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The Acute Effects of Flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique on Recovery From Maximal Eccentric Exercise
Abstract
Flotation restricted environmental stimulation technique (R.E.S.T.) involves compromising senses of sound, sight, and touch by creating a quiet, dark environment. The individual lies supine in a tank of Epsom salt and water heated to roughly skin temperature (34-35oC). This study was performed to determine if a one hour flotation R.E.S.T. session would aid in the recovery process following maximal eccentric knee extensions and flexions. Twenty-four untrained male students (23.29 ± 2.1 yr, 184.17 ± 6.85 cm, 85.16 ± 11.54 kg) participated in a randomized repeated measures cross-over study. The participants completed two exercise and recovery protocols: a one hour flotation R.E.S.T. session and a one hour seated control (passive recovery). After isometric muscle strength testing, participants were fatigued with eccentric isokinetic muscle contractions (50 repetitions at 60o/sec) of the non-dominant knee extensors and flexors. Blood lactate, blood glucose, heart rate, OMNI-rating of perceived exertion (OMNI-RPE), perceived pain, muscle soreness and isometric strength were collected before exercise, post-treatment, and 24 and 48 hours later. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) found that treatment had a significant main effect on blood lactate, while subsequent univariate ANOVAs found statistical significance with the immediate post treatment blood lactate measures. The results indicate flotation R.E.S.T. appears to have a significant impact on blood lactate and perceived pain compared to a one hour passive recovery session in untrained healthy males. No difference was found between conditions for muscle strength, blood glucose, muscle soreness, heart rate, or OMNI-RPE. Flotation R.E.S.T. may be utilized for recreational and professional athletes to help reduce blood lactate levels after eccentric exercise.
... Massage therapy was cited as the most effective recovery strategy for ameliorating delayed-onset muscle soreness and perception of muscle fatigue, regardless of the participant's status (e.g., athletic, sedentary). 18 As reported by Morgan et al., 21 several of these recovery interventions have been systematically researched and are associated with enhanced postexercise recovery. However, these forms of recovery pose limitations, such as the risk of further tissue damage with massage, extreme discomfort from cryotherapy, and the expense of specialized compression garments. ...
... These improvements may be attributed to the reduced effects of gravitational forces on the human body, allowing joints, muscles, tendons, and arteries to relax. 12,21 Impact of FR on Performance and Recovery FR tanks are relatively inexpensive to purchase, maintain, and administer. Previously reported benefits suggest that FR therapy may enhance recovery and help restore optimal performance following chronically high physiological and psychological loads typical for SOs. ...
... 15,16,30 FR may serve as an effective recovery technique in ameliorating musculoskeletal pain, modulating blood biomarkers (e.g., testosterone, cortisol), and improving sleep. 21,32,33 The potential effects of FR on improving sleep duration and quality could serve as the single impetus toward improving an array of physiological and psychological parameters in SOs. Second, performance is widely viewed by many SOs as paramount toward meeting yearly performance standards. ...
The flotation-restriction environmental stimulation technique (FR) may have utility as a recovery tool for improving performance in elite competitive athletes and Special Operations Forces Operators (SOs). Studies suggest that FR may ameliorate various neurophysiological disorders and improve performance in recreational and elite athletic populations. We sought to understand whether there is evidence to support the use of FR to enhance physiological and psychological performance parameters in the SO population and to provide postulations as to the mechanisms of action of FR therapy. We performed an online literary search of publications dating from 1982 to 2021 and identified 34 sources addressing the aims, depending on population and condition or conditions, being treated. The reported physiological and psychological benefits of FR range from immediate to lasting 4 months. Overall, eight to twelve FR treatment sessions of from 40 to 90 minutes each may provide variable long-term benefits. The associated synergistic benefits of FR may be attributed to its thermal, chemical, and mechanical effects but deserve further exploration. Based on the current evidence, FR may serve as an effective performance-recovery therapy for improving pain, sleep, and performance measures (e.g., marksmanship and physical performance) in trained, untrained, and healthy adults. Future research focusing on FR as a unimodal recovery intervention is warranted in a specialized group of SOs.
... Flotation-restricted environmental stimulation therapy (FLOAT) is a practice that involves an individual lying supine in a light and sound proof chamber that contains a saline solution (Epson salt -Mg 2 SO 4 ) heated to skin temperature (∼34-35 • C) (Driller & Argus, 2016). This unique environment compromises the body's ability to register external stimuli produced by light, sound, and touch (Morgan, Salacinski, & Stults-Kolehmainen, 2013), resulting in the elicitation of the relaxation response (Bood et al., 2006). Research has indicated its benefits to treat numerous health-related issues such as essential hypertension (Suedfeld, Roy, & Landon, 1982), chronic headaches (Wallbaum, Rzewnicki, Steele, & Suedfeld, 1991), and as a stress management tool (Bood et al., 2006;van Dierendonck & Te Nijenhuis, 2005). ...
... To our knowledge, only two studies have investigated the effects of FLOAT on athlete recovery following exercise. Morgan et al. (2013) assessed isometric muscle strength in 24 male participants pre and post a single FLOAT trial and a control (Morgan et al., 2013). Participants performed a fatiguing exercise bout including 50 repetitions of eccentric isokinetic muscle contractions on their non-dominant knee extensors and flexors at 60 • ·s −1 . ...
... To our knowledge, only two studies have investigated the effects of FLOAT on athlete recovery following exercise. Morgan et al. (2013) assessed isometric muscle strength in 24 male participants pre and post a single FLOAT trial and a control (Morgan et al., 2013). Participants performed a fatiguing exercise bout including 50 repetitions of eccentric isokinetic muscle contractions on their non-dominant knee extensors and flexors at 60 • ·s −1 . ...
Objective
The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of flotation-restricted environmental stimulation therapy (FLOAT) on recovery from exercise.
Methods
Nineteen trained, male team-sport athletes (age: 21 ± 2 years) completed two trials separated by seven days; FLOAT, which included one-hour of FLOAT recovery following exercise, and CON, which included one-hour of passive recovery following exercise. Performance and pressure-to-pain algometer measures were taken pre and post exercise and the following morning. Performance measures included an isometric mid-thigh pull, countermovement jump (CMJ), a 15 m sprint, and a repeated sprint test. Perceived measures of muscle soreness (MS) and physical fatigue (PF) were recorded up to 24 h post testing. Salivary cortisol samples were collected pre and post exercise and post recovery. Sleep was monitored via wrist-actigraphy.
Results
FLOAT was found to significantly enhance CMJ (p = 0.05), 10 m sprint (p = 0.01) and 15 m sprint performance (p = 0.05) with small to moderate effects (d = 0.21–0.68) for all performance measures, except CMJ (unclear), compared to CON. The results also show significantly higher pressure-to-pain thresholds across all muscle sites (p’s < 0.01) and lower MS and PF 12 h following FLOAT (p < 0.05). All sleep measures resulted in small to large effects (d = 0.20–0.87) with a significantly greater perceived sleep quality (p = 0.001) for the FLOAT trial compared to CON. There were no significant differences and a trivial effect size between trials for changes in cortisol concentration.
Conclusion
FLOAT may prove to be an effective method of exercise recovery, improving aspects of performance, pressure-to-pain threshold, perceived MS and PF, and sleep quality.
... To our knowledge, only one study has assessed the effect of flotation REST in an exercise-recovery setting. Morgan, Salacinski, & Stults-Kolehmainen, (2013) investigated the use of a 1-h flotation session following maximal eccentric muscle contractions of the knee extensors and flexors. Their results indicated that flotation REST had a significant impact (p < 0.05) on lowering blood lactate and perceived pain compared with a 1-h passive recovery session in 24 untrained healthy men. ...
... In summary, positive effects, both physiological and psychological, have been demonstrated following flotation REST in numerous different populations ranging from healthy individuals to those with chronic diseases. While there are promising indications that flotation REST may be effective in an exercise-recovery setting (Morgan et al., 2013), there is a distinct lack of research investigating the use of flotation REST as a recovery strategy in an elite athlete population. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to assess the effect of a flotation REST session on mood-state variables and perceived muscle soreness following exercise in elite, international level athletes. ...
