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Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals
Editors
Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Paul J. van den Brink
Alterra and Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Reinier M. Mann
University of Technology Sydney, Australia
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CONTENTS
Foreword i
Preface iii
List of contributors iv
CHAPTERS
1 Sources and Toxicity of Pollutants 3
Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
2 Fate and Transport of Contaminants 13
Dik van de Meent, Anne Hollander, Willie Peijnenburg and Ton Breure
3 Metals and Metalloids in Terrestrial Systems: Bioaccumulation, Biomagnification and
Subsequent Adverse Effects 43
Reinier M. Mann, Martina G. Vijver and Willie J.G.M. Peijnenburg
4 Impacts of Agricultural Pesticides on Terrestrial Ecosystems 63
Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
5 Ecological Impacts of Major Forest-Use Pesticides 88
Dean G. Thompson
6 Impacts of Pesticides on Freshwater Ecosystems 111
Ralf B. Schäfer, Paul J. van den Brink and Matthias Liess
7 Ecological Impacts of Organic Chemicals on Freshwater Ecosystems 138
Paul K. Sibley and Mark L. Hanson
8 Impact of Pollutants on Coastal and Benthic Marine Communities 165
Ángel Borja, María Jesús Belzunce, Joxe Mikel Garmendia, José Germán Rodríguez, Oihana
Solaun and Izaskun Zorita
9 Chemical Pollution on Coral Reefs: Exposure and Ecological Effects 187
Joost W. van Dam, Andrew P. Negri, Sven Uthicke and Jochen F. Mueller
10 Impact of Contaminants on Pelagic Ecosystems 212
Ketil Hylland and A. Dick Vethaak
11 The Role of Aquatic Ecosystems in the Elimination of Pollutants 225
Matthew T. Moore, Robert Kröger and Colin R. Jackson
Concluding Remarks 238
Francisco Sánchez-Bayo, Paul J. van den Brink and Reinier M. Mann
Appendix 242
Index 250
i
FOREWORD
“Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals” is a long-overdue, comprehensive coverage of chemical fate and effects in
terrestrial and aquatic environments. The editors Sánchez-Bayo, van den Brink and Mann have brought together an
excellent group of international experts to systematically cover this complex topic from the source of organic and
metal compounds, to their fate and impacts on land and in our freshwater and marine ecosystems. The book is very
readable, serving as an excellent introduction to the topic or as a useful supplement to courses and readings in the
environmental sciences at any level. Indeed, it is appropriate for the general public, students, or scientists from
outside the field of ecotoxicology.
The first two chapters, by Sánchez-Bayo (Chapter 1) and van de Meent, Hollander, Peijnenburg and Breure (Chapter
2) introduce the theme of the book, covering the sources and mode of action of environmental contaminants and the
toxicity of various common pollutant categories: mining wastes, sewage, industrial and metropolitan discharges. The
transport and fate of metal and organic pollutants in the environment is described from a modeler’s perspective. The
processes governing the movement of chemicals between air, land and water are described, along with biological
transformations, including degradation and bioaccumulation. The understanding of the fate and ultimate exposure to
biota is essential in ecotoxicology and risk assessment and management.
The following three chapters deal with terrestrial ecosystems. In Chapter 3, Mann, Vijver and Peijnenburg explain
how naturally-occurring metals and metalloids can become contaminants when they bioaccumulate and result in
sublethal to lethal effects on populations and food chains. They cover the key metals of toxicological concern which
continue to be a problem world-wide: arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, selenium and zinc.
Agricultural pesticides have been widely used in developing and developed countries and because they are biocides,
have resulted in a range of unintended adverse effects on non-target biota. Sánchez-Bayo discusses fungicides,
insecticides and herbicides and how they have impacted virtually every level of the food chain, from the microbial
level to birds and mammals. Thompson focuses on the forest industry’s use of pesticides (herbicides and
insecticides) and case examples of lab to field studies that have assessed the risk of these widely used compounds in
pest management in the forest sector. These studies are then linked to the risk assessment and management process
providing for a comprehensive perspective of multiple stakeholder concerns.
The final six chapters address the many issues of chemicals in marine and freshwater environments. Schäfer, van
den Brink and Liess have an excellent review of pesticide impacts on freshwater ecosystems, from primary
producers, up the food chain, to fish. They explain the many complex interactions that must be considered regarding
pesticide mode-of-action, exposure (particularly consideration of peak concentrations), indirect effects, and the
potential for recovery of populations and communities. They describe a range of useful techniques and approaches
for assessing pesticide risk from the broad to local scales, and the need for incorporating ecological knowledge into
the risk assessment process. A growing concern exists for the impacts of other, non-pesticide, organic chemicals in
freshwater ecosystems which is dealt with in Chapter 7 by Sibley and Hanson. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs),
such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dioxins and furans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), and emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, polybrominated diphenyl ethers and perfluorinated
surfactants are becoming common in freshwaters throughout the world. This is due to their resistance to degradation
and ability to be transported between water, soil, air and biota. Their bioaccumulation through the food chain
presents recognized risks, but these risks are difficult to ascertain from studies at the lower end of the food chain.
Chemicals tend to accumulate in sediments, hence biota associated with sediments, the benthos, are particularly
susceptible. Borja, Belzunce, Garmendia, Rodríguez, Solaun and Zorita describe this complex issue in Chapter 8, for
coastal and marine benthic communities. Their coverage begins at the molecular effect level and progresses up the
ladder of biological complexity to populations and communities, and the need for integrative assessments. They
document how important it is to understand biological effects by looking at the different levels of biological
organization. Dying coral reefs have been documented throughout the world. They are impacted by nutrients,
metals, organic chemicals, climate change and ocean acidification. In Chapter 9, van Dam, Negri, Uthicke and
Mueller explain the severity of this phenomenon and the tools available for evaluating adverse effects. Of critical
importance is their coverage of how adverse effects and risk is tied to exposures, which vary from short-term, to
pulse-like spills, to recurring incidents from effluent discharges to river flooding. These later, chronic and repetitive
ii
events are likely to decrease the resilience of reef organisms making them more susceptible to climate change and
acidification. In contrast to the previous two chapters, Hylland and Vethaak in Chapter 10 focus on contaminant
effects on water column organisms, often referred to as pelagic organisms which fuel the world’s ocean ecosystems.
The various ways of assessing pelagic effects are reviewed, along with the unique strengths and limitations in the
context of making environmental management decisions. Better monitoring of the pelagic zone is critical for long
term monitoring programs and effective ecosystem management. Finally, in Chapter 11, Moore, Kröger and Jackson
inform the reader of how aquatic ecosystems are so efficient at transferring, transforming and sequestering
pollutants, thus reducing their risk to organisms and ecosystems. They focus on the successful use of phyto-
remediation of organic and inorganic pollutants.
Together, these chapters provide a broad, timely and comprehensive review of the potential effects of chemical
pollutants in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Readers new to this field will not be disappointed and quickly made
aware of the critical issues affecting our current and near-future world.
G. Allen Burton
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
iii
PREFACE
Ecotoxicology is a multidisciplinary science that examines the effects of toxic chemicals on individual organisms,
populations, communities and ecosystems. However, with a 40-year history, ecotoxicology is still in its infancy. Up
until recently a lot of work has been done to describe the fate and effect of chemicals in the environment, but most
of it has been performed in the laboratory, usually with a narrow suite of test organisms. However, over the last two
decades more and more experiments and monitoring have been performed in man-made (so called microcosms and
mesocosms) as well as natural aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Also the use of modelling has allowed us to
predict the behaviour of chemicals and their consequent effects in the environment. Impacts of pollutants at an
ecosystem level, however, are reported mostly in the specialized journal literature as scattered pieces of a larger
puzzle. To date, no systematic work bringing all the information on this subject together is available, neither to
researchers nor the general public. This book was conceived to fill this gap.
Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals presents a comprehensive, yet readable account of the known disturbances
caused by all kinds of toxic chemicals on both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Topics cover the sources of
toxicants, their fate and distribution through the planet, their impacts on specific ecosystems, and their remediation
by natural systems. Each chapter is written by well-known specialists in those areas, for the general public, students,
and even scientists from outside this field. The book intends to raise awareness of the dangers of chemical pollution
in a world dominated by industry and globalization of resources. Because the problems are widespread and far
reaching, it is hoped that confronting the facts may prompt better management practices at industrial, agricultural
and all levels of management, from local to governmental, so as to reduce the negative impacts of chemical
contaminants in our Earth.
