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Emotional and motivational uses of music in sports and exercise: A questionnaire study among athletes
Abstract
Music is present in many sport and exercise situations, but empirical investigations on the motives for listening to music in sports remain scarce. In this study, Swedish elite athletes (N = 252) answered a questionnaire that focused on the emotional and motivational uses of music in sports and exercise. The questionnaire contained both quantitative items that assessed the prevalence of various uses of music, and open-ended items that targeted specific emotional episodes in relation to music in sports. Results showed that the athletes most often reported listening to music during pre-event preparations, warm-up, and training sessions; and the most common motives for listening to music were to increase pre-event activation, positive affect, motivation, performance levels and to experience flow. The athletes further reported that they mainly experienced positive affective states (e.g., happiness, alertness, confidence, relaxation) in relation to music in sports, and also reported on their beliefs about the causes of the musical emotion episodes in sports. In general, the results suggest that the athletes used music in purposeful ways in order to facilitate their training and performance.
... Music perpetually constitutes a fundamental facet of athletes' routine activities and training programs [1], [2]. Its omnipotent influence permeates various sports and is commonly perceived as an indispensable component in athletic showdowns [3], [4]. ...
... Indeed, the capability of music to elevate sports enjoyment and bolster physical performance across a range of activities is well established [10]. Additionally, the use of music has been associated with enhanced stamina and motivation during exercise [2], [10], [26]. The utilization of music therapy within exercise settings and the criticality of beats per minute (BPM) in exercise-related music have gained recognition [17], [27]. ...
... This corroborates earlier research indicating that music can lessen perceived effort during exercise [9] and augment sensations of pleasure. In addition to the psychological benefits, music can also have physiological and psychophysiological effects on the body during exercise [2], [10], [26], [28]. Our research found a significant difference in heart rate during mid-distance running tasks between the EM and NM conditions. ...
This study explores the effectiveness of a music-assisted IoT exercise system specifically designed for mid-distance running. The primary objectives are to augment the sports experience, facilitate recovery, and surpass the benefits provided by existing solutions. This system ensures a personalized experience through real-time music tempo adaptation according to the heart rate (HR), exercise tracking, customizable music selection, adjustable parameters, and voice recognition technology for effortless completion of questionnaires. In our findings, we observed a significant interaction (p < 0.05) in terms of Condition × Exercise Stage for HR, Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE), Feeling Scale (FS), and Felt Arousal Scale (FAS). It suggests that exercise-oriented music considerably impacts physiological (HR), perceptual (RPE), and affective (FS, FAS) responses. Furthermore, tailored and enjoyable exercise experiences lead to an increase in positive arousal and a decrease in fatigue. The music-assisted IoT exercise system demonstrates potential as an efficacious instrument for promoting physical activity and enhancing health outcomes. Future work will concentrate on further exploring the impact of music on exercise performance and recovery, investigating other musical parameters, integrating sensors for capturing behavioral responses, and enhancing data privacy and security through blockchain technology.
... Less is known about the effectiveness of pre-task music, although it seems to have potential benefits on performance (see e.g., Terry et al., 2020). Related to the effect on athletic performance, pre-task music is suggested to have a "residual effect" that serves as "psych-up" or "psych-down", that is, priming an optimal activation for physical performance (Karageorghis, 2020;Karageorghis et al., 2017) While the motives for listening to music pre-competition may vary (Terry & Karageorghis, 2006), most athletes report that the act increases their level of activation, endurance, motivation, and performance (Aslett et al., 2017;Laukka & Quick, 2013), highlighting the need for research that can help quantify these self-reported improvements in athletic performance. ...
... Previous studies suggest that pre-task music may have more of an acute ergogenic effect on short, predominantly anaerobic bouts rather than long-duration tasks (Karageorghis, 2020;Smirmaul, 2017). In sports that require short bursts of muscular or anaerobic power, preevent activation and arousal (i.e., psychological state) is believed to be, at least by the athletes themselves, a crucial requirement for achieving maximum performance (Laukka & Quick, 2013). Furthermore, a study by Loizou and Karageorghis (2015) included affective state and arousal as self-reported measurements in their methodology and reported pre-task music as a potential way to enhance athletes' psychological state. ...
... According to Laukka and Quick (2013), some athletes participating in high-intensity events may choose to implement slow-tempo music, rather than fast-tempo music, to achieve focus and control their excitement. Despite this, studies on pre-task music that have compared slow-tempo music, fast-tempo music, and no-music conditions in the same investigation seems to be scarce. ...
Research on the ergogenic effects of music on athletic performance usually includes multiple antecedents simultaneously. Consequently, this study set out to isolate a single antecedent using a highly controlled experiment. More specifically, the aim of the study was to investigate the effect of pre-task, slow-and fast-tempo music on arousal, affective state, perceived exertion, and anaerobic rowing performance by isolating music tempo as the sole intrinsic musical factor. Forty young adults (male = 23, female = 17) participated in three trials where they all were exposed to no-music, slow-tempo, and fast-tempo music conditions in a randomized order. The music was exclusively composed for this study and equally novel for all participants. It was based on the same electronic track with a techno-orientation rendered to both 110 (slow-tempo) and 140 (fast-tempo) BPM. Following music exposure, the participants were momentarily asked to report levels of felt arousal and affective state before being instructed to perform a 30-s maximal rowing test on an ergometer. Upon completion of each rowing test, subjects were then asked to report their perceived exertion. Both fast-and slow-tempo pre-task music exposure led to increased arousal and positive affective state when compared to no music. Fast-tempo music led to a significantly higher mean power output than slow-tempo music. No significant differences were found for peak watt output or rating of perceived exertion when comparing all conditions. These findings suggest that exposure to pre-task music may offer positive psychological benefits prior to commencing anaerobic sporting tasks. Results also suggest that fast-tempo music may have an ergogenic effect on anaerobic performance.