... The authors went on to conclude that floatation REST appeared to be more effective than other stress reduction strategies (Van Dierendonck & Te Nijenhuis, 2005). As suggested by Morgan et al. (2013) it is likely that a lack of sensory stimuli involved in flotation REST treatment dampens arousal of the central nervous system thus leading to an increased state of relaxation. This increased state of relaxation may be related to changes in a number of the moodstate variables pre to post FLOAT. ...
Relaxation techniques and napping are very popular strategies amongst elite athletes recovering from the psychophysiological demands of training and competition. The current study examined a novel relaxation technique using restricted environmental stimulation therapy in a flotation tank (FLOAT). FLOAT involves reducing the level of environmental stimulation while achieving a sense of near weightlessness through floating in an enclosed, warm, saline-dense water tank. Sixty elite, international-level athletes (28 male, 32 female) across a range of 9 sports, completed a ∼45 min FLOAT session following exercise training for their sport. Pre and post FLOAT, athletes filled out a multidimensional mood-state questionnaire (MDMQ) containing 16 mood-state variables as well as a question on perceived muscle soreness. Group data were analysed for pre to post FLOAT for all measured variables. Further analyses were performed on all variables for athletes that napped during FLOAT (n = 27) and compared to those that did not nap (n = 33). A single FLOAT session significantly enhanced 15 of the 16 mood-state variables (p < 0.05) and also lowered perceived muscle soreness (p < 0.01). Small (n = 3) to moderate (n = 6) effect sizes in favour of napping for 9 of the 16 mood-state variables were found when compared to the no nap group. FLOAT may be an effective tool for both physical and psychological recovery following training in elite athletes. Furthermore, napping in combination with FLOAT may provide additional benefits to enhance certain mood-state variables. This study serves as a pilot study for future research into the performance recovery of elite athletes following FLOAT.
... Morgan et al., 2013, Shalev, 2008. 122 If movement is a basic need, there should be a sense of deprivation in these instances. ...
Physical activity, while less necessary for survival in modern times, is still essential for thriving in life, and low levels of movement are related to numerous physical and mental health problems. However, we poorly understand why people move on a day-to-day basis and how to promote greater energy expenditure. Recently, there has been a turn to understand automatic processes with close examination of older theories of behavior. This has co-occurred with new developments in the study of non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). In this narrative review, it is hypothesized that psycho-physiological drive is important to understand movement in general and NEAT, specifically. Drive, in short, is a motivation state, characterized by arousal and felt tension, energizing the organism to acquire a basic need. Movement is a biological necessity, like food, water, and sleep, but varying across the lifespan and having the greatest impact before adolescence. Movement meets various criteria for a primary drive: a) deprivation of it produces feelings of tension, such as an urge or craving, known as affectively-charged motivation states, and particularly the feelings of being antsy, restless, hyper or cooped up, b) provision of the need quickly reduces tension; one can be satiated, and may even over-consume, c) it can be provoked by qualities of the environment, d) it is under homeostatic control, e) there is an appetite (i.e., appetence) for movement but also aversion, and f) it has a developmental time course. Evidence for drive has mainly come from children and populations with hyperkinetic disorders, such as those with anorexia nervosa, restless legs syndrome, and akathisia. It is also stimulated in conditions of deprivation, such as bed rest, quarantine, flights, and physical restraint. It seems to be lacking in the hypokinetic disorders, such as depression and Parkinson’s. Thus, drive is associated with displeasure and negative reinforcement, subsuming it within the theory of hedonic drive, but it may fit better within new paradigms, such as the WANT model (Wants and Aversions for Neuromuscular Tasks). Recently developed measurement tools, such as the CRAVE scale, may permit the earnest investigation of movement drive, satiation, and motivation states in humans.
... [95% CI = -0.91 to -0.30]) [103,104]. Pain reduction is a well-known phenomenon in hydrotherapy and subject to explanation models and hypotheses from relaxation after sensory overflow to the potential activation of unmyelinated c-tactile fibers [4,9,105]. Pain relieving effects sizes, e.g. in primary dysmenorrhea (moderate grade of evidence, Cohen's d = -0.43 [95% CI = -0.7 to -0.15]) and labor (very low grade of evidence, raw mean difference in VAS pain (0-100) of 10.30 [95% CI = 4.69 to 15.91]) are also attributed to acupressure, one form of which is Shiatsu [106,107]. ...
Background
WATSU (portmanteau word: water and shiatsu) is a form of passive hydrotherapy in chest-deep thermoneutral water (35°C = 95°F = 308.15 K). It combines elements of myofascial stretching, joint mobilization, massage, and shiatsu and is reported to be used to address physical and mental issues. The objective of this systematic review (PROSPERO Registration No. CRD42016029347) and the meta-analyses was to assess the applications, indications, and the effects of WATSU to form a basis for further studies.
Methods
A search for “WATSU OR watershiatsu OR (water AND shiatsu)” was conducted without any restrictions in 32 databases. Peer reviewed original articles addressing WATSU as a stand-alone hydrotherapy were assessed for risk of bias. Quantitative data of effects on pain, physical function, and mental issues were processed in random model meta-analyses with subgroup analyses by study design. Effect sizes were expressed as Hedges's g (± 95% confidence intervals).
Results
Of 1,906 unique citations, 27 articles regardless of study design were assessed for risk of bias. WATSU has been applied to individuals of all ages. Indications covered acute (e.g. pregnancy related low back pain) and chronic conditions (e.g. cerebral palsy) with beneficial effects of WATSU regarding e.g. relaxation or sleep quality. Meta-analyses suggest beneficial effect sizes of WATSU on pain (overall Hedges’s g = -0.71, 95% CI = -0.91 to -0.51), physical function (overall Hedges’s g = -0.76, 95% CI = -1.08 to -0.44), and mental issues (overall Hedges’s g = -0.68, 95% CI = -1.02 to -0.35).
Conclusion
Various applications, indications and beneficial effects of WATSU were identified. The grade of this evidence is estimated to be low to moderate at the best. To strengthen the findings of this study, high-quality RCTs are needed.
... There are various passive cool-down interventions such as sitting rest, saunas, pneumatic leg compression, and electrostimulation (see Table 1 for an overview) [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. However, most non-elite athletes do not have access to a sauna or equipment for the other interventions, and most practitioners also lack the necessary knowledge about how best to apply these interventions (partly because of a lack of evidence-based guidelines). ...
It is widely believed that an active cool-down is more effective for promoting post-exercise recovery than a passive cool-down involving no activity. However, research on this topic has never been synthesized and it therefore remains largely unknown whether this belief is correct. This review compares the effects of various types of active cool-downs with passive cool-downs on sports performance, injuries, long-term adaptive responses, and psychophysiological markers of post-exercise recovery. An active cool-down is largely ineffective with respect to enhancing same-day and next-day(s) sports performance, but some beneficial effects on next-day(s) performance have been reported. Active cool-downs do not appear to prevent injuries, and preliminary evidence suggests that performing an active cool-down on a regular basis does not attenuate the long-term adaptive response. Active cool-downs accelerate recovery of lactate in blood, but not necessarily in muscle tissue. Performing active cool-downs may partially prevent immune system depression and promote faster recovery of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. However, it is unknown whether this reduces the likelihood of post-exercise illnesses, syncope, and cardiovascular complications. Most evidence indicates that active cool-downs do not significantly reduce muscle soreness, or improve the recovery of indirect markers of muscle damage, neuromuscular contractile properties, musculotendinous stiffness, range of motion, systemic hormonal concentrations, or measures of psychological recovery. It can also interfere with muscle glycogen resynthesis. In summary, based on the empirical evidence currently available, active cool-downs are largely ineffective for improving most psychophysiological markers of post-exercise recovery, but may nevertheless offer some benefits compared with a passive cool-down.
... During pregnancy, it is recommended to refrain from analgesics [47], and thus nonpharmacologic alternatives are desirable. Prior research found that merely being immersed in warm water decreases pain [44,48]. Passive hydrotherapy offers in addition unique possibilities of weightless mobilization in a quasi gravity-free environment with reduced joint compression forces. ...