The editors would like to thank Bentham Science Publishers for providing this opportunity to bring this science to
the general public.
Francisco Sánchez-Bayo,
Paul J. van den Brink,
Reinier M. Mann,
iv
List of Contributors
María Jesús Belzunce
AZTI-Tecnalia, Marine Research Division, 20110 Pasaia, Spain
Ángel Borja
AZTI-Tecnalia, Marine Research Division, 20110 Pasaia, Spain; Email: aborja@pas.azti.es
Ton Breure
RIVM Laboratory for Ecological Risk Assessment, Bilthoven 3720 BA, The Netherlands
Paul J. van den Brink
Alterra and Wageningen University, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA
Wageningen, The Netherlands; Email: Paul.vandenbrink@wur.nl
Joost W. van Dam
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia; Email: j.vandam@aims.gov.au
Joxe Mikel Garmendia
AZTI-Tecnalia, Marine Research Division, 20110 Pasaia, Spain
Mark L. Hanson
Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2
Anne Hollander
Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen,The Netherlands
Ketil Hylland
Department of Biology, University of Oslo, Blindern N-0316 Oslo, Norway; Email: ketil.hylland@bio.uio.no
Colin R. Jackson
Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, Mississippi 38677, USA
Robert Kröger
Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Mississippi State University, Mississippi 39762, USA
Matthias Liess
Department System Ecotoxicology, UFZ – Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Leipzig 04317, Germany
Reinier M. Mann
Centre for Ecotoxicology, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007,
Australia; Present Address: Hydrobiology, Brisbane, Australia; Email: reinier.mann@hydrobiology.biz
Dik van de Meent
RIVM Laboratory for Ecological Risk Assessment, Bilthoven 3720 BA, The Netherlands; Email:
Dik.van.de.Meent@rivm.nl
Matthew T. Moore
USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Sedimentation Laboratory, Oxford, Mississippi 38655, USA; Email:
matt.moore@ars.usda.gov
v
Jochen F. Mueller
The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, Coopers Plains, Qld 4108,
Australia.
Andrew P. Negri
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia
Willie J.G.M. Peijnenburg
Laboratory for Ecological Risk Assessment, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, 3720 BA
Bilthoven, The Netherlands; Leiden University, Institute of Environmental Sciences, 2300 RA Leiden, The
Netherlands
José Germán Rodríguez
AZTI-Tecnalia, Marine Research Division, 20110 Pasaia, Spain
Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
Centre for Ecotoxicology, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; Department of Environment,
Climate Change & Water NSW, 480 Weeroona Road, Lidcombe NSW 2141, Australia; Email:
sanchezbayo@mac.com
Ralf B. Schäfer
RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia; Present address: Institute for Environmental Sciences, University Koblenz-
Landau, Landau, Germany; Email: senator@ecotoxicology.de
Paul K. Sibley
School of Environmental Science, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1; Email: psibley@uoguelph.ca
Oihana Solaun
AZTI-Tecnalia, Marine Research Division, 20110 Pasaia, Spain
Dean G. Thompson
Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada P6A 2E5; Email:
dthompso@NRCan.gc.ca
Sven Uthicke
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia
Martina G. Vijver
Leiden University, Institute of Environmental Sciences, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
A. Dick Vethaak
Deltares, Marine and Coastal Systems, 2600 MH Delft, The Netherlands, VU University Amsterdam, Institute for
Environmental Studies, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Izaskun Zorita
AZTI-Tecnalia, Marine Research Division, 20110 Pasaia, Spain
250 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals, 2011, 250-281
Francisco Sánchez-Bayo, Paul J. van den Brink and Reinier M. Mann (Eds)
All rights reserved - © 2011 Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
Index
1,1,1-trichloroethane, 36, 37
17--trenbolone, 151
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 140
2,4,5-T, 140
2,4-D, 8, 68, 70, 74, 75, 195
2-methoxyethylmercuric chloride, 201
2-nitrophenol, 228
4-nitrophenol, 228
7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deetilase, 168
A
absorption, 17, 19, 20, 21, 26, 33, 47, 48, 230, 231, 232
acaricides, 64
acids, 6, 8, 15
amino, 5, 8, 71, 94, 187
fatty, 8
humic, 99, 230
nucleic, 170
organic, 197
actinomycetes, 70, 228
active ingredient, 65, 66, 90, 97, 101
adaptation, 26, 203
adhesives, 148
adipose tissue, 140
adsorption, 14, 20, 21, 95, 102, 111, 147, 148, 230, 231
aerosols, 7, 18, 34
air conditioning, 3
albatross, 217
alchemy, 3
aldicarb, 65, 69, 72
aldrin, 66, 67, 71, 72
algae
benthic, 115, 196
blue-green, 4, 5, 146
coralline, 187, 188, 194
epiphytic, 47
filamentous, 128
freshwater, 146, 149, 194
green, 116, 120
macroalgae, 175, 179
microalgae, 151, 187, 193, 194
symbiotic, 187, 194
algicides, 64
alkanes, 23
alkylphenol ethoxylates, 152
alligators, 77
alloys, 3
amelioration, 3, 230
aminomethylphosphonic acid, 94
ammonia, 178, 233
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 251
amoeba, 71
amphibians, 66, 76, 77, 78, 80, 96, 97, 98, 102, 112, 115, 116, 121, 146, 148, 149
analysis
chemical, 167, 171, 176
meta-, 120, 174
molecular, 191
regression, 49, 175
risk, 90, 104
anemones, 199
anilines, 8
annelids. See worms
anthracene, 8, 146
antibacterial agents. See biocides
antibiotics, 64, 150, 151
anticoagulants, 64
antifouling paints, 169, 193, 201, 215
antimony, 7
antioxidants, 169
ants, 74, 75, 76
anuran species. See frogs
aphids, 47, 48, 75, 79
apoptosis, 145
applications
aerial, 95, 97, 102
herbicide, 74, 92, 95, 96
insecticide, 75, 77, 99
pesticide, 10, 68, 77, 89, 93, 112, 192
silvicultural, 97
aquaculture, 151, 166, 217
aquatic plants, 66, 102, 147, 226, 229, 230, 232, 233, 238
aragonite, 199
Aroclor, 140
arsenate
calcium, 75, 76
lead, 75
arsenates, 52, 67, 69, 73, 231
arsenic, 7, 43, 50, 52, 53, 63, 64, 69, 70, 72, 199, 231, 232
arthropods
canopy, 102
parasite, 75
predatory, 72, 74, 75
saprophytic, 72
terrestrial, 64, 72, 73, 102
assimilation, 27, 47, 48, 50, 51, 55, 147, 168, 229, 230
atmosphere, 7, 18, 19, 38, 189, 232
atrazine, 8, 68, 70, 72, 73, 77, 79, 117, 193, 215, 218, 227
atrophy, 169
azadirachtin, 99
azinphos-methyl, 77
B
Bacillus thuringiensis, 4, 71, 89, 91, 99, 194
bacteria, 5, 8, 70, 119, 145, 151, 153, 170, 172, 214, 218, 219, 225, 228, 231, 240