... The common reasons athletes give for using music include the control of arousal, the regulation or modulation of affective states, and the elicitation of specific emotions (e.g., liveliness, calmness, or aggression; Laukka & Quick, 2013). We use the term affect to refer to a neurophysiological state that is consciously accessible as a simple primitive, nonreflective feeling (Russell & Barrett, 1999). ...
... The rate of movement and bodily pulses such as HR and respiration rate are drawn toward synchronization with the rhythmical qualities of music. Invariably, athletes express a preference for musical tempo to remain relatively high during intense training sessions (Karageorghis & Jones, 2014;Laukka & Quick, 2013). Along similar lines, given the propensity for brainwaves to entrain with tempo (e.g., Will & Berg, 2007), music can have a priming effect pretraining or as part of an athlete's precompetition routine (Loizou & Karageorghis, 2015;Pettit & Karageorghis, 2020). ...
... Along similar lines, given the propensity for brainwaves to entrain with tempo (e.g., Will & Berg, 2007), music can have a priming effect pretraining or as part of an athlete's precompetition routine (Loizou & Karageorghis, 2015;Pettit & Karageorghis, 2020). Slow, calming music can also be used to combat the symptoms of precompetition anxiety Laukka & Quick, 2013). Scherer and Zentner (2001) highlighted that music can influence the human organism by serving as a trigger for emotional associations, a process that may rely on subcortical mechanisms. ...
This chapter provides an overview of the key concepts, theory, underlying mechanisms, empirical research, and application relevant to the use of music in sport. The chapter begins with a colorful introduction to the subject matter, in which the use of music in sport is set within a historical frame. Thereafter, a theoretical model is presented that coaches and practitioners can use as a reference point in the design of music-related interventions. This leads into consideration of the mechanisms—emotional, perceptual, and rhythm-related—that underlie the effects of music in sport. Throughout the chapter, the taxonomy of pretask, in-task, and post-task applications of music serves as a common denominator to aid the absorbability of the material. This is reflected in both a critical appraisal of recent literature and consideration of applied aspects. The key contribution of this chapter is that comprehensive guidelines are provided to facilitate athletes and coaches in their application of music. The centrepiece of these guidelines is a new framework that presents factors relevant to optimizing music selection in sport.
... Rituals serve as a means to achieve an emotional state and a level of confidence before and during the execution of a task 38 . Literature links the use of a ritual such as listening to music before a rugby game to increased pre-game activation, positive emotions, motivation, performance levels and the experience of flow 39,40 . Experiencing flow has specifically been found to increase awareness and concentration, as well as decrease anxiety, which in turn improves occupational engagement, participation and overall performance 41 . ...
... The above finding could be an indicator of why provincial level and club level players respectively reported using listening to music and visualisation significantly more than residence league players did. Taking the literature into account 38,39,40,41,42 , it is arguable that within the occupation of rugby, higher levels of competition place an increased demand on the player to be able to fully participate and engage in the game of rugby. Furthermore, this increased demand on occupational performance necessitates the use of rituals in order to build up a suitable emotional state before a game of rugby, as well as to sustain or improve occupational engagement, participation and overall performance during a game of rugby. ...
... The researchers postulate that the remaining 6 players regard singing of the national anthem merely as a pregame routine, as opposed to a ritual with symbolic meaning. Without meaning, mere routines will not sufficiently facilitate the needed emotional state and a level of confidence rugby players need on competitive levels 39 . This is important as there are many potentially stressful situations that could influence rugby players' participation and engagement in a game of rugby. ...
Globally, people engage in the game of rugby as spectators, players and organisations on many different competitive levels for the purpose of leisure, work and play. It is performed on both amateur and professional levels and engaged in by male and female players ranging from pre-school to adults. The purpose of the study was to describe and compare the roles, rituals and emotional regulation, on and off the field, of male rugby players on three different competitive levels in the Free State, South Africa. A cross-sectional study design was used amongst rugby players (n=45); 1 team per competitive level (3 levels). The results of the study showed significant differences with regards to roles that rugby players on the different competitive levels assume and the importance which they ascribe to each role. Variations exist in the rituals that the rugby players on the different competitive levels perform before and during a game of rugby. The degree to which situations are experienced as stressful differs across the three competitive levels. Across these levels, the use of positive verbal and non-verbal expression is used more than negative expression. Across all three levels rugby players use emotional suppression more than situational reappraisal as an emotional regulation strategy. Additional factors and the comparison thereof on different competitive levels should be investigated in future studies.
... The logical conclusion from research findings on the effect of music on motivational states includes the possibility that it can help people reach flow, the highest level of intrinsic motivation. In their study on the motivational uses of music in sport, Laukka and Quick [16] found out that athletes most often reported listening to music during pre-event preparations, warm-up, and training sessions and the most common motives for listening to music were to increase pre-event activation, positive affect, motivation, performance levels and to experience flow. ...
... The findings of this study, unlike findings from previous research [11][12][13][14][15][16][17]32], show that listening to music seems to have no substantial impact on cycling performance during the 6-minute Astrand Test, as there was no discernible difference in how much effort was felt at this distance. A limitation of the current study is the small sample and that participants were not guided on how to select appropriate music for the task under consideration. ...
... Music is a sensory input easily found in real-world exercise scenarios, as athletes from different modalities and performance levels listen to music during exercise bouts in training sessions [9][10][11][12]. For example, different from professional highly-trained athletes who may prefer to avoid distraction from exercise-related bodily sensations [13,14], recreational cyclists may listen to music as an ergogenic aid for indoor and outdoor exercises [14][15][16], as music reduces the focus from exercise-derived aversive sensations and attenuates RPE at comparable exercise intensities [17,18]. ...
... Despite controversial results [15], studies have found improved time trial performance with varied effects on pacing when participants listen to music during exercise [19][20][21][22]. Therefore, music is a bodily perception distractor [8,9] with potential motivation effects on pacing and performance [20]. Given its role as a distractor during exercise [11,23], one may hypothesize that music impairs cyclists' ability to self-monitor their distance due to their reduced focus on exercise-derived bodily sensations and attenuated RPE progression. ...