Background: WATSU (WaterShiatsu) is a complementary therapeutic treatment method comprising passive stretches and massage techniques administered in 35°C warm water. Pregnant women claim safe methods to reduce pain, stress, and fatigue.Therefore, we conducted a pilot study evaluating the effects of WATSU on pregnancy-related complaints in third trimester pregnant women.
Methods: Nine healthy pregnant women at gestational week ≥34 were included in an intervention group (receiving WATSU) and compared to eight women in a passive control group (receiving no treatment). WATSU was performed on days 1 and 4 of the study, accompanied by ultrasound examinations. Outcomes include physiological and psychometric as well as qualitative data. Participants in the control group completed questionnaires only.
Results: WATSU was found to significantly lower participants’ levels of stress and pain and to improve their mental health-related quality of life and mood. In comparison to the passive control group, participants in the intervention group reported reduction in perceived stress from day 1 to day 8 (𝑃 = 0.036, Cohen’s 𝑓 = 0.57). Qualitative data indicate that WATSU was appreciated as enjoyable and deeply relaxing. No negative side effects were reported.
Conclusion: Our findings support the notion that WATSU yields therapeutic benefits for pregnant women and warrant further research.
This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01708018.
... Future work employing longitudinal designs would permit firmer conclusions, particularly if active populations were examined over a series of strenuous training sessions-with resulting accumulation of fatigue. Given the prevalence of stress in society, however, there is a greater need for tailored interventions, such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), cognitive behavior therapy, and restricted environmental stimulation technique (29,31). If such investigations provide evidence of reduced distress and enhanced recovery, this would further support the accumulating literature that supports a relationship between stress and physiological recuperation. ...
The primary aim of this study was to determine whether chronic mental stress moderates recovery of muscular function and somatic sensations: perceived energy, fatigue and soreness, in a four-day period following a bout of strenuous resistance exercise. Undergraduate resistance training students (n = 31, age = 20.26 ± 1.34 y) completed the perceived stress scale (PSS) and Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire, measure of life event stress. At a later visit, they performed an acute heavy-resistance exercise protocol (10-RM leg press test plus six sets: 80-100% of 10-RM). Maximal isometric force (MIF), perceived energy, fatigue, and soreness were assessed in approximately 24-hour intervals post-exercise. Recovery data was analyzed with hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) growth curve analysis. Life event stress significantly moderated linear (p = .027) and squared (p = .031) recovery of MIF. This relationship held even when the model was adjusted for fitness, workload, and training experience. Perceived energy (p = .038), fatigue (p = .040) and soreness (p = .027) all were moderated by life stress. Mean perceived stress modulated linear and squared recovery of MIF (p values < .001) and energy (p = .004) but not fatigue or soreness. In all analyses, higher stress was associated with worse recovery. Stress, whether assessed as life event stress or perceived stress, moderated the recovery trajectories of muscular function and somatic sensations in a 96 hour period after strenuous resistance exercise. Therefore, under conditions of inordinate stress, individuals may need to be more mindful about observing an appropriate length of recovery.
Purpose:
The aim of the present investigation was to determine whether a one-hour floatation-REST session could augment recovery from high-intensity resistance exercise (6 x10 back squats, 2 minutes rest) known to induce significant metabolic, adrenergic, and mechanical stress.
Methods:
Eleven healthy resistance-trained males (age: 22.5 ± 2.3 years; height: 176.4 ± 6.0 cm; weight: 85.7 ± 6.2 kg, back squat 1RM: 153.1 ± 20.1 kg; strength to weight ratio: 1.8 ± 0.2) completed the within-subjects, cross-over controlled study design. Participants completed two exercise testing blocks separated by a two-week washout. In one block, the high-intensity resistance exercise protocol was followed by a one-hour floatation-REST session, while recovery in the alternate block consisted of a passive sensory-stimulating control. Markers of metabolic stress, neuroendocrine signaling, structural damage, inflammation, and perceptions of soreness, mood state and fatigue were assessed over a 48-hour recovery window.
Results:
Floatation-REST significantly attenuated muscle soreness across recovery (p = 0.035) with greatest treatment difference immediately following the intervention (p = 0.002, ES = 1.3). Significant differences in norepinephrine (p = 0.028, ES = 0.81) and testosterone (p = 0.028, ES = 0.81) immediately following treatment revealed modification of neuroendocrine signaling pathways which were accompanied by greater improvements in mood disturbance (p = 0.029, ES = 0.81) and fatigue (p = 0.001, ES = 1.04).
Conclusions:
As no adverse effects and significant and meaningful benefits were observed, floatation-REST may prove a valuable intervention for managing soreness and enhancing performance readiness following exercise.
Objective
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a novel “floatation-restricted environmental stimulation therapy” (floatation-REST) on growth hormone responses to an intense resistance exercise stress.
Design
Nine resistance trained men (age: 23.4 ± 2.5 yrs.; height: 175.3 ± 5.4 cm; body mass: 85.3 ± 7.9 kg) completed a balanced, crossover-controlled study design with two identical exercise trials, differing only in post-exercise recovery intervention (i.e., control or floatation-REST). A two-week washout period was used between experimental conditions. Plasma lactate was measured pre-exercise, immediately post-exercise and after the 1 h. recovery interventions. Plasma iGH was measured pre-exercise, immediately-post exercise, and after the recovery intervention, as well as 24 h and 48 h after the exercise test. The bGH-L was measured only at pre-exercise and following each recovery intervention.
Results
For both experimental conditions, a significant (P ≤ 0.05) increase in lactate concentrations were observed immediately post-exercise (~14 mmol • L-1) and remained slightly elevated after the recovery condition. The same pattern of responses was observed for iGH with no differences from resting values at 24 and 48 h of recovery. The bGH-L showed no exercise-induced changes following recovery with either treatment condition, however concentration values were dramatically lower than ever reported.
Conclusion
The use of floatation-REST therapy immediately following intense resistance exercise does not appear to influence anterior pituitary function in highly resistance trained men. However, the lower values of bGH suggest dramatically different molecular processing mechanisms at work in this highly trained population.
Bu çalışmanın amacı akut egzersiz uygulayan bireylerin ertelenmiş kas ağrısı üzerine sauna uygulamalarının etkisini araştırmaktır. Çalışmaya haftada 2 gün ortalama 60 dakika fiziksel aktivite yapan, yaşları 18-24 yaş arası 29 erkek spor bilimleri fakültesi öğrencisi alındı. Gönüllüler rastgele yöntemiyle kontrol grubu(15 kişi) ve uygulama grubu (14 kişi) olmak üzere iki gruba ayrıldı. Gönüllülerin egzersiz aletlerinde bir kerede kaldırabilecekleri ağırlık belirlenerek bu ağırlıkların %75'i kaydedildi. Egzersizden hemen sonra doktor kontrolünde uygulama grubuna sauna programı uygulandı. Kontrol ve uygulama gruplarına uygulanan protokol sonrası elde edilen VAS skorları, grup etkisi bağımsız düşünüldüğünde gruplar arasında anlamlı fark tespit edilmiştir. Gruplar arasındaki VAS1, VAS2 ve VAS3 karşılaştırmalardaki değerler uygulama grupları açısından kontrol grubuna göre daha düşük seviyede olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Yapılan karşılaştırmada VAS1 ve VAS2 değerlerinde uygulama grubu lehine istatistiksel bir fark ortaya çıkmıştır (p<0.01). Sonuç olarak ağırlık egzersizi sonrası sauna uygulamalarının ertelenmiş kas ağrısı üzerine olumlu etkileri tespit edilmiştir.
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of sauna applications on delayed onset muscle soreness in volunteers performing acute exercise. The study consisted of 29 male sports sciences students aged between 18-24 years who were doing physical activity for 60 minutes on average 2 days a week. The volunteers were randomly divided into two groups as control group (15 people) and experimental group (14 people). The weights that volunteers can lift at one time on the exercise equipment were determined and %75 of these weights were recorded. Immediately after the exercise, a sauna program was applied to the experimental group under the supervision of a doctor. When the VAS scores obtained after the protocol applied to the control and experimental groups were considered independently of the group effect, a significant difference was detected between the groups.The values in the VAS1, VAS2 and VAS3 comparisons between the groups were lower in the experimental group than in the control group. In the comparison, a statistical difference was found in the VAS1 and VAS2 values in favor of the experimental group(p<0.01). As a result, positive effects of sauna experimental on delayed onset muscle soreness were determined after weight training applied to volunteers.