252 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
aerobic, 27
anaerobic, 27
cyanobacteria, 141
denitrifying, 27, 71
iron-reducing, 231
methane-producing, 27
methanotrophic, 70
nitrifying, 70
psychrophilic, 28
resistant, 231
soil, 71
sulfate-reducing, 27, 227, 231, 232
badgers, 54
baits, 66, 67
barium, 50
barnacle, 171
bass, 102
bats, 78
batteries, 3, 5
Bayesian statistics, 124
bees, 74, 76
bumblebees, 76
honeybees, 66
beetles, 99
carabid, 75, 96
dung, 72
ladybird, 48, 74, 75
leaf-beetles, 79, 103
rove, 74
soil-dwelling, 66, 74, 75
staphylinid, 72, 75
weevils, 75, 79
bendiocarb, 65
benomyl, 8, 70, 72, 73
benzene, 8, 228
benzimidazoles, 6
benzo[a]pyrene, 146, 228
BHC, 75
bifenthrin, 226
bioaccumulation, 7, 10, 43, 44, 47, 48, 55, 76, 104, 140, 145, 147, 165, 170, 172, 196, 198, 213, 216
EDCs, 216
metals, 45, 46, 50, 53, 54, 216, 238
PCBs and PCDDs/PCDFs, 128, 141, 142
risk, 55
bioavailability, 29, 43, 46, 51, 67, 69, 92, 141, 145, 147, 152, 170, 193, 213, 214, 217
biocides, 8, 64, 72, 192, 193, 199, 215
biodiversity, 72, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 92, 94, 166, 174, 240
biofilms, 231, 232
bioindicators, 173, 174
biomagnification, 44, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 112, 114, 140, 172, 176, 213, 216, 232
metals, 45, 46, 47, 54, 55, 238
biomarkers, 145, 166, 167, 168, 176, 190, 191, 216
biomass, 7, 27, 74, 103, 151, 173, 174, 212, 215
algal, 102, 112, 146
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 253
fungal, 73
phytoplankton, 117, 215
plant, 47, 74, 75, 94, 229, 233
biomonitoring, 50, 101, 116, 125, 128, 168
bioremediation, 228, 229, 230, 231, 233, 238
biosorption, 231
biosphere, 26, 70, 80
biosynthesis, 5, 6, 8, 71, 147
bioturbation, 22
birds, 8, 10, 46, 47, 54, 55, 63, 65, 80, 99, 143, 145, 149, 239
aquatic, 52, 54, 114
fish-eating, 142, 143
galliform, 51
granivorous, 66, 67, 78, 79
insectivorous, 78, 100
passerine, 53
predatory, 52, 55, 64, 67
seabirds, 215, 217
songbirds, 103
waders, 52, 53
waterfowl, 51, 52, 54, 66
birds of prey. See raptors
bisphenol A, 139, 151, 169
bladder, 52
blood, 7, 8, 29, 149
clotting, 8
residues in, 48, 53
samples, 78
stream, 7, 48, 66
bluegill, 102, 118, 125
body
burdens, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 53, 54, 55, 144, 176
fat, 9, 103, 217
residues, 98
size, 50, 64
surface, 47
weight, 48
bone, 50
borer
ash, 99
stem, 75
sugarcane, 74
botulin, 4
brain, 7, 8, 55, 76, 77
breast milk, 140
breeding, 66, 95, 101
delay in, 153
failure, 77, 79
grounds, 53, 54, 98
season, 79
brevetoxins, 4
brodifacoum, 79
bromacil, 79
bromadiolone, 79
254 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
bromine, 140
bromoxynil, 8
bryophytes, 96
budworm, 89, 91, 99
buffer zones, 65, 98, 226
bushfires, 5, 6, 140, 170
butachlor, 73
butane, 8
buzzards, 67
C
cabbage, 72
cadmium, 7, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 44, 52, 53, 171, 199, 201, 212, 226, 229, 231
caesium, 50
caimans, 77
calcium, 7, 75, 76, 78, 188, 202
cancer, 7, 52, 145
captan, 70, 73
carbaryl, 8, 70, 194, 195
carbendazim, 70, 72, 73
carbofuran, 65, 70, 71, 72, 73
carbon dioxide, 6, 23, 26, 27, 227
carbon monoxide, 6
carboxamides, 5
carcasses, 51, 79
carcinogens, 146
carnivores, 46, 78, 95
caterpillars, 67
cattails, 79, 226
cattle, 48, 77, 151, 166
cattle ticks, 66
cell
division, 8
growth, 97, 200
membranes, 170, 231
metabolism, 194
vacuoles, 51
centipedes, 72
chemicals
anthropogenic, 28
antifouling, 189, 215
elemental, 43
endocrine disrupting (EDCs), 8, 169, 216
hydrophilic, 20, 226
hydrophobic, 15, 16
industrial, 6, 64
organic, 15, 25, 26, 34, 117, 139, 154, 168, 226
persistent, 76, 80, 143, 189, 193
recalcitrant, 78
synthetic, 27, 28
toxic, 4, 5
volatile, 18, 20
chemotaxis, 228
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 255
chickweeds, 79
Chironomidae. See midges
chlordane, 67, 71, 73, 192, 194
chlorfenapyr, 64, 76
chlorine, 140, 141, 228
chloroacetamides, 6, 8
chlorodibenzofurans (PCDF), 6
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 3
chlorophyll a, 119, 146
chloroplasts, 8, 193
chlorosis, 194
chlorothalonil, 70, 71
chlorpropham, 73, 75
chlorpyrifos, 8, 70, 119, 193, 194, 195, 202, 203, 204, 227
chlorsulfuron, 8
chromium, 6, 7, 50, 226, 230, 231, 232
ciliates, 71
ciprofloxacin, 151
Cladocera. See waterfleas
cladocerans, 102, 147
clams, 169
clay
minerals, 28
particles, 70
climate change, 111, 188, 202, 204, 240
clotrimazole, 215
cnidarian, 141
coal, 5, 7, 55
coated seeds. See seed-dressings
cobalt, 6, 231, 232
cod, 216
coefficient
mass-transfer partition, 19, 21
molar absorption, 26
octanol-air partition, 16
octanol-water partition, 14, 34, 225
partition, 14, 15
solids-water partition, 15
Coleoptera. See beetles
Collembola. See springtails
commensalism, 104, 117
common salt, 9
communications, 3
communities
algal, 146, 215
animal, 71, 102
aquatic, 66
arthropod, 64, 73, 74, 75
benthic, 145, 176, 240
bird, 239
coastal, 187
coral reef, 192
estuarine, 174
infaunal, 175
256 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
insect, 78
invertebrate, 80, 113, 121
lotic, 126
macrobenthic, 174
macroinvertebrate, 141, 147
mammal, 54
mesocosm, 126
microbial, 28, 113, 141, 146, 151, 152, 232
non-target, 111
phytobenthos, 215
phytoplankton, 141, 215
plankton, 147, 214, 215
plant, 52, 68, 74, 93, 96, 239
protozoan, 71
reptile, 93
soil, 70
zooplankton, 149, 151
competition, 74, 78, 92, 94, 104, 112, 117, 119, 124, 147, 173
compounds
aliphatic, 25
aromatic, 25
arsenical, 52
dioxin-like, 142, 143, 189
genotoxic, 169
halogenated, 25, 140, 143
immunotoxic, 217
inorganic, 7, 34
ionisable, 34
mercurial, 7, 64
neurotoxic, 76
nitroaromatic, 228
non-polar, 9, 226
oil, 197
organic, 8, 16, 24, 168, 174, 189, 227, 238
organochlorine, 140, 193, 217, 227, 228
organometallic, 5, 8, 189, 200
organophosphorous, 168
organoselenium, 54
organotin, 7
perfluorinated, 5, 238
phenolic, 5
synthetic, 3, 6, 215
xenobiotic, 168
concentration
effective, 151, 203, 213
environmental, 33, 101, 203
gradient, 17
lowest observed effect (LOEC), 149
median lethal (LC50), 9
no-effect (NEC), 151, 239
no-observed effect (NOEC), 124
peak, 92, 112
predicted environmental (PEC), 10, 34
threshold, 123, 124, 172
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 257
conjugation, 168, 226
conservation, 29, 53, 54, 74, 80
consortia, 146, 228
coolants, 5
coot, 79
Copepoda, 121
copepods, 102, 147, 153, 171, 219, 240
copper, 7, 43, 44, 48
coral bleaching, 191, 194, 195, 198, 200, 202
corals, 166, 240
branching, 200
calcifying, 187
cup, 198
hard, 190, 194