Athletes use their own perception to monitor distance and regulate their pace during exercise, avoiding premature fatigue before the endpoint. On the other hand, they may also listen to music while training and exercising. Given the potential role of music as a distractor, we verified if music influenced the athletes' ability to monitor the distance covered during a 20-km cycling time trial (TT20km). We hypothesized that music would elongate cyclists' perceived distance due to reduced attentional focus on exercise-derived signals, which would also change their ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). We also expected that the motivational role of music would also be beneficial in pacing and performance. After familiarization sessions, ten recreational cyclists performed an in-laboratory TT20km while either listening to music or not (control). They reported their RPE, associative thoughts to exercise (ATE), and motivation when they each perceived they had completed 2-km. Power output and heart rate (HR) were continuously recorded. Cyclists elongated their distance perception with music, increasing the distance covered for each perceived 2 km (p = 0.003). However, music reduced the error of conscious distance monitoring (p = 0.021), pushing the perceived distance towards the actual distance. Music increased the actual distance-RPE relationship (p = 0.004) and reduced ATE (p < 0.001). However, music affected neither performance assessed as mean power output (p = 0.564) and time (p = 0.524) nor psychophysiological responses such as HR (p = 0.066), RPE (p = 0.069), and motivation (p = 0.515). Cyclists elongated their distance perception during the TT20km and changed the actual distance-RPE relationship, which is likely due to a music-distractive effect. Although there was a reduced error of conscious distance monitoring, music affected neither pacing nor performance.
... In our study, the athletes stated that they preferred upbeat music during technical training, and they preferred slow music at the end of warm-up techniques and training. Looking at the literature, studies conducted have shown that athletes routinely use music to increase their motivational status and performance (Laukka & Quick, 2013;Pain, et al.;2011). In the study in which 252 Swedish athletes participated, it has been reported that of the participants, 66% listen to music several times a day, 71% prefer high-tempo music, and women listen to music more often than men (Laukka & Quick, 2013). ...
... Looking at the literature, studies conducted have shown that athletes routinely use music to increase their motivational status and performance (Laukka & Quick, 2013;Pain, et al.;2011). In the study in which 252 Swedish athletes participated, it has been reported that of the participants, 66% listen to music several times a day, 71% prefer high-tempo music, and women listen to music more often than men (Laukka & Quick, 2013). ...
This study examines the effect of music on motivation during sports activities in taekwondo and karate training. A total of 258 active athletes between the ages of 12 and 18 be engaged in taekwondo (n=159) and karate (n=99) branches participated in the study voluntarily. “The Effect of Music in Sports Activities Scale (SUMEÖ),” developed by Karayol and Turhan (2020), was used to collect data in the study. The scale consists of 18 items, has 3 sub-dimensions, and is in a 5-point Likert type. The data were collected using the Effect of Music in Sports Activities Scale and digital web technologies. Descriptive statistics were made for demographic variables in the analysis of the research data. Data obtained from the scale were analyzed using the IBM SPSS Statistics 26 program. According to the results of the analysis, it can be said that the type of music chosen by the athletes and the upbeat music has a significant effect on sports activities. In training with technical exercises step, it was determined that listening to fast-paced music chosen by the athletes themselves can increase the motivation of the exercises while listening to slow-paced music contributes to the recovery process. It can be said that music is a tool to motivate athletes by reducing the stress on athletes and that the gender variable is a factor affecting the effect of music in sports activities in different branches.
... It has been postulated that these techniques can increase focus of attention, self-efficacy, motivation, confidence, mental activation and physiological arousal (2,46). For example, goal-setting facilitates self-regulation, with the goal defining what constitutes an acceptable level of performance (22). Therefore, effort and specificity are central to this framework being successful (3). 3 Williams and Krane (50) commented that athletic performance levels can be improved when cognitive behavioral strategies are implemented. ...
... For example, Karageorghis et al., (19) reported a significant 2% improvement in a 200-m freestyle time trial whilst listening to asynchronous music (the music does not match the pace of the activity) in 20 collegiate swimmers. Research into priming for strength and power using music is in its infancy (19,22,25), however, the emerging research using music to prime strength performance has typically reported positive results (17,18). Improvements in handgrip strength by 0.63 N/kg were noted after listening to pre-task fast-tempo music (at 126 beats per minute [bpm], played at a high intensity of 80 decibels), compared to matched controls (18). ...
This study aimed to examine the frequency and modes of psychological priming
techniques and strategies being implemented by athletes of a variety of performance
levels. A 15-question, anonymous questionnaire was developed and shared via social
media sites. The survey implemented a quantitative method approach to collect
background information (e.g., demographics, competition, and training history), the
prevalence of priming, and the methods used. Ninety subjects met the inclusion criteria
(71 men, 18 women, 1 subject did not identify their sex), with a median age of 28 ±
7.47 (24-33) years and training age of 11 ± 7.57 (8-18) years. Self-selected
participation level accounted for 11 professional, 17 semi-professional, and 54 amateur
level athletes. Priming strategies were implemented by 79% of subjects without the use
of a coach, 10% used strategies with their coach, and 11% did not prime. For athletes,
music was the preferred choice (27%), followed by instructional self-talk (24%),
motivational self-talk (23%), applied physical actions (20%), and watching videos clips
(6.3%). Coaches preferred motivational statements with 55% implementing this
technique, followed by 27% utilizing inspiring team talks, and only 18% playing music.
Of those that implemented a priming strategy, 66% found them to be either “very” or
“extremely effective”. With 38% of subjects feeling priming accomplished this through
increased motivation, 22% felt it reduced their fear and anxiety, 21% thought it
improved their intensity, 15% felt it increased strength and power, and 2% felt it
improved endurance. The chi-square test also found a significant (jc = 0.27; p =
0.011) relationship with the use of priming to increase motivation. These results
demonstrate priming strategies are being used irrespective of coach intervention, therefore educating coaches and athletes on the implementation of priming techniques
has its place when aiming to improve athlete performance.