The literature survey 2013 is based on 1063 papers found in Scopus and the journal "Thermology international, Vol. 23" with the keywords "thermography" or "thermometry" "temperature measurement" or 'skin temperature' or 'core temperature' and restricted to "human" and "published in 2013". 41 percent of papers of this review are originated from Europe and 94.9 percent of all papers are written in English. 315 controlled studies using some kind of temperature measurement were included in this survey. Physiology and Endocrinology, Surgery, Cancer and Neurology & Psychiatry were the predominant fields of applications of temperature measurement in medicine. As in previous years, therapeutic hypothermia and hyperthermia treatment was the topic of many papers. Fever attracted also a high number of publications. Although the terms "breast" or "breast cancer" appeared in 101 publications, only a minority of those were related to breast thermography. Some articles were found for the complex regional pain syndrome and Raynaud's phenomenon.
Eccentric exercise continues to receive attention as a productive means of exercise. Coupled with this has been the heightened study of the damage that occurs in early stages of exposure to eccentric exercise. This is commonly referred to as delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). To date, a sound and consistent treatment for DOMS has not been established. Although multiple practices exist for the treatment of DOMS, few have scientific support. Suggested treatments for DOMS are numerous and include pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, stretching, massage, nutritional supplements, and many more. DOMS is particularly prevalent in resistance training; hence, this article may be of particular interest to the coach, trainer, or physical therapist to aid in selection of efficient treatments. First, we briefly review eccentric exercise and its characteristics and then proceed to a scientific and systematic overview and evaluation of treatments for DOMS. We have classified treatments into 3 sections, namely, pharmacological, conventional rehabilitation approaches, and a third section that collectively evaluates multiple additional practiced treatments. Literature that addresses most directly the question regarding the effectiveness of a particular treatment has been selected. The reader will note that selected treatments such as anti-inflammatory drugs and antioxidants appear to have a potential in the treatment of DOMS. Other conventional approaches, such as massage, ultrasound, and stretching appear less promising.
In this study we investigated the value of flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) as a stress-management tool. We focused on the physiological effects of REST, its influence on well-being, and on performance. Twenty-seven studies published in 25 articles or book chapters were included in a meta-analysis. The total number of participants was 449, with a mean age of 29 years (ranging between 20 and 45). Sixty-four percent was male and 36% was female. The results showed that REST has positive effects on physiology (e.g., lower levels of cortisol, lower blood pressure), well-being, and performance. The pre–post mean effect size and the overall randomized control group effect size were relatively strong. This suggests that despite some limitations of the original studies, flotation REST can be a useful stress management tool in addition to or instead of other stress management tools.
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST), which involves placing an individual into an environment of severely reduced stimulation for brief periods, has been subjectively reported to produce deep relaxation. The present study determines the effects of REST-assisted relaxation on plasma cortisol, ACTH, and luteinizing hormone (LH). These parameters were also measured in a group exposed to a similar relaxation paradigm, but without REST (non-REST). Each subject experienced two baseline sessions (1 and 2), four REST (or non-REST) relaxation sessions (3, 4, 5, 6), and two follow-up sessions (7 and 8). Pre- and postsession plasma hormone levels were measured in sessions 1, 2, 5, and 8. Both REST and non-REST subjects reported that the experience was relaxing. During the treatment period (session 5) pre- to postsession changes in cortisol and ACTH, but not in LH, were significantly greater for the REST group than for the non-REST group. Plasma cortisol level also decreased across sessions in the REST group, with levels in sessions 5 and 8 significantly lower than the baseline (sessions 1 and 2). Non-Rest subjects showed no change in plasma cortisol across sessions. No significant change in plasma ACTH or LH occurred across sessions in the REST or non-REST groups, although ACTH showed a decreasing trend. These data demonstrate that repeated brief REST-assisted relaxation produces a relaxation state associated with specific decreases in pituitary-adrenal axis activity.
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of hip position and test velocity on the quadriceps and hamstring reciprocal muscle group ratio. Twelve subjects (7 male, 5 female) were tested for isokinetic peak torque at 60, 180, and 240 degrees /sec from the seated and supine positions. Gravity correction was obtained to determine quadriceps and hamstring peak torque, and to determine the reciprocal muscle group ratios. Results indicated there was a decrease in production of peak torque with an increase in test velocity for both muscle groups. Also, peak torque values were greater in the seated than supine position for both muscle groups. The influence of test velocity on the quadriceps and hamstring reciprocal muscle group ratio was to increase the ratio with increasing test velocity. Also, the reciprocal muscle group ratio increased from the supine to the seated position at all test velocities. These findings suggest that determination of the quadriceps and hamstring reciprocal muscle group ratio is influenced by both hip position and test velocity. Because many athletic activities involving running and sprinting occur from a hip position closer to the supine test position, evaluation of peak torque and determination of the reciprocal muscle group ratio may be more appropriate from the supine position. Also, normative data establishing target ratios should be determined from several test velocities. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1989;11(3):104-107.
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST), which involves placing an individual into an environment of severely reduced stimulation for brief periods, has been subjectively reported to produce deep relaxation. The present study determines the effects of REST-assisted relaxation on plasma cortisol, ACTH, and luteinizing hormone (LH). These parameters were also measured in a group exposed to a similar relaxation paradigm, but without REST (non-REST). Each subject experienced two baseline sessions (1 and 2), four REST (or non-REST) relaxation sessions (3, 4, 5, 6), and two follow-up sessions (7 and 8). Pre- and postsession plasma hormone levels were measured in sessions 1, 2, 5, and 8. Both REST and non-REST subjects reported that the experience was relaxing. During the treatment period (session 5) pre- to postsession changes in cortisol and ACTH, but not in LH, were significantly greater for the REST group than for the non-REST group. Plasma cortisol level also decreased across sessions in the REST group, with levels in sessions 5 and 8 significantly lower than the baseline (sessions 1 and 2). Non-Rest subjects showed no change in plasma cortisol across sessions. No significant change in plasma ACTH or LH occurred across sessions in the REST or non-REST groups, although ACTH showed a decreasing trend. These data demonstrate that repeated brief REST-assisted relaxation produces a relaxation state associated with specific decreases in pituitary-adrenal axis activity.
This pilot project investigated the effects of controlled frequent brief REST relaxation sessions on the blood pressure of three subjects with borderline essential hypertension. A flotation REST system was used, and subjects had 2 or 3 sessions weekly for 2 months. All three subjects had blood-pressure reductions of a clinically significant magnitude across the treatment and follow-up periods.
The objective of this review is to evaluate the measurement tools currently used in the study of eccentric contraction-induced muscle injury, with emphasis on their usefulness for quantifying the magnitude and duration of the injury and as indicators of muscle functional deficits. In studies in humans, it was concluded that measurements of maximal voluntary contraction torque and range of motion provide the best methods for quantifying muscle injury. Similarly, in animal studies, the in vitro measurement of electrically elicited force under isometric conditions was considered to be the best of the measurement tools currently in use.
For future studies, more effort should be put into measuring other contractile parameters (e.g. force/torque-velocity and force/torque-length relationships, maximal shortening velocity and fatigue susceptibility) that may reflect injury-induced functional impairments. The use of histology, ratings of soreness and the measurement of blood or bath levels of myofibre proteins should be discouraged for purposes of quantifying muscle injury and/or functional impairment.