massive, 190
reefs, 188, 190, 196
scleractinian, 187, 188, 192, 194, 202
cormorants, 50, 78, 143
corn bunting, 79
corrosive, 7
cosmetics, 3, 148, 152
coumarin, 79
cowpats, 73
crayfish, 102, 141, 142
creosote, 147
crickets, 54
crop
barley, 66
Bt-canola, 75
Bt-corn, 75
Bt-cotton, 74, 75
canola, 68
cereal, 63, 79
corn, 72, 76
cotton, 68
damage, 67, 239
horticultural, 75
losses, 64
pests, 72
production, 89
protection, 74
rice, 52, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 79, 226
soybean, 65
sustainability, 80
transgenic herbicide-tolerant (TGHT), 74
yields, 63, 73, 74, 80, 192
crude oil. See petroleum
crustaceans, 102, 113, 116, 166
cutgrass, 226
cyanide, 189, 191
cyanotoxins, 4
cypermethrin, 8, 66, 115
cyromazine, 66
cytochrome C, 8
258 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
cytochrome P450, 7, 8, 68, 168
cytotoxic, 145
D
dab, 213, 216
dalapon-sodium, 72
DDE, 9, 67, 68, 77, 78
DDT, 5, 8, 9, 64, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 75, 77, 78, 80, 88, 111, 114, 143, 145, 166, 190, 192, 194, 228
decay, 68, 73
dechlorination, 141, 228
decomposers, 118
decomposition, 70, 101, 111, 115, 118, 119
deer, 67, 77, 94
deforestation, 80
deformities, 143
congenital, 143
embryo, 143
Great Lakes Embryo Mortality, Edema, and Deformities Syndrome (GLEMEDS), 143
degradation, 7, 92, 102, 104, 189
aerobic, 141, 228
anaerobic, 141
chemical, 13, 27, 34, 92
co-metabolism, 27, 28
metabolic, 152
microbial, 26, 27, 68, 92, 94, 99, 228
photo chemical, 23, 26, 111
primary, 26, 94, 97
dehalogenation, 227, 228
deposition, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 33, 38, 43, 51, 66, 90, 101, 102, 111, 168, 175, 189, 190, 196, 202, 203, 213, 238
desalination plants, 189
desorption, 20, 21, 29, 33, 96, 147
detergents, 6, 152
detoxification, 7, 8, 44, 48, 49, 69, 76, 168, 198
detritivores, 73, 146, 175
development, 3, 4, 8, 9, 54, 63, 73, 77, 90, 99, 104, 113, 123, 126, 138, 141, 142, 144, 145, 150, 151, 152, 153, 167,
169, 171, 172, 173, 178, 188, 198, 200, 201, 215, 216, 218, 238
diatoms, 141, 194
diazinon, 65, 227
dichlobenil, 8
dieldrin, 36, 37, 38, 39, 66, 67, 69, 71, 78, 114, 192, 194
diethylstilbestrol, 152
difenoconazole, 8
diffusion, 17, 19, 20, 22, 27, 47, 201, 213
diflubenzuron, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104
dihydroxybenzene, 228
dilution, 17, 49, 112
dimethoate, 66, 76, 77
dinitroanilines, 6, 8
dinoflagellates, 4, 5, 187
dioxygenases, 228
Diptera. See flies
diquat, 8, 116, 125
discharges, 4, 5, 6, 119, 174, 198, 199, 213, 217, 240
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 259
diseases
blue sac, 142, 143
fungal, 63
infectious, 166, 217
itai-itai, 4, 52
Minamata, 4
plant, 3, 64
disinfectants, 5
dispersants, 197
dissipation, 68, 91, 92, 94, 96, 98, 102, 152, 193
disulfoton, 65
diuron, 8, 67, 70, 79, 116, 193, 194, 195, 196, 202, 203, 204, 215
DNOC, 72, 73
dolphins, 217
dopamine, 7
dose, 9, 64, 90, 112
effective, 48
lethal, 66, 114, 143
median lethal (LD50), 9
response relationship, 98, 100, 172, 198
sublethal, 69
dredging, 119, 166, 213
drift
invertebrate, 95, 101, 126
mitigation, 65
spray, 65, 67, 68, 76, 77, 78, 80, 90, 111, 112, 125
drugs, 3, 4, 6, 8
ducks, 51, 52, 79, 149
duckweed, 116
dyes, 3, 6
dysfunction, 52, 153
E
eagles, 67, 77, 78, 140, 149
earwigs, 72
echinoderms, 172
ecosystem function, 143, 218, 238, 239
ecosystems
agroecosystems, 71, 75
aquatic, 6, 46, 65, 67, 68, 69, 102, 111, 114, 115, 138, 139, 140, 151, 152, 173, 193, 227, 228, 230, 238
artificial, 113, 117, 119, 120, 124, 125
benthic, 217, 240
coastal, 166, 215, 217, 218
coral reef, 188, 190, 202
forest, 91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 103, 104
freshwater, 111, 119, 120, 126, 128, 139, 144, 150, 151, 154, 212, 240
lakes, 142
lentic, 98, 126, 229
lotic, 98, 115, 119, 126, 127
marine, 45, 165, 170, 179, 193, 202, 213, 214, 217
microbial, 28
natural, 4, 64, 103, 173, 229
pelagic, 212, 213, 219
260 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
stream, 119
terrestrial, 44, 54, 231, 239
tropical, 73, 239
wetland, 98
ecotoxicants, 4, 6, 7, 9, 240
ectoparasites, 66
eelpout, 213
effects
acute, 67, 68, 97, 127, 153, 169
additive, 175, 218, 219
amplification of, 113, 122
androgenic, 169
carcinogenic, 140, 170, 172
cellular-level, 193, 194
chronic, 94
community, 68, 103, 115, 119, 120, 141, 142, 147, 151, 173, 175, 179, 218
compensatory, 80, 239
developmental, 145
direct, 64, 68, 94, 100, 102, 112, 114, 117, 119, 147, 148, 172, 193
duration, 121, 128
ecological, 118, 120, 139, 145, 175, 201
ecosystem, 113, 119, 143, 151, 174, 198, 199, 202, 217, 239
endocrine, 147, 153, 170, 172, 216, 217
environmental, 191
estrogenic, 69, 152, 153, 169
eutrophication, 218
evaluation of, 123, 165, 166, 172, 190, 219, 240
extrapolation of, 173
feminization, 153
genetic, 190
genomic, 192
growth, 148, 170
indirect, 64, 72, 73, 76, 79, 100, 101, 102, 104, 112, 117, 118, 119, 121, 124, 127, 146, 165, 170, 216, 218
individual-level, 113, 114
interactive, 104
lethal, 68, 69, 102, 170
long-term, 77, 120, 121, 122, 126, 142, 239
metal toxicity, 170, 199
mixtures, 154, 202, 239
organismal, 172
phototoxic, 218
phyisiological, 7
physiological, 114, 150, 170, 200
phytotoxic, 146, 151, 215
population, 113, 125, 146, 147, 152, 153, 169, 216, 217, 239
prediction of, 116, 119, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 173
reproductive, 47, 94, 114, 143, 145, 152, 153, 170, 216, 217
sedative, 8
side-, 64, 67, 69, 80, 192, 239
sublethal, 9, 67, 68, 73, 77, 78, 79, 170, 191, 202, 213, 216, 240
suborganismal, 123
synergistic, 68, 168, 179, 196, 218
teratogenic, 8, 140
threshold, 191
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 261
tissue-level, 169, 216
toxic, 4, 7, 67, 68, 69, 90, 140, 146, 165, 195, 200, 216
transient, 103, 120, 127, 194
effluents, 10, 150, 153, 168, 200, 217
egg shell thinning, 114, 143
electrical insulators, 6, 148
embryotoxicosis, 54
emissions
domestic, 36, 38
fuel, 5
industrial, 145
emulsifiers, 152
endocrine disruption, 8, 9, 170, 194
endocytosis, 230
endosulfan, 67, 69, 72, 75, 77, 112, 115, 129, 193, 194
endpoints, 10, 92, 96, 98, 113, 114, 115, 120, 121, 123, 124, 127, 128, 149, 150, 172, 178, 179, 191, 192, 202
endrin, 114
enzymes, 7, 26, 169, 225, 231
Ephemeroptera. See mayflies
epifauna, 175
epoxy resins, 152
equilibrium, 14, 15, 17, 238
air-aerosol, 16
air-water, 15, 20
intermedia, 19
solids-water, 14, 21, 22
eradication, 100, 114, 115, 119
ergosterol, 8, 116
essential elements, 9, 43, 48
