling (SEM) was conducted to test the
validity of the proposed model and the hypotheses also using
LISREL 8.8 statistical software program. Table 4 presents the
estimated model, illustrating the direction and magnitude of the
impact of the standardized path c oefficients. Recommended
statistics for the overall structural equation model assessment also
showed acceptable fit of χ2/df =2.9612; GFI=0.93; CFI=0.98;
IFI=0.98; NFI=0.97; RMR=0.49 and RMSEA=0.80. The model’s fit,
as indicated by these indexes, was deemed satisfactory, thereby
providing a good basis for testing the hypothesized paths. The
parameter estimates of the structural model exhibited the direct
effects of one construct on the other. A significant coefficient at a
certain level of alpha thus reveals a significant relationship among
latent constructs (Table 4).
The results in Table 4 provided support for the entire proposed
five research hypothesis. The path coefficients for H1, H2, H3, H4
and H5 are 0.84, 0.24, 0.67, 0.31 and 0.62 respectively. All
hypothesis c oefficients are significant at a confidence level (p value)
of 0.001.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of the current research was to examine the
influence of SME employees’ perception of organizational
support on their workplace spirituality, organizational
citizenship behaviour and job performance. The social
exchange theory was utilized to provide a theoretical
grounding for the conceptualized framework. In particular,
five hypotheses were posited. To test the hypotheses,
data were collected from SME employees in Zimbabwe.
The empirical results supported all the postulated
research hypotheses in a significant way.
Consistent with Hypotheses 1 and 2, the results
indicated that the higher the level of perceived SME
supports, the higher the level of the employees’
workplace spirituality and citizenship behaviour
respectively. Also in support of Hypotheses 3, the results
indicated that the higher the level of SME employees’
workplace spirituality, the higher their citizenship
behaviour. Finally, in concurrence with the proposed
hypothesis 4 and 5, the reasoning that higher levels of
10012 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.
SME employees’ workplace spirituality and citizenship
behaviour highly influence their job performance was
significantly confirmed in a positive way.
What is interesting to note from the findings of this
study is that, SMEs’ support has stronger effects on the
SME employees’ workplace spirituality (0.84) than it does
on their citizenship behaviour (0.24). Paradoxically, the
SME employees’ citizenship behaviour (0.62) has more
significant influence on their job performance than does
their workplace spirituality (0.31). This means that the
SME employees’ citizenship behaviour influenced their
job performance more than their workplace spirituality.
Perhaps this could be explained by the fact that the SME
employees’ workplace spirituality appear to have more
significant impact on their job performance through their
citizenship behaviour (0.67).
Implications
The current study is not without both academic and
practical ramifications. Firstly, on the academic fraternity,
an attempt was successfully made to apply the social
exchange theory in the small business field. This study
therefore, submits that social exchange theory can be
extended to explain human resources management
phenomena – particularly the impact of organizational
support on workplace spirituality and organizational
citizenship behaviour in the SMEs context. Secondly, this
study investigated current topical issues in human
resources management and yet often most overlooked by
researchers who focus on the SME sector. Therefore,
this study is expected to expand further the horizons of
our comprehension of HR issues that have been perhaps
regarded as taboo to small business research by some
academicians in developing countries such as those in
Southern Africa.
Some strategic implications are provided as a practical
contribution of the current study. First, given the current
evidence that small business organizational support has
positive significant impact on employees’ workplace
spirituality, citizenship behaviour and consequently their
job performance, it is imperative that the SME owners or
managers consistently expand organizational support
measures targeted at their employees.
Perhaps such measures might include employee social
welfare programs, such as family support in times of
crisis or needy circumstances. Welfare support rendered
in times of need is likely to make the employees feel that
their employer cares about them and in reciprocation are
likely to increase their job performance and productivity -
therefore consequently accruing more revenue for the
SMEs in the process.
Second, SME owners or managers might consider
continuously improving the workplace working
environment in order to motivate their employees’
workplace spirituality and foster their citizenship behaviour.
If the SME employees are satisfied with their working
environment, they are likely to cooperate with one
another and be committed to their work, hence in the
process creating joint synergies and competences that
can give the SMEs a competitive edge and the drive to
succeed in future.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Despite the usefulness of this study aforementioned, the
research has its limitations. First and most significantly,
the present research is conducted from the perspective of
SME employees only. Perhaps if data is collected from
both the SME employees and their employers; and a
comparative study is done, insightful findings about the
impact of organizational support on workplace spirituality
and citizenship behaviour might be revealed. Second,
further research could also investigate the effects of
organizational support on employees’ job satisfaction and
commitment in the context of SMEs sector. Such
researches might potentially expand our understanding of
these important HR matters largely studied in large firms’
context but rarely studies in small business environment.
Finally, the present study regards employee workplace
spirituality and citizenship behaviour as uni-dimensional.
However, many researchers adopt these constructs as a
multidimensional. Therefore, future research might
investigate the effects of organizational support on
different dimensions of organizational citizenship
behaviour and workplace spirituality. All in all, these
suggested future avenues of study stand to immensely
contribute new knowledge to the existing body of
organizational behaviour literature on small business
management.
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