The recovery process in sport plays an essential role in determining subsequent athletic performance. This study investigated the effectiveness of different recovery interventions after maximal exercise. Eighteen trained male cyclists initially undertook an incremental test to determine maximal oxygen consumption. The four recovery interventions tested were: passive, active (50% maximal oxygen uptake), massage, and combined (involving active and massage components). All test sessions were separated by 2 to 3 days. During intervention trials subjects performed two simulated 5 km maximal effort cycling tests (T1 and T2) separated by a 20 min recovery. Performance time for the tests (t1, t2); blood lactate (BLa) during T1, T2, and every 3 min during recovery; and heart rate (HR) during the recovery intervention and T2 were recorded. Combined recovery was found to be better than passive (P<0.01) and either active or massage (P<0.05) in maintenance of performance time during T2. Active recovery was the most effective intervention for removing BLa at minutes 9 and 12, BLa removal during combined recovery was significantly better than passive at minute 3, and significantly better than passive, active, and massage at minute 15. In conclusion, combined recovery was the most efficient intervention for maintaining maximal performance time during T2, and active recovery was the best intervention for removing BLa.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the floating form of the restricted environmental stimulation technique (REST) may be applied within the field of pain relief. Flotation-REST consists of a procedure whereby an individual is immersed in a tank filled with water of an extremely high salt concentration. Thirty-seven patients (14 men and 23 women) suffering from chronic pain consisting of aching muscles in the neck and back area participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to either a control group (17 participants) or an experimental group (20 participants). The experimental group received nine opportunities to use the flotation-REST technique in the water tank over a three-week period. The results indicated that the most severe perceived pain intensity was significantly reduced, whereas low perceived pain intensity was not influenced by the floating technique. Further, the results indicated that circulating levels of the noradrenaline metabolite 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol were reduced significantly in the experimental group but not in the control group following treatment, whereas endorphin levels were not affected by flotation. Flotation-REST treatment also elevated the participants' optimism and reduced the degree of anxiety or depression; at nighttime, patients who underwent flotation fell asleep more easily. The present findings describe possible changes, for the better, in patients presenting with chronic pain complaints.
Unlabelled:
The criterion variables were total weight lifted (Wttot ) determined separately for women and men during BC and KE, and blood lactic acid concentration ([Hla]) determined for a combined female ( N = 10) and male ( N = 10) subset during BC. Subjects performed three separate sets of 4, 8, and 12 repetitions for BC and KE at 65% one-repetition maximum. Rating of perceived exertion for the active muscles (RPE-AM) was measured during the mid and final repetition and RPE for the overall body (RPE-O) during the final repetition. : For both female and male groups across the three sets: (a) RPE-AM ranged from 3.6 to 8.2 for BC and 5.1 to 9.6 for KE and (b) RPE-O ranged from 2.4 to 6.7 for BC and 4.2 to 7.6 for KE. Positive linear regressions ranged from r = 0.79 to 0.91 ( P < 0.01) between Wttot and RPE-AM (mid), RPE-AM (final), and RPE-O for both BC and KE in both sex groupings. A positive ( P < 0.01) linear regression was found between [Hla] and RPE-AM (final) (r = 0.87) during BC. RPE did not differ between women and men at any measurement point within each set for BC and KE. RPE-AM (final) was greater ( P < 0.01) than RPE-O in the three sets of BC and KE.
Conclusion:
Findings provided concurrent validation of the OMNI-RES to measure RPE for the active muscle and overall body in young recreationally trained female and male weight lifters performing upper- and lower-body resistance exercise.
Eccentric exercise continues to receive attention as a productive means of exercise. Coupled with this has been the heightened study of the damage that occurs in early stages of exposure to eccentric exercise. This is commonly referred to as delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). To date, a sound and consistent treatment for DOMS has not been established. Although multiple practices exist for the treatment of DOMS, few have scientific support. Suggested treatments for DOMS are numerous and include pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, stretching, massage, nutritional supplements, and many more. DOMS is particularly prevalent in resistance training; hence, this article may be of particular interest to the coach, trainer, or physical therapist to aid in selection of efficient treatments. First, we briefly review eccentric exercise and its characteristics and then proceed to a scientific and systematic overview and evaluation of treatments for DOMS. We have classified treatments into 3 sections, namely, pharmacological, conventional rehabilitation approaches, and a third section that collectively evaluates multiple additional practiced treatments. Literature that addresses most directly the question regarding the effectiveness of a particular treatment has been selected. The reader will note that selected treatments such as anti-inflammatory drugs and antioxidants appear to have a potential in the treatment of DOMS. Other conventional approaches, such as massage, ultrasound, and stretching appear less promising.
To examine the effectiveness of four interventions on the rate and magnitude of muscle damage recovery, as measured by creatine kinase (CK).
23 elite male rugby players were monitored transdermally before, immediately after, 36 hours after, and 84 hours after competitive rugby matches. Players were randomly assigned to complete one of four post-match strategies: contrast water therapy (CWT), compression garment (GAR), low intensity active exercise (ACT), and passive recovery (PAS).
Significant increases in CK activity in transdermal exudate were observed as a result of the rugby match (p<0.01). The magnitude of recovery in the PAS intervention was significantly worse than in the ACT, CWT, and GAR interventions at the 36 and 84 hour time points (p<0.05).
An enhanced rate and magnitude of recovery was observed in the ACT, CWT, and GAR treatment groups when compared with the PAS group. Low impact exercise immediately post-competition, wearing compression garments, or carrying out contrast water therapy enhanced CK clearance more than passive recovery in young male athletes.
This article critically discusses whether accumulation of lactic acid, or in reality lactate and/or hydrogen (H+) ions, is a major cause of skeletal muscle fatigue, i.e. decline of muscle force or power output leading to impaired exercise performance. There exists a long history of studies on the effects of increased lactate/H+ concentrations in muscle or plasma on contractile performance of skeletal muscle. Evidence suggesting that lactate/H+ is a culprit has been based on correlation-type studies, which reveal close temporal relationships between intramuscular lactate or H+ accumulation and the decline of force during fatiguing stimulation in frog, rodent or human muscle. In addition, an induced acidosis can impair muscle contractility in non-fatigued humans or in isolated muscle preparations, and several mechanisms to explain such effects have been provided. However, a number of recent high-profile papers have seriously challenged the ‘lactic acid hypothesis’. In the 1990s, these findings mainly involved diminished negative effects of an induced acidosis in skinned or intact muscle fibres, at higher more physiological experimental temperatures. In the early 2000s, it was conclusively shown that lactate has little detrimental effect on mechanically skinned fibres activated by artificial stimulation. Perhaps more remarkably, there are now several reports of protective effects of lactate exposure or induced acidosis on potassium-depressed muscle contractions in isolated rodent muscles. In addition, sodium-lactate exposure can attenuate severe fatigue in rat muscle stimulated in situ, and sodium lactate ingestion can increase time to exhaustion during sprinting in humans. Taken together, these latest findings have led to the idea that lactate/ H+ is ergogenic during exercise.
It should not be taken as fact that lactic acid is the deviant that impairs exercise performance. Experiments on isolated muscle suggest that acidosis has little detrimental effect or may even improve muscle performance during high-intensity exercise. In contrast, induced acidosis can exacerbate fatigue during whole-body dynamic exercise and alkalosis can improve exercise performance in events lasting 1–10 minutes. To reconcile the findings from isolated muscle fibres through to whole-body exercise, it is hypothesised that a severe plasma acidosis in humans might impair exercise performance by causing a reduced CNS drive to muscle.
Metabolic syndrome is associated with abdominal obesity, blood lipid disorders, inflammation, insulin resistance or full-blown diabetes, and increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Proposed criteria for identifying patients with metabolic syndrome have contributed greatly to preventive medicine, but the value of metabolic syndrome as a scientific concept remains controversial. The presence of metabolic syndrome alone cannot predict global cardiovascular disease risk. But abdominal obesity - the most prevalent manifestation of metabolic syndrome - is a marker of 'dysfunctional adipose tissue', and is of central importance in clinical diagnosis. Better risk assessment algorithms are needed to quantify diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk on a global scale.
In this study, we investigated for the first time whether flotation-REST might be used for treating chronic whiplash-associated disorders (WAD). Six women and one man, all diagnosed by licensed physicians as having chronic whiplash-associated disorder, participated. Two of the participants were beginners with regard to flotation-REST (2 or 3 treatments), and five of them had experienced between 7 and 15 treatments. The method for data collection was the semistructured qualitative interview. The empirical phenomenological psychological method devised by Karlsson was used for the analyses. Two qualitative models explaining the participants' experiences of flotation-REST emerged. The models describe the participants' experiences of flotation-REST, as well as the short-term effects of the treatment in terms of five phases: (a) intensification, (b) vitalization, (c) transcendation, (d) defocusation, and (e) reorientation. Results indicated that flotation-REST is a meaningful alternative for treating chronic whiplash-associated disorder.