estrogen, 77, 151
estuaries, 21, 174, 189, 192, 193, 199, 201, 214, 216, 217, 240
ethynylestradiol, 150
eucalypt plantations, 89
eutrophication, 5, 217, 218
excretion, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 55, 146, 150, 168, 199
experiments
field, 90, 92, 98, 101, 102, 103, 104
in-situ, 218
laboratory, 27, 96, 101, 104, 120, 127, 147, 168, 171
mesocosm, 115, 117, 122, 123, 125, 126, 215
population-level, 124
stream, 98, 101, 113
explosives, 6
exposure
acute, 92, 150, 171, 172, 191, 193, 194, 197, 200, 201, 215
aquatic, 112, 217
assessment, 34, 35
chronic, 9, 98, 150, 171, 195, 196, 198, 200, 201, 214, 217, 228, 240
dermal, 66
dietary, 47, 67, 143, 175, 217
direct, 55, 65, 77, 90, 112, 146, 148
frequency, 122
history, 214
inhalation, 67
262 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
monitoring, 112
pulse, 68, 72, 92, 121, 122, 124, 127, 218
repeated, 113
routes, 45, 55, 66, 112, 192
sublethal, 51
time, 9, 50, 52, 92, 97, 98, 99, 112, 113, 121, 122, 138, 172, 173
timing, 122
extinction, 78, 80, 138, 170
extrapolation, 29, 123, 138
F
factors
abiotic, 111, 126, 146, 167
bioaccumulation, 10, 142, 151
bioconcentration, 141, 149
biomagnification, 45, 78, 142, 149
biotic, 123
climatic, 179, 197, 240
confounding, 126, 127, 169, 178
ecological, 124
environmental, 25, 27, 46, 53, 127, 172, 213, 215
meteorological, 18
safety, 145
temporal, 122
falcons, 64, 78
famphur, 66, 77
farming, 76, 79, 111, 112, 166, 189, 192
fecundity, 125, 147, 153, 195
fenpropidin, 8
fensulfothion, 65
fenvalerate, 114
fertilisation, 188, 194, 198, 201, 203
fertilizers, 5, 6, 43, 63, 66, 79, 192, 199
filter feeders, 175, 197
fingerlings, 95, 142
fipronil, 75
fire
fighting foams, 148
retardants, 6
fish kills, 4, 114, 115
fishing, 6, 51, 52, 142, 166, 188, 189
fjords, 214
flies, 63, 72, 73
alderflies, 47
blowfly, 66
crane-flies, 79, 103
fruit, 48, 68
house, 69
sawflies, 79
stonefly, 101, 103, 147
tse-tse, 65
flocculation, 229
flounder, 213
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 263
fluazuron, 66, 73
fluometuron, 227
fluorine, 140, 148
fluoxetine, 151
flusulfamide, 8
fonofos, 65
food web, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 54, 55, 112, 114, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 149, 166, 179, 187, 212, 213, 215, 238, 240
forests, 72, 76, 93, 102, 239
boreal, 89
coastal, 94
mangrove, 187
natural, 88
temperate, 239
formalin, 8
fossil fuels, 4, 6, 145, 238
fragrances, 150
Freundlich-isotherm, 14
frogs, 66, 69, 77, 78, 79, 144, 149
fumigants, 72, 73
fungi, 4, 5, 7, 8, 46, 64, 70, 102, 115, 117, 119, 170, 225, 228, 231
fungicides, 5, 64, 70, 71, 73, 117
application, 65
copper, 48, 68, 69, 70, 73, 80
imidazole, 117
organo-mercurial, 52, 66, 70
persistent, 69
strobilurin, 8
triazoles, 5
usage, 64
G
gall bladder, 149
gamagrass, 226
gardening, 65
germination, 7, 8, 99
gills, 47, 166, 199
gizzard, 51, 66
glyceollin, 71
glyphosate, 70, 71, 73, 79, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 104, 193
godwits, 53
goose, 50, 67
goosefoots, 79
grasshoppers, 54, 79
grazers, 48, 102, 146
great tit, 50
grebes, 114
Green Revolution, 63, 64, 74
greenfinch, 50
greenhouse gasses, 5
grouse, 101
guidelines, 10, 172, 174, 177, 179, 191
264 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
H
haddock, 216
haemoglobin, 7
haemorrhaging, 8
half-life, 13, 14, 29, 39, 69, 92, 96, 152
harbours, 193, 217
hares, 94
hatcheries, 142
hatching, 9, 54, 77, 143, 144, 187
hawks, 78
hazard quotient, 10, 92
hemlock looper, 99, 101
hemolysis, 48
Henry's law, 15, 18
hepatocytes, 8, 146
heptachlor, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73
herbicides, 63, 74, 79, 88, 113, 116, 189, 191, 226
application, 65, 66, 67, 90
auxin-type, 121
broad-spectrum, 8, 73, 74
formulation, 68
growth inhibiting, 121
organoarsenic, 53, 72
persistent, 69, 79
phenoxy, 6
PSII-inhibiting, 8, 121, 193, 194, 196
pyridine, 8
residues, 68
selective, 73
silvicultural, 93
sulfonylurea, 8
systemic, 193
triazine, 72, 77, 193, 215
urea-derived, 73, 193
usage, 65, 74, 79, 80, 93
herbivores, 47, 52, 53, 118, 175
herons, 78, 79
hexazinone, 93, 118, 195
homeostasis, 145, 199
hormone mimic, 150
human health, 4, 90, 122, 123, 193
hunting, 51, 52
hydrocarbons
aliphatic, 6, 8
aromatic, 8, 169, 197, 198, 227, 228
halogenated aromatic, 139
petroleum, 5, 192, 197, 198, 226, 227
polycyclic aromatic (PAH), 5, 6, 17, 139, 145, 197, 198, 213, 214, 216
hydrolysis, 23, 24, 26, 91, 92, 97, 98, 111, 226
Hymenoptera. See bees, ants, parasitoids
hyperaccumulation, 47
hyphomycetes, 121
hypoxia, 176, 233
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 265
I
ibuprofen, 151
imazapyr, 93
imazethapyr, 8
imidacloprid, 8, 65, 70, 73, 75, 76
imidazoles, 8
immobility, 77, 148
impacts
amphibians, 96
community, 4, 76
direct, 71, 76
ecological, 4, 88, 92
ecosystem, 7, 68
indirect, 74, 79, 80
long-term, 80
population, 72
temporary, 6, 100, 102, 103, 104, 116, 118, 119, 124, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 145, 146, 147, 150, 151, 152, 153,
154, 170, 175, 176, 179, 192, 197, 199, 212, 215, 217, 219, 232, 238, 239, 240
imposex, 7, 170
incineration, 6, 140, 238
indandiones, 6
index
AZTI Marine Biotic Index (AMBI), 174
Benthic Quality Index (BQI), 174
biotic, 142, 147
dissimilarity, 101
gonadosomatic, 153
maturity, 152
Shannon-Wiener diversity, 146, 174
Trophic Index (TI), 45
induction, 8, 26, 97, 168, 169, 228
industry, 65
chemical, 6, 63, 144, 166
electrical, 3
fuels, 174
manufacturing, 166
pesticide, 5
pharmaceutical, 6
plastics, 152, 166
infection, 69, 71, 79, 201
ingestion, 10, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 67, 78, 80, 103, 197, 212
inhibition, 77, 92, 102, 115, 118, 123, 145, 148, 151, 153, 168, 175, 191, 194, 195, 197, 198, 200, 201, 203, 230
inhibitors
acetyl-cholinesterase, 5, 64, 66, 76, 78
biosynthesis, 5
cell growth, 5
germination, 6, 8
metabolic, 64
nicotinic, 5
photosynthesis, 6, 8
respiration, 5, 8
insecticides, 5, 79, 80, 99, 113, 117, 195, 216
application, 72
266 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
avermectins, 66, 73
benzoylurea, 8
biological, 89
carbamate, 8, 72, 73, 75
cyclodiene, 64, 67, 78
hydrophobic, 72
lipophilic, 66
neonicotinoid, 64, 68, 76, 116
neurotoxic, 8, 69, 76, 194
organoarsenic, 69
organochlorine (OC), 5, 8, 9, 64, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 75, 77, 78, 111, 114
organophosphorus (OP), 66, 69, 70, 72, 76, 77, 78, 114, 120, 193, 226
persistent, 69
pyrethroid, 8, 64, 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 115, 120