... Music listening is already a part of athletes' everyday lives; many athletes who believe music is important listen to it daily and report using it for the positive effect as well as to calm down [35]. This intuitive use of music is coherent with the fact that musical interventions are receiving a great deal of interest from researchers as evidenced by recent reviews and meta-analyses highlighting its beneficial effects on health [19,36,37]. ...
... It is possible that classical music was not the style preferred by the athletes in this study, who usually listen to music to increase their motivation and their performance (more activating than relaxing) [37,76], thus decreasing its impact on stress. Indeed, research has shown that most athletes prefer rock (32%), hip-hop (28%) and pop (25%), while classical music was chosen by only 1% of the sample [35]. In addition, athletes usually prefer music with a moderate to fast tempo [77,78], whereas the music presented in this study was composed with a slow tempo. ...
Sport-related concussion is a serious public health issue affecting millions of individuals each year. Among the many negative side effects, emotional symptoms, such as stress, are some of the most common. Stress management is repeatedly cited by expert groups as an important intervention for this population. It was shown that music has relaxing effects, reducing stress through the activation of brain areas involved in emotions and pleasure. The objective of this study was to explore the effects of a music-listening intervention compared with silence on experimentally induced stress in concussed and non-concussed athletes. To this aim, four groups of athletes (non-concussed music, non-concussed silence, concussed music, and concussed silence) performed the Trier Social Stress Test, for which both physiological (skin conductance level) and self-reported stress measurements were taken. No significant difference was found in the pattern of stress recovery for self-reported measurements. However, the skin conductance results showed greater and faster post-stress recovery after listening to music compared with silence for concussed athletes only. Taken together, these results suggest that music could be an efficient stress management tool to implement in the everyday life of concussed athletes to help them prevent stress accumulation.
... Music listening habits have been adopted as a strategy to achieve different emotional goals in everyday life (Laukka & Quick, 2013). Studies showed that music helps people to relax, regulate mood, heighten arousal, increase work output and divert attention from unhappy events (Karageorghis & Priest, 2008;Bigliassi et al., 2018). ...
... Participants generally believed music plays an important role in motivation to do exercise as the mean importance rating of music was 5.03 on a 6-point scale. This result was in line with a previous study where participants reported a high mean importance rating (4.42) of music in sports and exercise (Laukka & Quick, 2013). According to the same study that surveyed emotional use of music in sports and exercise, participants reported intentions for listening to music during exercise including enhancing motivation, positive effect, endurance, and flow to make training more pleasurable and efficient (Edworthy & Waring, 2006). ...
The current study aimed to examine the association between music and motivation to do exercise among university students in Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. The demographics data, use of music during exercise, preferred type of music, and criteria to select music were assessed by a validated self-administered questionnaire. The motivation towards exercises was evaluated using the Behavioural Regulations in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-3) while the level of physical activity was assessed by Godin-Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ). The demographics information, use of music during exercise, preferred type of music, and criteria to choose music were tabulated using descriptive statistics. A point-biserial correlation was used to analyze the relationship between music and motivation to do exercise while chi-square was utilized to determine the association between the use of music during exercise and physical activity level. The results of the current study showed that 80.3% of the participants listen to music during exercise. Energetic and rhythmic was the preferred type of music for exercise. Tempo/ speed/ bpm was the most popular factor to be considered during the exercise. Most of the participants prefer to listen to an individual music player during exercise rather than an open audio system.. Listening to music during exercise shown significant correlation with a motivation (p=0.006), external regulation (p=0.014), identified regulation (p=0.006), integrated regulation (p=0.002) and intrinsic regulation (p=0.015). There was a significant association between the use of music during exercise and physical activity level (p=0.003) in this study. Future research that involves the type of exercise performed with the music is encouraged to explore the significance of music as a motivational tool in exercise.
... Sporting events today are often accompanied by multiple forms of music, from music being piped into stadiums by professional DJ's to the chanting of anthems that fans have adopted for their teams. Recent limits placed on the use of music during competition by sporting federations (e.g. the International Amateur Athletics Federation [IAAF] Rule 144; IAAF, 2017) have pushed athletes, researchers, and sport psychology practitioners to explore how to optimise its use in relation to performance (Laukka & Quick, 2011). To help athletes and those working with them, the current chapter aims to provide an overview of how music impacts one's performance states and how researchers have proposed using music prior to performance to help induce an optimal pre-performance emotional state and subsequently improving performance. ...
... Self-selecting music prior to performance can enhance an athlete's feelings of autonomy and belief in the effectiveness of music to prepare them for peak performance (Middleton et al., 2017;Pates et al., 2003). Familiarity with a piece of music can also have an impact on determining the intensity and form of emotions that are induced and the subsequent changes to an athlete's cognitive and motivational states and arousal level (Bishop et al., 2007;Hutchinson & Karageorghis, 2013;Laukka & Quick, 2011;Middleton et al., 2017). Additionally, the impact of music listening extends beyond the music listening period and into the subsequent performance or task (Bishop, Wright, & Karageorghis, 2014;Chtourou, Jarraya, Aloui, Hammouda, & Souissi, 2012). ...
... Typically, this is done to increase motivation, enjoyment, and induce positive emotions such as happiness, confidence, and relaxation. 29 Video-related interventions have been used to heighten motivation and prompt positive changes in behavior. 30 In Jenkins, Morgan, and O'Donoghue's 31 qualitative study in collegiate netball, participants indicated that motivational videos improved both confidence and motivation, but should not be allowed to interfere with preperformance preparation. ...
... This is particularly pertinent, given that athletes likely have fewer opportunities for listening to music during competition, and many governing bodies of sport have banned the in-competition use of music. 29 The purpose of the present study was to examine the psychological effects of video, subliminal priming, and music when used as a pretraining intervention in a sport context (club-level American football). In accord with previous findings, it was expected that all experimental conditions would also have significant positive effects in a sport environment on state motivation and self-efficacy when compared with a nostimulus control. ...