Examines the treatment of sensory deprivation research (usually referred to as the Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique or REST) in 185 introductory psychology textbooks published between 1956 and 1986. It is concluded that the research area has undergone many changes, moving from dramatic early findings that were widely publicized but proved unreliable, to systematic investigations and replications, to well-established applications in a number of fields including behavioral health. Most textbooks still describe results in terms of such largely abandoned issues as hallucinations, cognitive impairment, and high stress. The modal reference even in the mid-1980s is still to articles published in the mid-1950s. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Active recovery has proven an effective means in reducing blood lactate concentration ([La-]) after various activities, yet its effects on performance are less clear. We investigated the effects of passive and active recovery on blood [La-], rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and performance during a resistance training workout. Fifteen resistance-trained males completed 3 workouts, each consisting of 6 sets of parallel squat exercise performed at 85% of 10 repetition maximum (10RM). Each set was separated by a 4-minute recovery period. Recovery was randomly assigned from the following: passive sitting; pedaling at 25% of onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) exercise intensity (25%-OBLA); and pedaling at 50% of OBLA exercise intensity (50%-OBLA). Active recovery was performed on a bicycle ergometer at 70 rev[middle dot]min-1. Performance was determined postworkout by a maximal repetition performance (MRP) squat test using 65% of 10RM. Blood samples were collected: prewarm-up; post-second, postfourth, postsixth, and MRP sets; and postsecond, postfourth, and postsixth recovery periods. Significant differences (p <= 0.05) were observed in [La-], and RPE among the 3 recoveries, with 25%-OBLA lower than passive and 50%-OBLA. Total repetitions to exhaustion for the MRP were: passive (24.1 +/- 1.8); 25%-OBLA (29.3 +/- 1.8); and 50%-OBLA (23.1 +/- 1.7), with 25%-OBLA being significantly greater than passive and 50%-OBLA. In this investigation, active recovery at 25%-OBLA proved to be the most effective means of reducing [La-] during recovery and increasing performance following a parallel squat workout.
(C) 2000 National Strength and Conditioning Association
PROPRIOCEPTION IS AN IMPORTANT SOMATOSENSORY SUBSYSTEM THAT AFFECTS MOVEMENT. UNDERSTANDING PROPRIOCEPTION AND HOW IT IS AFFECTED BY INJURY, REHABILITATION, AND TRAINING IS CRUCIAL TO INSTITUTING EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS FOR TREATING AND PREVENTING INJURIES. THE AIM OF THIS ARTICLE WAS TO DISCUSS AND CLARIFY TERMINOLOGY AND CONCEPTS OF PROPRIOCEPTIVE FUNCTION AND HOW IT IS ADDRESSED IN THE CONTEXT OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND ATHLETIC CONDITIONING.
The primary aim of this study was to determine whether chronic mental stress moderates recovery of muscular function, perceived energy, fatigue, and soreness in the first hour after a bout of strenuous resistance exercise.
Thirty-one undergraduate resistance training students (age = 20.26 ± 1.34 yr) completed the Perceived Stress Scale and Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire (USQ; a measure of life event stress) and completed fitness testing. After 5 to 14 d of recovery, they performed an acute heavy-resistance exercise protocol (10-repetition maximum (RM) leg press test plus six sets: 80%-100% of 10 RM). Maximal isometric force (MIF) was assessed before exercise, after exercise, and at 20, 40, and 60 min postexercise. Participants also reported their levels of perceived energy, fatigue, and soreness. Recovery data were analyzed with hierarchical linear modeling growth curve analysis.
Life event stress significantly moderated linear (P = 0.013) and squared (P = 0.05) recovery of MIF. This relationship held even when the model was adjusted for fitness, workload, and training experience. Likewise, perceived stress moderated linear recovery of MIF (P = 0.023). Neither USQ nor Perceived Stress Scale significantly moderated changes in energy, fatigue, or soreness.
Life event stress and perceived stress both moderated the recovery of muscular function, but not psychological responses, in the first hour after strenuous resistance exercise.
The previous paper (Suedfeld et al., 1982, pp. 553–559) reported the use of Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) in treating hypertension. This paper reports the response of two patients to 24 hr of a similar treatment offered as an adjunct to a weight-control program. In both patients blood pressure dropped immediately following the REST session and remained lower for up to 9 months. The initial drop in blood pressure was independent of weight loss. These results are interpreted in terms of a psychobiological model of self-regulation.
Spinal manipulation is a commonly used modality for the treatment of low back pain with increasing evidence of positive outcomes. Adjunctive therapies such as hydrotherapy, flotation and exercise prescription are also used with effect for a range of clinical conditions including low back pain. This report introduces the potential role of combining spinal manipulation and adjunctive Flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (Flotation REST) in the treatment of acute non-specific low back pain. Outcome measures were used to assess the effectiveness of this combination of therapies and demonstrated both amelioration of pain and improvement in level of disability. The results support implementing a more detailed study with larger numbers of participants.
Using the [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose method and positron emission topography, we studied cerebral glucose utilization during sleep and wakefulness in 11 young normal subjects. Each of them was studied at least thrice: during wakefulness, slow wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement sleep (REMS), at 1 week intervals. Four stage 3–4 SWS and 4 REMS fulfilled the steady state conditions of the model. The control population consisted of 9 normal age-matched subjects studied twice during wakefulness at, at least, 1 week intervals. Under these conditions, the average difference between the first and the second cerebral glucose metabolic rates (CMRGlu was: −7.91 ± 15.46%, which does not differ significantly from zero (P=0.13). During SWS, a significant decrease in CMRGlu was observed as compared to wakefulness (mean difference: −43.80 ± 14.10%, P < 0.01). All brain regions were equally affected but thalamic nuclei had significantly lower glucose utilization than the average cortex. During REMS, the CMRGlu were as high as during wakefulness (mean difference: 4.30 ± 7.40%, P=0.35). The metabolic pattern during REMS appeared more heterogenous than at wake. An activation of left temporal and occipital areas is suggested. It is hypothetized that energy requirements for maintaining membrane polarity are reduced during SWS because of a decreased rate of synaptic events. During REMS, cerebral glucose utilization is similar to that of wakefulness, presumably because of reactivated neurotransmission and increased need for ion gradients maintenance.
Previous measures of physical activity for epidemiologic studies were considered Inadequate to meet the needs of a community-based health education trial. Therefore, new methods of quantifying the physical activity habits of communities were developed which are practical for large health surveys, provide Information on the distribution of activity habits in the population, can detect changes in activity over time, and can be compared with other epidemiologic studies of physical activity. Independent sell-reports of vigorous activity (at least 6 metabolic equivalents (METs)), moderate activity (3–5 METs), and total energy expenditure (kilocalories per day) are described, and the physical activity practices of samples of California cities are presented. Relationships between physical activity measures and age, education, occupation, ethnicity, marital status, and body mass index are analyzed, and the reliabilities of the three activity indices are reported. The new assessment procedure is contrasted with nine other measures of physical activity used in community surveys.
Isometric torque of the knee flexor and extensor muscles were recorded for 5 seconds at three knee joint positions. The subjects included healthy men in age groups from 20 to 35 and 45 to 65 years of age. The amplitudes and duration of peak torque and the time to peak torque were measured for each contraction. Peak torque was usually maintaned less than 0.1 second and never longer than 0.9 second. At each of the three angles, the mean extensor muscle torque was higher than the mean flexor muscle torque in both age groups, and the mean torque for both muscle group was higher among the younger than among the older man. The highest average torque was recorded at the knee angle of 60 degrees for the extensor muscles and 45 degrees for the flexor muscles, but this was not always a stereotyped response either for a given individual or among individuals.