selective, 101
systemic, 65, 70, 72, 75, 76
usage, 64
insectivores, 53
insects, 10, 63, 64, 66, 67, 76, 78, 79, 90, 99, 115, 116
aquatic, 97, 103, 121, 142, 147
dung-breeding, 66
littoral, 102
non-target, 65, 92, 100, 103
parasitic, 75
phytophagous, 74
pollinating, 102
predatory, 75
insulating fluids, 3, 140
integrated pest management (IPM), 74, 80, 104, 111
integrative assessments, 166, 179
intensive agriculture, 79, 188, 199
interactions, 215, 218
chemical, 154, 215
complex, 4, 45, 168, 227, 240
ecological, 125, 126
interspecies, 102, 112, 171, 214
microbial, 217, 230, 231, 238
multiple species, 96
multiple stressor, 97, 104, 190, 201, 240
synergistic, 69, 146, 176
trophic, 143, 173, 175
intersex. See imposex
intestine, 49
intoxication, 4, 122
invertebrates, 140, 142
aquatic, 46, 47, 95, 97, 98, 101, 102, 103, 117, 141, 142, 144, 146, 148, 149, 151
benthic, 101, 147, 149, 176
detritivorous, 48
herbivorous, 48
macro-, 73, 117, 128, 239
marine, 7, 122, 145, 168, 187, 193, 239
pollution-tolerant, 147
predatory, 76, 128
terrestrial, 94
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 267
iodine, 6
Irgarol 1051, 193, 194, 195, 215
irrigation, 52, 54, 63, 65, 67, 77, 111, 112
isopods, 44, 48, 52
isotope ratios, 46
ivermectin, 73, 151
J
jellyfish, 216
K
kestrels, 78
kidney, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 78, 149
kinetics
biodegradation, 27, 29
first-order, 13, 27, 28, 30, 31, 230
mass flow, 33
metal, 45, 56
pseudo first-order, 13, 23, 25, 27, 30
second-order, 30
transport, 34
kites, 67
knotgrasses, 79
L
lacewings, 48
lagoons, 79
lakes, 5, 67, 76, 98, 226, 229
lambda-cyhalothrin, 226
lamprey, 142
landfills, 150, 166, 189
larvae, 174, 194, 197
amphibian, 96, 97, 98
copepod, 152
coral, 194, 198
Diptera, 72
fish, 216
insect, 48, 53, 72
midge, 75
mosquito, 68
planula, 188
leaching, 22, 72, 95, 97, 150, 193
lead, 7, 8, 34, 43, 47, 201, 212, 226, 229, 230, 232
in fuel, 6
shot, 51, 52, 213
sinkers, 51, 52
uptake, 230
leafworms, 75
Lepidoptera, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103
levels
background, 170
268 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
baseline, 6
ecosystem, 173, 192, 239, 240
environmental, 6
exposure, 214, 217
infestation, 66
lowest-observed effect (LOEL), 9, 55
metal, 47, 49, 50, 170, 200, 229
non-toxic, 138
no-observed effect (NOEL), 9
of contaminants, 174, 176, 213, 214
of organization, 55, 104, 113, 114, 123, 128, 138, 139, 148, 165, 167, 173, 190, 239
pH, 24
protein, 169
residue, 76, 77, 78, 95, 143, 169
threshold, 147
trophic, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 67, 100, 118, 119, 126, 141, 142, 145, 146, 151, 172, 173, 175, 187,
199, 202, 218, 219
vitellogenin, 216
lichens, 96
ligands, 46, 168
lignin, 70
lindane, 8, 65, 66, 70, 72, 73, 76, 111, 194
lines of evidence (LOE), 104, 167, 176
lipid tissues. See adipose tissue
lipofuscins, 168
litter, 67, 70, 71, 73, 94, 95, 100, 102, 119, 166
liver, 7, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 78, 79, 149, 168, 216
livestock, 64, 66, 73, 150, 151, 166, 239
lizards, 77, 78
locusts, 63
loons, 52
lubricants, 6
lucerne, 74
lufenuron, 8
lungs, 66
lysosomes, 168
M
macrophytes, 79, 102, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 141, 142, 146, 148, 151, 239
magnesium, 7
magpies, 77
malaria, 65
malathion, 69, 115
malformations. See deformities
malondialdehyde, 169
mammals, 52, 53, 76, 142, 144
carnivorous, 55, 80
grazing, 78
herbivorous, 94, 95
insectivorous, 76, 78
marine, 47, 144, 145, 190, 196, 213, 215, 217
ruminants, 48
small, 44, 46, 48, 49, 53, 54, 66, 77, 94, 100
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 269
management
drift, 65
environmental, 29, 105, 154, 167, 179, 202, 212, 238
farm, 79
forest, 88, 89, 90, 104, 239
oceans, 219
pest, 66, 74, 75, 76, 99, 104
policies, 204
vegetation, 92, 93, 95
water quality, 22
weed, 74
wildlife, 54
mancozeb, 71
manganese, 6, 199, 230
manufacturing, 3, 6, 144
manure, 48, 150
marinas. See harbours
marshes, 68
materials
allochthonous, 98
biogenic, 145
building, 3, 144, 187
new, 3, 228
radioactive, 197
water-proof, 5
mealybugs, 75
mechanism
detoxification, 44, 49, 69, 76, 168, 230
electron-transfer, 8, 196
exchange, 18
homeostatic, 44
of remediation, 225, 226, 230, 232
of toxicity, 7, 94, 99, 143, 171
sorption, 14
transport, 17
medaka, 146
medicines, 3, 151
mefenoxam, 70
memory impairment, 77
mercury, 7, 199, 201, 212, 213, 217, 226, 232
mesofauna, 71
metabolism
Phase I, 168
Phase II, 168
metabolite, 9, 26, 67, 69, 95, 97, 145, 214, 216
metalaxyl, 70
metalloids, 43, 55, 56, 178, 199, 200, 230, 231, 238
metallothionein, 48, 168
metamitron, 116
metamorphosis, 66, 77, 148, 149, 188, 191, 194, 198, 201, 203
methane, 23, 27, 70, 146
methoprene, 73
methylation, 46, 232
methylmercury, 44, 170, 232
270 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
metolachlor, 8, 70, 227
metsulfuron methyl, 93
mice, 44, 54, 66, 77
microcystins, 4
micronutrients, 6, 7
micro-organisms, 4, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 71, 72, 238
microtubules, 6, 8
midges, 102
migration, 9, 51, 78, 95, 214
millipedes, 72
minerals, 3, 52, 70
mining, 3, 6, 48, 54, 64, 166, 174, 189, 190, 199
mink, 46, 55
minnows, 98
mirex, 78
mites, 72
oribatid, 72
phytoseiid, 76
predatory, 72
saprophagous, 72
Tetranychus, 75, 76
mitigation, 191, 225, 226, 227
mitochondria, 7, 8
models
Aquatox, 128
bioaccumulation, 46
Comprehensive Aquatic Systems, 139
ecological, 124
energy budget, 124, 125
fate, 14, 29, 123, 128, 238
fugacity, 14, 34
individual-based, 124, 125
mass balance, 29, 33
multicompartment, 31
multimedia, 33, 34, 35
PERPEST, 128
pharmaco-kinetic, 29
population, 124, 125, 139
predictive, 77
Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR), 123
transport, 29
moles, 50, 76
molluscicides, 64
molluscs, 119, 121, 168, 169, 172
bivalve, 165, 169
gastropods, 7, 117, 170, 175
molybdenum, 6, 48
monensin, 151
monitoring, 4, 21, 90, 91, 95, 97, 98, 100, 103, 104, 112, 116, 119, 126, 127, 128, 154, 165, 167, 169, 173, 191, 198,
204, 216, 217, 238
monocultures, 26, 63, 74, 96
monosodium methylarsonate MSMA, 53
monoxygenases, 228
monuron, 72, 73
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 271
moose, 48, 94
morphine, 8
morpholines, 5, 8
moths
bogong, 53
coddling, 75
gypsy, 99, 100, 101, 103
painted apple, 99, 100
tussock, 99, 100
multivariate
analyses, 177, 179
statistical techniques, 119
muscle, 50
mussels, 142, 147, 168, 169, 171, 213, 214
mutations, 8, 171, 198