Highlight videos accompanied by inspiring music can help in enhancing an athlete’s motivational state and self-efficacy (SE). The addition of verbal priming techniques could provide a further boost, but this combination of audiovisual stimuli has yet to be examined in a sport context. A repeated-measures, crossover design was used. The study entailed a pretraining intervention administered to American football players ( N = 32). Measures included the Situational Motivation Scale and an SE scale. Participants were exposed to control, music, video, video-music, video-priming, and video-music-priming conditions. Repeated-measures MANOVA indicated that the video-music condition elicited the strongest response in terms of increasing intrinsic forms of motivation ( p = .010) and decreasing amotivation ( p = .019). Three of eight SE components (Perceptions of Effort, Consistency, and Concentration), and an overall global SE score were significantly enhanced by the experimental stimuli, with video-music-priming eliciting the most positive response, followed by video-music. The present findings indicate the utility of audiovisual interventions combined with verbal primes immediately prior to sporting performance. Practitioners working with athletes might consider the preperformance use of motivational music and videos along with embedded subliminal verbal primes.
... Sporting events today are often accompanied by multiple forms of music, from music being piped into stadiums by professional DJ's to the chanting of anthems that fans have adopted for their teams. Recent limits placed on the use of music during competition by sporting federations (e.g. the International Amateur Athletics Federation [IAAF] Rule 144; IAAF, 2017) have pushed athletes, researchers, and sport psychology practitioners to explore how to optimise its use in relation to performance (Laukka & Quick, 2011). To help athletes and those working with them, the current chapter aims to provide an overview of how music impacts one's performance states and how researchers have proposed using music prior to performance to help induce an optimal pre-performance emotional state and subsequently improving performance. ...
... Self-selecting music prior to performance can enhance an athlete's feelings of autonomy and belief in the effectiveness of music to prepare them for peak performance (Middleton et al., 2017;Pates et al., 2003). Familiarity with a piece of music can also have an impact on determining the intensity and form of emotions that are induced and the subsequent changes to an athlete's cognitive and motivational states and arousal level (Bishop et al., 2007;Hutchinson & Karageorghis, 2013;Laukka & Quick, 2011;Middleton et al., 2017). Additionally, the impact of music listening extends beyond the music listening period and into the subsequent performance or task (Bishop, Wright, & Karageorghis, 2014;Chtourou, Jarraya, Aloui, Hammouda, & Souissi, 2012). ...
The intertwined nature of music and sport can be seen from the pool deck at low-level swimming competitions to the biggest sporting events such as the World Cup football (soccer) final. Athletes’ use of music has come under increasing scrutiny as sport psychology scientists and practitioners have sought to better understand how it can best be used to regulate emotions and enhance performance. The authors begin this chapter by presenting current understandings of how music impacts an individual’s emotional state. Current research into pre-performance music is then reviewed in relation to the different ways in which researchers have sought to explain or understand how music can best be used to regulate emotions and positively impact performance. A practical application of music use is then provided through an example in which pre-performance music is used in an idiographic and dynamic manner. Finally, future research pathways and further potential uses of music within pre-performance routines are presented.
... In the world of sport, athletes may use music to relax, to feel stimulated, or to generate a particular precompetition mindset (Karageorghis, Biglassi, et al., 2018;Laukka & Quick, 2013). Organizers of sporting events use music to create an atmosphere of excitement, patriotism, or tension among crowds of spectators (Steinbach, 2008;Tubino, de Souza, & Valladão, 2009). ...
... Although the present results represent a robust evidence base, it is important to bear in mind that the benefits of listening to music before or during physical activity are not guaranteed. For example, although pretask music is in common use by athletes, many of whom attest to its benefits (Bishop et al., 2007;Laukka & Quick, 2013), our results showed that benefits to performance are likely to be small, although perhaps still meaningful. ...
Regular physical activity has multifarious benefits for physical and mental health, and music has been found to exert positive effects on physical activity. Summative literature reviews and conceptual models have hypothesized potential benefits and salient mechanisms associated with music listening in exercise and sport contexts, although no large-scale objective summary of the literature has been conducted. A multilevel meta-analysis of 139 studies was used to quantify the effects of music listening in exercise and sport domains. In total, 598 effect sizes from four categories of potential benefits (i.e., psychological responses, physiological responses, psychophysical responses, and performance outcomes) were calculated based on 3,599 participants. Music was associated with significant beneficial effects on affective valence (g = 0.48, CI [0.39, 0.56]), physical performance (g = 0.31, CI [0.25, 0.36]), perceived exertion (g = 0.22, CI [0.14, 0.30]), and oxygen consumption (g = 0.15, CI [0.02, 0.27]). No significant benefit of music was found for heart rate (g = 0.07, CI [−0.03, 0.16]). Performance effects were moderated by study domain (exercise > sport) and music tempo (fast > slow-to-medium). Overall, results supported the use of music listening across a range of physical activities to promote more positive affective valence, enhance physical performance (i.e., ergogenic effect), reduce perceived exertion, and improve physiological efficiency.
... Not only used during warm-ups, athletes use the aid of music while in training sessions as well. This helped them in their motivation and emotions, leading to positive movement activation (Laukka & Quick, 2013). In some observations, this method has altered performers' character and personality in the playing field. ...
... Pre-competition music was seen to be exclusive as being a source of motivation (Laukka & Quick, 2013) and affecting self-esteem and behavior (Elvers & Steffens, 2017) for athletic performance. In this study, using music that is not self-selected and with the inclusion of soundwaves has presented links with throwing performance. ...
Brainwave entrainment has been a method used as a therapy to reduce anxiety and heighten concentration, facilitating brain to enter a specific state. In sports, brainwave alignment is facilitated as athletes utilized music in their pre-competition routines. The aim of this study is to know if wave-synchronized music influence power performance of collegiate athletes by gathering six (N=6) college throwers, 3 males and 3 females in a quasi-experimental research. Participants ranged from shotput, discus and javelin events. With reversal method, throwing performance data were collected for 11 days, with treatment days using both high (T1, T2, T4) and low (T3) frequency waves after every 2 untreated observations. Results show that synchronizing alpha waves (12 Hz) to music listened by athletes during warm-up leads to significant increase in throwing performances. On the other hand, synchronizing theta waves (0.5-3 Hz) to music produced lower throwing distances significantly when compared to day-before and day-after observations. Throwing performance for the untreated observations also showed an increasing trend before the theta wave treatment day. However, no long-term effect was seen after the alpha wave intervention as seen in latter untreated observations. Further studies are needed to compare music with and without wave synchronizers or to compare the utilization of preferred music versus unfavored music during warm-up.