This study examined exercise-induced muscle damage, repair, and rapid adaptation. Eight college-age women performed three eccentric exercises of the forearm flexors. One arm performed 70 maximal contractions (70-MAX condition), and the other arm performed 24 maximal contractions (24-MAX) followed 2 wk later by 70 maximal contractions (70-MAX2). Criterion measures of serum creatine kinase, muscle soreness and pain, isometric strength, and muscle shortening were assessed before, immediately after, and for 5 days after each exercise. Significant changes in all criterion measures were found after the 70-MAX exercise with a slow recovery that was not complete by day 5 after exercise. The 24-MAX condition showed only small changes in the criterion measures. Changes in the criterion measures after the 70-MAX2 exercise were significantly smaller than those after the 70-MAX exercise. Results from this study, with regard to the ability of the muscle to adapt to exercise-induced damage, suggest that an adaptation takes place such that the muscle is more resistant to damage and any damage that does occur is repaired at a faster rate. It is also clear that a relatively small insult will produce this adaptation.
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) has been useful in treating a variety of health-related problems, including obesity and cigarette smoking. The pilot project described in this paper used 24 hr of REST (darkness and silence) with four patients suffering from essential hypertension. Long-term changes have included lower blood pressure, a reduced need for medication, and improved coping with stressful life events.
The relationship between muscle length, integrated electromyographic activity, and torque of the biceps femoris muscle was investigated while the line of action of the muscle at the knee was held constant. Muscle length was changed by varying the hip joint angle. Sixteen subjects produced 1) maximal isometric contractions, 2) contractions with constant submaximal torque, and 3) contractions with constant submaximal muscle activity at four different hip positions (0, 45, 90, and 135 degrees of flexion). Simultaneous readings of hip angle, muscle torque, and raw and integrated electromyographic activity revealed that changes in muscle length influence production of integrated muscle activity and development of torque differently. During maximal isometric contraction, an increase in integrated electromyographic activity and a decrease in torque occurred as the muscle was shortened; the opposite occurred when the muscle was at lengthened positions. A greater difference in this relationship was noted when the respective electromyographic activity and torque were held constant. Some clinical questions were raised.
The restricted environmental stimulation technique or REST is a method of relaxation where the level of environmental sensory inputs is kept very low. A particular REST technique called tank flotation, or flotation REST, consists of 1 h sessions in a tank containing water with a high salt content and maintained at 35.5 degrees C. In this protocol, five normal subjects were studied before and during 2 h after a 60 min flotation REST session and a control session of 60 min in a supine position on a bed. Cortisol, thyreostimulating hormone (TSH), thyroxine (T4), prolactin, melatonin, luteinizing hormone (LH), growth hormone (GH), beta-endorphin, vasopressin (ADH), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and homovanillic acid (HVA) were measured in plasma. HVA, 5-hydroxy-indoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and vanylmandelic acid (VMA) were measured in urine. There were no changes in hormones concentrations that could be attributed to flotation REST. The urinary excretion of VMA was lower after the flotation REST session. The psychological consequences of flotation REST were more easily demonstrated than the neuroendocrine changes that are assumed to reflect the state of relaxation. Flotation REST increased subjective levels of sedation and euphoria. The possible mechanisms by which flotation REST induces relaxation are discussed.
This study was designed to test the hypothesis that performing repeated bouts of eccentric exercise when muscles were not recovered from previous exercise would exacerbate muscle damage. Twelve nonweight-trained males (21.7 +/- 2.4 yr) performed three sets of 10 eccentric actions of the elbow flexors (ECC) using a dumbbell that was set at 80% of the preexercise maximal isometric force level. This same exercise was repeated 3 and 6 d after the first exercise. Maximal isometric force, relaxed and flexed elbow joint angle, muscle soreness, plasma creatine kinase, and glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase activities were assessed. Ultrasound images were taken from the upper arm. These measures (except soreness) were assessed immediately before and after each eccentric exercise bout (ECC1, ECC2, and ECC3) and 3 d after ECC3. Soreness was assessed prior to ECC1 and once a day for 9 d thereafter. All criterion measures changed significantly (P < 0.01) after ECC1. ECC2 and ECC3 performed 3 and 6 d after ECC1 did not exacerbate damage and did not appear to slow the recovery rate. Increased echointensity in ultrasound images was demonstrated following ECC1, but no indication of increased damage was found after ECC2 and ECC3. Strenuous exercise performed with "damaged" muscles did not exacerbate damage or affect the repair process.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of active recovery (AR) on plasma lactate concentration [La] and anaerobic power output as measured during repeated bouts of intense exercise (6 s) against increasing braking forces. Ten male subjects performed two randomly assigned exercise trials: one with a 5-min passive recovery (PR) after each exercise bout and one with a 5-min active recovery (AR) at a workload corresponding to 32% of maximal aerobic power. Blood samples were taken at rest, at the end of each exercise bout (S1) and at the 5th minute between bout-recovery (S2) for plasma lactate assay. During the tests, [La]S1 was not significantly different after AR and PR, but [La]S2 was significantly lower after AR for power outputs obtained at braking forces 6 kg (5.66 +/- 0.38 vs 7.56 +/- 0.51 mmol.l-1) and peak anaerobic power (PAnP) (6.73 +/- 0.61 vs 8.54 +/- 0.89 mmol.l-1). Power outputs obtained at 2 and 4 kg did not differ after AR and PR. However, when compared with PR, AR induced a significant increase in both power outputs at 6 kg (842 +/- 35 vs 798 +/- 33 W) and PAnP (945 +/- 56 vs 883 +/- 58 W). These results showed that AR between bouts of intensive exercise decreased blood lactate concentration at high braking forces. This decrease was accompanied by higher anaerobic power outputs at these forces.
Repeated bouts of eccentric muscle contractions were used to examine indirect indices of exercise-induced muscle damage and adaptation in human skeletal muscle. Twenty-four subjects (18 females, 6 males) aged 20.0 +/- 1.4 years (mean +/- S.D.) performed an initial bout of either 10 (n = 7), 30 (n = 9) or 50 (n = 8) maximum voluntary eccentric contractions of the knee extensors, followed by a second bout of 50 contractions 3 weeks later using the same leg. Muscle soreness was elevated after all bouts (P < 0.05, Wilcoxon test), although the initial bout reduced the soreness associated with the second bout. Force loss and a decline in the 20:100 Hz percutaneous electrical myostimulation force ratio were observed after all exercise bouts (P < 0.01). Serum creatine kinase activity was elevated following the initial bouts of 30 and 50 repetitions (P < 0.01), but there was no increase following 10 repetitions. No increase in serum creatine kinase activity was observed in any group following the second bout of contractions (P > 0.05). We conclude that skeletal muscle adaptation can be brought about by a single bout of relatively few eccentric muscle contractions. Increasing the number of eccentric muscle repetitions did not result in an increased prophylactic effect on skeletal muscle.
The objectives were: (i) to present a method for assessing muscle pain during exercise, (ii) to provide reliability and validity data in support of the measurement tool, (iii) to test whether leg muscle pain threshold during exercise was related to a commonly used measure of pain threshold pain during test, (iv) to examine the relationship between pain and exertion ratings, (v) to test whether leg muscle pain is related to performance, and (vi) to test whether a large dose of aspirin would delay leg muscle pain threshold and/or reduce pain ratings during exercise. In study 1, seven females and seven males completed three 1-min cycling bouts at three different randomly ordered power outputs. Pain was assessed using a 10-point pain scale. High intraclass correlations (R from 0.88 to 0.98) indicated that pain intensity could be rated reliably using the scale. In study 2, 11 college-aged males (age 21.3 +/- 1.3 yr) performed a ramped (24 W.min-1) maximal cycle ergometry test. A button was depressed when leg muscle pain threshold was reached. Pain threshold occurred near 50% of maximal capacity: 50.3 (+/- 12.9% Wmax), 48.6 (+/- 14.8% VO2max), and 55.8 (+/- 12.9% RPEmax). Pain intensity ratings obtained following pain threshold were positively accelerating function of the relative exercise intensity. Volitional exhaustion was associated with pain ratings of 8.2 (+/- 2.5), a value most closely associated with the verbal anchor "very strong pain." In study 3, participants completed the same maximal exercise test as in study 2 as well as leg cycling at 60 rpm for 8 s at four randomly ordered power outputs (100, 150, 200, and 250 W) on a separate day. Pain and RPE ratings were significantly lower during the 8-s bouts compared to those obtained at the same power outputs during the maximal cycle test. The results suggest that noxious metabolites of muscle contraction play a role in leg muscle pain during exercise. In study 4, moderately active male subjects (N = 19) completed two ramped maximal cycle ergometry tests. Subjects drank a water and Kool-Aid mixture, that either was or was not (placebo) combined with a 20 mg.kg-1 dose of powdered aspirin 60 min before exercise. Paired t-tests revealed no differences between conditions for the measures of exercise intensity at pain threshold [aspirin vs placebo mean (+/- SD)]: power output: 150 (+/- 60.3 W) versus 153.5 (+/- 64.8 W); VO2: 21.3 (+/- 8.6 mL.kg-1.min-1) versus 22.1 (+/- 10.0 mL.kg-1.min-1); and RPE: 10.9 (+/- 3.1) versus 11.4 (+/- 2.9). Repeated measures ANOVA revealed no significant condition main effect or condition by trial interaction for pain responses during recovery or during exercise at 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100% of each condition's peak power output. It is concluded that the perception of leg muscle pain intensity during cycle ergometry: (i) is reliably and validly measured using the developed 10-point pain scale, (ii) covaries as a function of objective exercise stimuli such as power output, (iii) is distinct from RPE, (iv) is unrelated to performance of the type employed here, and (v) is not altered by the ingestion of 20 mg.kg-1 acetylsalicylic acid 1 h prior to the exercise bout.