mutualism, 117
mycotoxins, 4
Myriapoda, 72, See millipedes
mysids, 216
N
nanotechnology, 55
naphthalene, 228
narcotics, 5
necrosis, 145, 149
neem. See azadirachtin
nekton, 214, 216
nematicides, 64
nematodes, 64, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 152
nervous impulse, 8
nestlings, 69, 77
nettle, 47
niche, 122
nickel, 7, 171, 199, 226, 230, 231
nicotine, 8, 63, 75
nitrate, 27, 70, 233
non-target organisms, 64, 65, 66, 69, 77, 80, 90, 92, 94, 102, 115, 193
nonylphenol, 5, 151
norflurazon, 79
nozzles, 90
nuclear polyhedrosis virus, 74
O
oak, 100
ocean acidification, 191, 196, 201, 204
offspring, 54
Oligochaeta. See worms
oocytes, 194
orange groves, 74
orchards, 63, 65, 68, 73, 75, 76, 112
apple, 76, 77
citrus, 75
272 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
organelles, 51
organoselenium, 44, 54
organotin, 7, 44, 46
osteomalacia, 52
osteoporosis, 52
Ostracoda, 121
otters, 46
overspray, 98
owls, 67, 78, 79
oxadiazon, 71
oxidants, 5, 24
oxidation, 8, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 52, 70, 199, 226, 231, 232
oxyfluorfen, 71
ozone, 5, 24, 25
P
paper mill, 168
paralysis, 8
paraquat, 8, 72, 73, 74
parasiticides, 72
parasitoids, 74, 75, 80
parathion, 65, 67, 68, 75, 119, 227, 228
particles, 14, 16, 213, 217
aerosol, 17, 18
clay, 94
sediment, 21
size, 18
soil, 21, 29, 70, 99
suspended, 21, 198
partitioning, 14, 15, 16, 17, 29, 34, 46, 51, 88
carbon-water, 29
partridge, 79
passive samplers, 213, 214, 219, 238
pathogens, 71, 73, 80
Pauropoda, 72
pauropods, 72
pelicans, 78
pellets, 51, 213
pendimethalin, 73
pentachlorophenol, 70, 140
perch, 51, 98
percolation, 17, 73
perennial plants, 94
perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, 148
perfluorooctanoic acid, 148, 217
periphyton, 117, 119, 121, 128, 141, 152
permethrin, 195, 226
peroxisome, 149, 168
persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 44, 140, 143, 145, 146, 148, 149, 169, 216, 217, 218
personal care products (PPCPs), 150
pest control, 4, 64, 74, 78, 80, 89, 92, 104, 114
pest outbreaks, 99
pesticides
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 273
biodegradable, 68
chlorinated, 6, 70
granular, 65
modern, 67, 69, 72, 92, 104, 191, 192
natural, 104
persistent, 69, 80
synthetic, 64, 111
petroleum, 3, 5, 6, 7, 145, 146, 197, 198, 226, 227
pharmaceuticals, 3, 5, 139, 150, 151, 154, 165, 189, 217, 238, 239
phenanthrene, 228
pheromones, 64
phorate, 65, 73
phosphatase, 71, 146
phosphates, 70
phthalate ester, 168
phytoalexin, 71
phytoextraction, 225, 226
phytoremediation, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 233, 238
picloram, 70
piperonyl butoxide, 68
plankton
phytoplankton, 54, 115, 116, 117, 121, 126, 128, 141, 147, 151, 152, 170, 214, 215, 216, 218
zooplankton, 54, 96, 98, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 126, 147, 149, 151, 152, 170, 214, 216, 218, 219, 240
plant hoppers, 75
plant tissues, 230
plasmids, 232
plasticizers, 6, 139, 168
plastics, 3, 144, 151, 152, 213, 214
polycarbonate, 152
rigid, 144
Plecoptera. See caddisflies
plumes, 18, 189, 196, 204
poisoning, 78
by metalloids, 52, 53, 54
by metals, 51, 52, 55
by pesticides, 77, 78, 79, 80
primary, 67
secondary, 67, 78
polar bears, 46
pollination, 73, 74, 80
pollinators, 74
pollutants
inorganic, 225, 226, 238
toxic, 4, 5, 7, 238, 239
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 6, 139, 144, 165, 171, 217
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 3, 6, 139, 140, 196, 217, 227, 228
polychlorinated dioxins (PCDDs), 5, 139, 140
polyps, 188, 201
polyurethane, 144, 214
ponds, 98
poplar, 226
population
decline, 51, 53, 54, 79, 114, 142, 143, 144, 146, 217
density, 113, 118
274 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
human, 52, 111
possums, 53
practices
agricultural, 63, 73, 74, 76, 79, 80, 240
management, 65, 66, 74, 79, 80, 239
no-tillage, 74, 76
prairie dog, 50
prawns, 171
precautionary principle, 123
precipitation, 17, 18, 21, 22, 35, 111, 119, 217, 229, 230, 231, 232
predators, 51, 53, 55, 67, 75, 76, 78, 80, 173
carnivorous, 45, 50
insectivorous, 100
invertebrate, 48, 76
mammalian, 46, 55, 78
marine, 46, 175, 196, 213, 216, 217, 219
primary consumers, 78, 146
primary producers, 45, 113, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 194, 196, 215, 219, 240
pristine areas, 175
processes
abiotic, 23, 213
advection, 22
biochemical, 93
bioconcentration, 45
biological, 69, 197, 233
biosynthetic, 8
calcification, 187
cellular, 196
chemical, 215
degradation, 23, 26, 29, 39
diagenetic, 145
dispersive, 17
ecological, 194, 229
elimination, 26
erosion, 199
evolutionary, 171
geogenic, 43
hydrographic, 212
industrial, 240
metabolic, 8, 64, 73
microbial, 27, 28, 226, 231, 232
mineralization, 23
nutrient-cycling, 70
pelagic, 219, 240
phosphorylation, 7, 231
photolytic, 26
photosynthetic, 188
physiological, 8, 193
phytoremediation, 225
redox, 231
removal, 17, 27
reproductive, 197
transformation, 23
transport, 18, 22, 33, 238
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 275
production
agricultural, 63, 192
biofuel, 111
chemical, 3, 34
electricity, 55
food, 111, 192
forests, 88
PBDEs, 144
PCBs, 144
pesticide, 4, 111
PFOS, 148
plastics, 151
primary, 113, 126, 188, 193, 212, 213, 215
secondary, 215
products
agrochemical, 68, 69, 80
animal, 3
by-products, 6, 140
cleaning, 3
metallic, 3
natural, 3
pesticide, 64
waste, 44, 70, 189
profenofos, 194, 195
propellants, 5
prosulfuron, 71
Proteobacteria, 228
protists, 70, 71, 213, 217, 219, 240
pseudomonads, 228
pteridophytes, 96
Pyralidae. See stem borers
pyrethrum, 8, 63
pyrithione
copper, 215
zinc, 190, 201, 215
Q
quinalphos, 70
R
raccoons, 50, 67
rape seeds, 66
raptors, 52, 78
rates
application, 70, 71, 90, 93, 99, 192
bioaccumulation, 189
biodegradation, 27, 37, 189
calcification, 191, 199, 200
degradation, 193, 201
elimination, 49, 50
growth, 94, 95, 144, 175, 198, 200
metabolic, 48, 76
276 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
second-order, 27
rats, 53
receptor
aryl hydrocarbon (AhR), 8, 140, 142, 144, 145, 146, 196
cholinesterase, 8
estrogen, 152
GABA, 8
nicotinic, 8
recolonisation, 122, 126, 175, 239
recovery, 121, 123, 124, 125, 179
time, 104, 121, 122
red fox, 50
redundancy, 113, 126
reeds, 226
refinery, 43, 44, 49, 52, 53, 198
refrigeration, 3
refugia, 122, 126
regeneration, 8, 70, 88, 89, 92, 94, 141, 200
regulatory authorities, 4, 138, 173
rehabilitation, 96
remobilization, 9
reproduction impairment, 77, 78
residence time, 17, 39, 217
residues