... In professional male (chapter 6) and elite academy players (chapter 7), listening to music was the most common pre-match activity, whilst elite female players (chapter 8), cited music as being effective for both relaxation (several hours leading up to a game) and motivation (in the hour leading up to a match). This was in agreement with previous survey research (Laukka & Quick, 2013) which reported that music was used by elite Swedish athletes during pre-event preparations, warm-up, and training sessions; with the most common motives for listening to music being to increase pre-event activation, motivation, performance levels and to experience flow. Indeed, music has been shown to have a relaxing influence (Pelletier, 2004;Stratton & Zalanowski, 1984), increase levels of arousal , decrease RPE during a sport-specific warm up period and ...
... Just as the role of music in fostering people's physical and mental health is obvious to both performers and audiences [35], the whistle sound generated during diabolo move-ments also produces a healing soundscape. This research paves the way for focused study of the diabolo soundscape, which is an active hybrid and healing soundscape, about which there is a lack of evaluation and research. ...
“Soundscape” is defined as “an acoustic environment as perceived or experienced and/or understood by a person or people, in context.” The research focuses on the physical properties of sound, paying attention to the relationship between the soundscape and people. Sports provide a comprehensive context, including the athletes, their behavior, the environment, spectators, and other elements. Soundscape in sports has many important functions, such as indicating the movement process, promoting positive emotions, and enhancing the entertainment atmosphere. It is also related to the physical and mental health of people who are exercising. As a technical sport with multidimensional soundscape qualities, diabolo is very popular among older adults in China due to its easy portability and operation. In order to explore the influence mechanism of the soundscape on the mental health of older players and better guide the shaping of soundscapes at sports venues, this paper focuses on soundscape perception and proposes a two-channel (direct and indirect) model of the influence of the diabolo soundscape on the psychological perception of older players. At the same time, we introduce the flow state as an indicator to evaluate mental health, and use the Short Flow State Scale (SFSS) to measure the flow state. By setting up a control experiment using the diabolo with and without sound and using the two-channel (direct and indirect) influence model to compare the differences in flow state scores under the two states, we analyzed the influence mechanism of the diabolo soundscape on the flow state of elderly groups. The results show that the scores of various flow state dimensions and total flow scores in the silent state of diabolo exercise are significantly lower than those in the sound state (p < 0.05 and p < 0.001), and the main differences are in the three dimensions of unambiguous feedback, sense of control, and autotelic experience. The two-channel influence model can effectively explain the differences in older adults’ flow state, which provides a new comprehensive perspective to study the effect of the soundscape in sports on people’s mental health.
... Several studies have focused on the potential benefits of music in sports. Many elite athletes listen to music during physical training sessions, pre-matches, and warm-ups because they believe that music can improve their mood, inspire them, and help them achieve their best performance level [3]. ...
This paper introduces an interactive music tempo control with closed-loop heart rate feedback to yield a sportsperson with better physio-psychological states. A total of 23 participants (13 men, 10 women; 16–32 years, mean = 20.04 years) who are professionals or school team members further guide a sportsperson to amend their physical tempo to harmonize their psychological and physical states. The self-tuning mechanism between the surroundings and the human can be amplified using
interactive music tempo control. The experiments showed that listening to interactive music had a significant effect on the heart rate and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of the basketball player compared to those listening to asynchronous music or no music during exercise (p < 0.01). Synchronized interactive music allows athletes to increase their heart rate and decrease RPE during exercise and does not require a multitude of preplanned playlists. All self-selected songs can be converted into
sports-oriented music using algorithms. The algorithms of synchronous and asynchronous modes in this study can be adjusted and applied to other sports fields or recovery after exercise. In the future, other musical parameters should be adjusted in real-time based on physiological signals, such as tonality, beats, chords, and orchestration.
... Υπάρχουν διάφορες συνθήκες κάτω από τις οποίες η μουσική μπορεί να επιδράσει στην αθλητική απόδοση και κάθε μία από αυτές μπορεί να την επηρεάσει με διαφορετικό τρόπο. Μία τέτοια παράμετρο αποτελεί η αναπαραγωγή της μουσικής πριν από την αθλητική δραστηριότητα (Karageorghis & Priest, 2012;Laukka & Quick, 2013). Οι επιδράσεις της μουσικής σε αυτή τη συνθήκη είναι ποικίλες και θετικές. ...
Research findings have supported the notion that music positively affects hitting accuracy of young tennis players. The purpose of this study was twofold: first, to examine during a training session the effect of athletes’ music preference on tennis shot accuracy; second, to investigate the relationship between tennis performance on specific tennis shots (Forehand Drive-“FD”, Backhand Drive-“BD”, Forehand Volley-“FV”, Backhand Volley- “BV”, Overhead Smash-“OS”, Serve on Deuce court-“SD”, Serve on Advantage court-“SA”) and self-confidence, anxiety, flow and goal orientation. 11 right-handed tennis players (three boys, eight girls), aged 14-17 years old (M = 13.91, SD = 1.81) voluntarily participated in this study. Initially, the athletes completed the following questionnaires: Brunel Music Rating Inventory–2 (Karageorghis et al., 1999), State-Trait Sport Self-Confidence Inventory for Children (Psychountaki & Zervas, 1998), Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (Smith et al., 2006), Flow State Scale-Short Form (Jackson et al., 2008; Stavrou, 2016) and Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire; TEOSQ (Duda & Nicholls, 1992). Afterwards, their performance on the main tennis shots was evaluated under three field conditions. 1st condition: Without music they were fed by the coach ten balls per each shot type, whose performance was measured with an out-of-ten scoring system, according to which the athletes should guide the ball to bounce beyond the service line (no music condition). 2nd condition: Τhe athletes executed in the same order the main shots after having listened to one of their selected favorite songs wherever in the court they wanted to (music before condition). 3rd condition: Participants practiced the same tennis shots in the same order while their favorite songs were playing on court in the order of their preference on speakers (music on court condition). The results indicated statistically significant correlations between sport-confidence, goal orientation, anxiety and flow with some of the main tennis shots (“FD”, “BV”, “OS”, “SA”, “BD”). Statistically significant difference was found between the “no music” and the “music before” condition in “FD”. Moreover, statistically significant was the difference in performance at “FV” between the “no music” and “music on court” condition. The results indicate the importance of athletes’ emotional state and the way it affects their performance on the tennis shots as well as music’s positive effect on the way young tennis athletes perform on court. Those findings may seem valuable in a theoretical and a practical manner for both coaches and athletes.