Unaccustomed eccentric exercise induces muscle damage. A single session of eccentric exercise can induce an "adaptive effect" protecting exercised muscles during several weeks. Our aim was to verify this phenomenon in isokinetic exercise. Tested hypothesis was: the progressive muscle rise in tension due to isokinetic eccentric actions would be insufficient to induce the adaptive effect.
Experimental design: prospective study. Setting: general community. Participants: six healthy and moderately active (untrained) males (29.1 yr +/- 1.5 SEM). Interventions: subjects performed two isokinetic eccentric exercises (EE1 and EE2) of the quadriceps femoris of both legs (120 degrees.s-1; 8 sets of 15 repetitions) separated by 4 weeks. Measures: type I serum myosin heavy chains (MHC) and creatine kinase concentrations (CK), and rate of perceived soreness (DOMS) were collected before each exercise and on days 1, 2, 4, 6 and 9.
Both exercises induced significant (p < 0.01) increases in MHC and CK concentrations, and DOMS score. There was no significant difference between EE1 and EE2, at any measurement time for any parameter. Mean peak values (SEM) were respectively (EE1; EE2): MHC (microU.l-1): 308 (192); 285 (191). CK (U.l-1): 1217 (760); 1297 (1039). DOMS score: 2.67 (0.52); 2.33 (0.52).
The first session of eccentric isokinetic exercise (EE1) had no adaptive effect against muscle damage when an identical session was performed 4 weeks later (EE2). Muscle adaptation could have resulted in increased work production (+10.2%; p < 0.05; from EE1 to EE2).
This study was intended as an investigation of the effects of various therapeutic measures on the shoulder strength and muscle soreness after baseball pitching.
Experimental design: participants threw 98 pitches in a simulated single game. The mode of the therapeutic measures after pitching were classified into 4 groups; the control group (CON), the ice treatment group (IT), the light shoulder exercise group (LSE) and the ice treatment with LSE group (ILSE). Each therapeutic measure was applied to the dominant shoulder immediately after pitching. Participants: 7 healthy, skilled baseball pitchers. Measures: both shoulder strength and muscle soreness were measured before pitching, immediately after pitching (Post-P), at the time of the therapeutic measure (Post-TM), and 24 hours after pitching (Post-24 h).
All 4 groups showed shoulder strength losses in shoulder abduction, internal/external rotation with no shoulder abduction or with the shoulder abducted to 90 degrees immediately after pitching. ILSE had greater recovery from Post-P values at Post-TM or Post-24 h than the other methods in all 5 shoulder strengths. On the other hand, the soreness in shoulder internal rotation was increased significantly from Post-P and continued by Post-24 h. Both IT and ILSE had beneficial effects on reducing the shoulder muscle soreness at Post-TM or Post-24 h.
The findings of this study suggested that ILSE was the optimal therapeutic measure against decreased shoulder strength or increased shoulder muscle soreness resulting from the repetitive baseball pitching.
Progression in resistance training is a dynamic process that requires an exercise prescription process, evaluation of training progress, and careful development of target goals. The process starts with the determination of individual needs and training goals. This involves decisions regarding questions as to what muscles must be trained, injury prevention sites, metabolic demands of target training goals, etc. The single workout must then be designed reflecting these targeted program goals including the choice of exercises, order of exercise, amount of rest used between sets and exercises, number of repetitions and sets used for each exercise, and the intensity of each exercise. For progression, these variables must then be varied over time and the exercise prescription altered to maintain or advance specific training goals and to avoid overtraining. A careful system of goal targeting, exercise testing, proper exercise technique, supervision, and optimal exercise prescription all contribute to the successful implementation of a resistance training program.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of active recovery (AR), massage (MR), and cold water immersion (CR) on performance of repeated bouts of high-intensity cycling separated by 24 hours. For each recovery condition, subjects were asked to take part in 2 intermittent cycling sessions; 18 minutes of varying work intervals performed in succession at a resistance of 80 g/kg body weight separated by 24 hours. One of four 15-minute recovery conditions immediately followed the first session and included: (a) AR, cycling at 30% Vo(2)max; (b) CR, immersion of legs in a 15 degrees C water bath; (c) MR, massage of the legs; and (d) control, seated rest. Only the control condition showed a significant decline in the total work completed between the first and second exercise sessions (108.1 +/- 5.4 kJ vs. 106.0 +/- 5.0 kJ, p < 0.05). Thus, AR, MR, and CR appeared to facilitate the recovery process between 2 high-intensity, intermittent exercise sessions separated by 24 hours.
Achieving an appropriate balance between training and competition stresses and recovery is important in maximising the performance of athletes. A wide range of recovery modalities are now used as integral parts of the training programmes of elite athletes to help attain this balance. This review examined the evidence available as to the efficacy of these recovery modalities in enhancing between-training session recovery in elite athletes. Recovery modalities have largely been investigated with regard to their ability to enhance the rate of blood lactate removal following high-intensity exercise or to reduce the severity and duration of exercise-induced muscle injury and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Neither of these reflects the circumstances of between-training session recovery in elite athletes. After high-intensity exercise, rest alone will return blood lactate to baseline levels well within the normal time period between the training sessions of athletes. The majority of studies examining exercise-induced muscle injury and DOMS have used untrained subjects undertaking large amounts of unfamiliar eccentric exercise. This model is unlikely to closely reflect the circumstances of elite athletes. Even without considering the above limitations, there is no substantial scientific evidence to support the use of the recovery modalities reviewed to enhance the between-training session recovery of elite athletes. Modalities reviewed were massage, active recovery, cryotherapy, contrast temperature water immersion therapy, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, compression garments, stretching, electromyostimulation and combination modalities. Experimental models designed to reflect the circumstances of elite athletes are needed to further investigate the efficacy of various recovery modalities for elite athletes. Other potentially important factors associated with recovery, such as the rate of post-exercise glycogen synthesis and the role of inflammation in the recovery and adaptation process, also need to be considered in this future assessment.
Repeated, intense use of muscles leads to a decline in performance known as muscle fatigue. Many muscle properties change during fatigue including the action potential, extracellular and intracellular ions, and many intracellular metabolites. A range of mechanisms have been identified that contribute to the decline of performance. The traditional explanation, accumulation of intracellular lactate and hydrogen ions causing impaired function of the contractile proteins, is probably of limited importance in mammals. Alternative explanations that will be considered are the effects of ionic changes on the action potential, failure of SR Ca2+ release by various mechanisms, and the effects of reactive oxygen species. Many different activities lead to fatigue, and an important challenge is to identify the various mechanisms that contribute under different circumstances. Most of the mechanistic studies of fatigue are on isolated animal tissues, and another major challenge is to use the knowledge generated in these studies to identify the mechanisms of fatigue in intact animals and particularly in human diseases.
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