faeces, 53, 67, 73
feathers, 50, 66
resilience, 70, 93, 96, 188, 196, 201, 202, 204, 225
resistance, 19, 20, 21, 39, 64, 75, 80, 151, 168, 201, 231, 232
respiration, 113, 146, 151
aerobic, 47
anaerobic, 231
microbial, 70
soil basal, 70
resurgence, 75
resuspension, 17, 20, 21, 22, 33, 199, 213
retinol, 8
rhizodegradation, 229
rhizomes, 94, 230
rhizosphere, 70, 71, 225, 230
rodenticides, 8, 63, 64, 67, 78
rodents, 63, 67, 77, 78, 145
rotifers, 119, 147, 149
rubber, 5, 73
rubidium, 50
runoff, 67, 68, 80, 94, 111, 112, 114, 119, 126, 128, 131, 151, 174, 189, 190, 192, 197, 198, 199, 202, 203, 225
agricultural, 190
stormwater, 5
rushes, 80
S
saithe, 216
salamanders, 102, 148
salinity, 117, 174, 199, 201, 213, 215
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 277
salmon, 95, 97, 149
salmonberry, 95
sandpipers, 50
scrapers, 142
sea urchins, 201
seagrass, 187, 194
seagulls, 140, 143
seals, 46, 216, 217
sedges, 80
Sediment Quality Triad (SQT), 176
sedimentation, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 154, 212, 217, 218, 229
seed-dressings, 65
selection pressure, 47, 75, 122
sequestration, 51, 55, 168
serum proteins, 149
sewerage, 4, 21
sheep, 48, 73
shellfish, 166, 215
shredders, 103, 142
shrews, 44, 48, 49, 53, 76, 101
silicone, 214
silver, 50
simazine, 72, 73, 193
skeleton, 188, 199
skin, 7, 46, 50, 52, 66, 96
skylark, 79
smelters, 6
smog, 4
snails, 47, 64, 147, 153
snipe, 52
sodium channels, 8
soil fertility, 70, 72, 73, 74, 80
soils
agricultural, 43, 54
floodplain, 48
metalliferous, 229
urban, 6
solar radiation, 24, 26
solvents, 5, 6, 226, 227
sparrowhawk, 78
spawning, 142, 153, 169, 188, 198
spearfish, 216
species
competitive, 122
endangered, 53, 100, 101
invasive, 89, 215
k-selected, 174
meiobenthic, 171
opportunistic, 174, 175
pelagic, 213, 214
r-selected, 174
sensitive, 116, 117, 119, 125, 146, 173, 174, 175
sentinel, 165, 168, 169
tolerant, 44, 119, 146, 174
278 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
species sensitivity distribution (SSD), 128
sperm, 153, 188, 194
Sphaeriidae. See molluscs
spiders, 48, 72, 74, 75, 76, 79
spills, 6, 10, 189, 190, 198, 199, 217, 225
oil, 170, 197, 202
spinal cord, 8
spinosad, 66
spleen, 50
spores, 7, 73, 99
springtails, 72, 76
spruce, 89, 96, 99, 101
squirrels, 67
starlings, 54, 69
starvation, 9, 63, 79
steady-state, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39
stomach, 50, 101
structure
community, 53, 54, 70, 74, 101, 120, 141, 143, 147, 149, 153, 173, 174, 176, 179, 215, 218
ecosystem, 143
population, 52, 113, 147
trophic, 78, 138
vegetation, 52, 76
sub-cellular, 51, 169
substances
hazardous, 10
man-made, 4
subsurface, 54, 111, 112, 216
sugarcane, 74
sulfides, 178, 230, 231, 232
sulfometuron, 93
sulfonamides, 5, 8
sulphur dioxide, 6
sunfish, 118
sunflower, 66, 76
surfactants, 6, 65, 104
non-ionic, 152
perfluorinated, 139, 148, 238
POEA, 96
susceptibility, 76, 77, 90, 113, 115, 122, 123, 190, 202, 217
suspended solids, 14, 15, 33, 35, 197
switchgrass, 226
swordfish, 213, 216
symbionts, 188, 190, 191, 194, 198, 199, 202
symbiosis
coral, 187, 194
mycorrhizal, 70, 80
symphylids, 72
system
atmospheric, 25
endocrine, 169
hormonal, 145
immunosystem, 170
nervous, 7, 64
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 279
photosystem II (PSII), 8, 191, 193, 215
respiratory, 7
root, 70, 73, 93, 193, 225, 226, 229, 230
T
Tabular Decision Matrix (TDM), 177
tadpoles, 77, 79, 144
tebufenozide, 99, 101
technetium, 231
terbufos, 65
terns, 143
testosterone, 77, 153
tests
acute toxicity, 123, 124
biodegradibility, 28
bioluminescence, 151
cell line, 123, 146
chronic toxicity, 123, 179
embryo, 123
flow-through toxicity, 97
laboratory toxicity, 113, 147
life cycle, 150
multispecies, 176
single species, 102, 123, 124
time-toxicity, 97
tetrachloroethene, 228
tetracycline, 151
textiles, 3, 5, 144
thermal stress, 201
thermodynamics, 14
thiacloprid, 121, 126
thiobencarb, 8, 73
thiocarbamates, 6
thrush, 101
thyroid, 77, 144, 149, 217
thyroxine, 8
tier studies, 93
tin
inorganic, 170, 200, 201
organotins, 192, 216
toads, 77, 144
tolerance, 54, 113, 114, 123, 168, 171, 175, 176, 200, 201, 202
tomato, 74
tourism, 187
toxaphene, 67, 70
toxic equivalents (TEQs), 143, 217
toxicity
dermal, 66
mixture, 123
toxicokinetics, 146
toxicosis, 48, 51
toxins
algal, 4, 166, 215
280 Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals Francisco Sánchez-Bayo
biological, 4, 5
Bt-endotoxins, 71, 91, 99
microbial, 4
natural, 4, 215
trace elements, 43, 50, 54
trace metals, 189, 199, 200, 201, 212, 230
trait-based risk assessment, 123
translocation, 22, 91, 111, 229, 230
trans-nonachlor, 67
transport
atmospheric, 111, 112
intermedia, 14, 17, 18, 33, 34
intramedia, 17
treated areas, 53, 95
triazophos, 76
tributyltin (TBT), 7, 193, 199
trichlorfon, 70
trichloropyridinol, 97
Trichoptera. See stoneflies
triclopyr, 8, 77, 93, 95, 97, 98, 104
triclopyr ester, 97
trophic cascade, 45
trout, 97, 98, 119, 138, 142, 146, 149, 153
tuna, 216
Turbellaria, 103
turbidity, 126, 166, 201, 202, 204
turtles, 144, 149
U
uptake
dietary, 47
root, 229
uranium, 231, 232
UV radiation, 112, 146, 218
V
vanadium, 50
vapour pressure, 15, 16
vertebrates, 8, 48, 51, 55, 64, 66, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 99, 116, 126, 139, 145, 146, 148, 150, 152, 153, 169, 170,
196, 213, 214
vineyards, 65, 76, 112
vitamin A, 8
vitamin K, 8
vitellogenin, 150, 153, 216
volatilization, 17, 19, 20, 21, 33, 68, 76, 231
voles, 44, 48, 49, 53, 66, 67, 77
W
warblers, 95, 101
wash-out, 17, 18
wastewater treatment, 21, 150, 152, 153, 166
Index Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals 281
water
groundwater, 17, 22, 38, 39, 52, 111, 152
pore, 21, 22, 29, 147, 230
quality, 10, 22, 118, 119, 123, 147, 172, 179, 190, 191, 204
solubility, 15, 104, 144, 152, 225
surface, 15, 17, 21, 24, 28, 102, 111, 112, 115, 150, 151, 189, 238
vapour, 6
watershed, 95, 98, 103, 142, 147
water fleas, 112
water hyacinth, 229
webworm, 101
weeds, 3, 63, 64, 66, 73, 74, 76, 79, 80
wetlands, 51, 76, 77, 79, 96, 98, 144, 147, 189, 226, 227, 229, 239
whales, 217
willow, 226
woodlice, 44, 67, 72, 73
woodpeckers, 53
worms
earthworms, 44, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 70, 72, 73, 78, 80
enchytraeid, 72, 73
oligochaetes, 44, 52
polychaetes, 175
worst-case scenario, 10
X
xenobiotics, 27, 167, 168, 170, 173
xylem, 52
Y
yolk proteins, 169
Z
zinc, 6, 7, 47, 52, 174, 193, 199, 200, 201, 215, 226, 229, 230, 231
zooxanthellae, 187, 193, 194, 198, 199, 201, 202