Keywords: music, performance, teenagers, tennis, anxiety, sport confidence, flow, goal orientation
... Portable music players have become a common gadget for runners. Many runners listen to music during practice (Laukka and Quick, 2013;Van Dyck et al., 2015). Approximately half of the local community of recreational runners regularly goes for a run while listening to music (Van Dyck et al., 2015). ...
Running is a gross-motor skill and a popular physical activity, though it comes with a risk of injury. Gait retraining is performed with the intent on managing the risk of running injury. The peak tibial acceleration may be linked with running injuries and is suitable as input for biofeedback. So far, retraining programs with the use of biofeedback on peak tibial acceleration have been bound to a treadmill. Therefore, the objective of this doctoral thesis was to evaluate the effectiveness of a novel music-based biofeedback system on peak tibial acceleration in the context of gait retraining in a training environment. This system is wearable and has lightweight sensors to attach to the lower leg. The sensor first records the tibial acceleration. Then, a processing unit detects the acceleration spike for direct auditory biofeedback.
Studies 1 to 5 covered the measurement of peak tibial accelerations, the design of the music-based feedback, and the effectiveness evaluation of the biofeedback system for impact reduction in a training center. In study 1 the peak tibial acceleration of a group of distance runners was reliable in the same test and repeatable in a re-test. The peak tibial accelerations increased with running speed and were correlated with the maximum vertical loading rate of the ground reaction force, which is an impact characteristic derived in the biomechanics laboratory. The developed peak detection algorithm identified the peak tibial acceleration in real-time. The music-based feedback was developed in study 2. The music was superimposed with perceptible pink noise. The noise intensity could be linked to a biological parameter such as the peak acceleration tibial. The tempo of the music synchronized with the cadence of the runner to motivate the runner and allowed for a user-induced change in cadence in response to the biofeedback. Studies 3 to 5 examined the effectiveness of music-based biofeedback on the peak tibial peak in a training environment. We demonstrated that smaller peak values are achievable with the aid of the validated biofeedback system. In study 3, ten runners with high peak tibial acceleration were subjected to biofeedback on the momentary peak tibial acceleration. The group was able to reduce their peak tibial acceleration by 27% or 3 g in the biofeedback condition. Study 4 evaluated the initial learning effect within a single session at ~11.5 km/h. The main change in peak acceleration occurred after approximately 8 minutes of biofeedback. However, there was substantial between-subject variation in time which ranged from 4 to 1329 gait cycles. Study 5 confirmed the effectiveness of the biofeedback in a quasi-randomized study with control group. The experimental group received the biofeedback in a 3-week retraining program comprising of biofeedback faded in time. The control group received tempo-synchronized music as placebo. A running speed of approximately 10 km/h was maintained session after session via speed feedback. All runners completed the running program consisting of 6 sessions. The peak acceleration decreased by 26% or 3 g in the experimental group. The smaller peak values in studies 3-5 must have resulted from a movement alteration, although there was no significant change in running cadence at the group level.
Studies 6 to 9 give insight into possible strategies for low(er) peak tibial acceleration in level running. In study 6, we discovered that peak tibial accelerations depend on the manner of heel striking. Specifically, a more pronounced heel landing was correlated with smaller axial (1D) and resultant (3D) peak tibial accelerations. The multicenter results of study 7 showed greater resultant peak acceleration in non-rearfoot strikes compared with heel strikes. This greater acceleration was due to an abrupt horizontal deceleration of the lower leg. In study 8, we described and compared the running mechanics of a successful long-distance runner with low (impact) load and a high load capacity. A pronounced heel strike in conjunction with long stance and short flight phases characterized a low-impact runner who successfully completed 100 marathons in 100 days. Study 9 documented adaptations post-biofeedback in a lab center. There was no clear relationship between the changes in peak tibial acceleration and in running cadence, which confirmed the results of the data captured in the training center. Casuistry showed visually detectable changes in the curve of the vertical ground reaction force. A runner with high peak tibial acceleration peaks changed to a more pronounced rearfoot strike or changed to a non-rearfoot strike pattern to reduce the axial peak tibial acceleration. These results suggest the existence of different distal strategies for impact reduction elicited by biofeedback.
Our experiments opened the possibility of impact reduction with the use real-time auditory biofeedback that is perceptible and motivating. Two motor strategies were discovered to run with less peak tibial acceleration. We hope these findings offer encouragement for runners, coaches and clinicians who wish to target a form of low(er) impact running. The biofeedback system effectively modified the running form and has great ecological value due to the portable hardware and energy source for outdoor usage. User-oriented biofeedback systems should become available for the consumer and the patient if proven useful for respectively injury reduction and injury management. Overall, this doctoral thesis contributed to a better understanding of impact severity in distance running and its reduction in a gait retraining context with the use of real-time music-based biofeedback.
... On the other hand, this procedure would help establish evidence-based guidelines for the practical application of music in elite jumping athletes. The latter seems to be of critical importance, as a recent survey has demonstrated the widespread use of music as an ergogenic aid for exercise enhancement in elite athletes (21). Therefore, this study is aimed at investigating the effects of RLX and self-selected SM on vertical jump performance and psychological ratings in expert jumping athletes. ...
International Journal of Exercise Science 15(6): 15-24, 2022. Most research concerning the effects of music on physical performance was conducted using endurance parameters. This study investigated the effects of relaxing (RLX) vs. self-selected stimulating music (SM) vs. no music (NM) on jump height (JH), jump power (PWR), and average rest period between jumps (RP) in 13 athletes (age: 25.5 ± 2.6 years). After a warm-up and listening to music (1 min) or NM, participants completed five squat jumps on a force plate. Psychological ratings of mood were assessed using a questionnaire before warm-up and after jumping. A one-way ANOVA was conducted to compare effects of music on JH, PWR, and RP. A Friedman test with Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to detect changes in mood. There were no significant effects of music on JH (p = 0.162) and PWR (p = 0.162). A trend towards longer RP in RLX when compared to SM was detected (+2.72 s, +22%, p = 0.059, d = 0.35). Participants felt more "relaxed" (+3 ranks) and more "powerful" after listening to SM (+2 ranks). Following NM and RLX, athletes felt more "energetic" (each +3 ranks) but less energetic (-3 ranks) after SM. In conclusion, this study did not find any performance-enhancing effects of self-selected SM on jump performance. The influences of music on psychological ratings were inconclusive. For this reason, no evidence-based guidelines for the practical application of music in elite jumping athletes can be made, and more studies are warranted.
... Individual music preferences and responses to music involve distinctly subjective factors and inherent properties of the music itself (22), which makes it challenging to study (6). For example, Laukka and Quick (27) surveyed 252 athletes and found that when using music during sports, 32% of subjects preferred music that was intense and rebellious, 28% preferred energetic and rhythmic, 25% preferred up-tempo and conventional, 1% preferred reflective and complex, and 14% preferred other categories. Music choices are distinct to each individual's arousal response to variables such as tempo, lyrics, melody, and personal associations (22) and a particular song that greatly motivates one athlete may have little effect on another athlete. ...
Run-tracking devices are used by athletes and exercisers to monitor various metrics of human locomotion such as pace and distance. This study sought to determine the effects of pace monitoring on run performance and rate of perceived exertion (RPE). Participants were 41 (17 male, 24 female) recreationally fit runners, age 19-40 years (M = 22.4, SD = 4.4), who completed the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) to determine individual attentional focus. They then completed an associative condition (AC) 1-mile time trial and a dissociative condition (DC) 1-mile time trial 24-36 hours apart. Individual, independent t-tests compared completion time means between conditions. The internalizers group (AC) performed significantly faster in the associative condition (M = 496.10, SD = 105.05 seconds) than in the dissociative condition (M = 525.00, SD = 109.67 seconds), t(20) = 5.79, p < .001. The externalizers group (DC) performed significantly faster in the dissociative condition (M = 522.70, SD = 97.37 seconds) than in the associative condition (M = 556.90, SD = 116.62), t(19) = -4.92, p < .001. Results support the value of identifying an individual’s preferred attentional focus to place them in the optimal environment for success. While the study showed no significant difference in RPE scores between conditions, there may be practical implications of similar RPE scores when accompanied by significant changes in performance.
... New developments in portable technology (i.e., smart phones, mp3 players) have increased ease of access and allowed for individual choice of music during exercise [6]. Elite athletes have reported listening to music during exercise training sessions, pre-competition, and warm up on the basis of their belief that it improves mood, motivation, and aids in achieving top performance levels [7]. With this, large amounts of investigations have focused on the potential benefits of music during exercise primarily as, but not limited to, a means for improving peak performance. ...
Listening to music has been repeatedly shown to have ergogenic benefits during various modes of exercise, including endurance, sprint, and resistance-based activities. Music is commonly incorporated into training regimens by recreational exercisers and competitive athletes alike. While specific modalities of exercise elicit varying physiological responses, listening to music has been shown to modulate many of these responses (i.e., heart rate, catecholamines, muscle activation) often leading to improved performance. Furthermore, listening to music during exercise may positively impact psychological (i.e., mood, motivation) and psychophysiological (i.e., rate of perceived exertion, arousal) changes, which may allow for favorable responses during an exercise challenge. However, there is mixed evidence regarding music’s efficacy, which may be mediated through differences in music selection and preference. Emerging evidence has shown that, whether an individual prefers or does not prefer the music they are listening to during exercise greatly influences their ergogenic potential in addition to physiological, psychological, and psychophysiological responses to exercise. From a practical standpoint, music may be controlled by the individual through headphones but is often played communally over speakers in locker rooms, gyms, and health clubs, which may have consequences on performance and training. The following review will describe the physiological, psychological, and psychophysiological responses to exercise while listening to music and how music preference may particularly alter them. Current knowledge and new evidence on how music preference factors into enhancing performance in various modes of exercise will be further discussed, incorporating practical considerations for individuals and practitioners in real-world applications to optimize performance.
... Thus, achievement goal motivation (hereinafter, motivation) is important to determine behavior in physical education settings, as well as their performance and participation [21]. Consequently, the inclusion of music in sports has been related with higher levels of motivation and positive affect [22]. Furthermore, the inclusion of music in physical activity exercises can increase enjoyment and even performance [23]. ...
Cardiorespiratory fitness is an important health marker in adolescents. Thus, examining the relation between cardiorespiratory fitness and motivation should be important to increase health-related behaviors. This study aimed to describe adolescents’ cardiorespiratory fitness and motivation by gender and to analyze the association between two cardiorespiratory fitness tests (original and with music) and motivation. A total of 341 adolescents (14.2 ± 1.5 years, 52.2% girls) participated in this study. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed using the 20 m shuttle run and its adaptation with music. Motivation was assessed though the “Achievement Motivation towards Physical Education” questionnaire. Boys presented with higher cardiorespiratory fitness and motivation (all, p < 0.05). Yet, when classifying fit and unfit groups, a higher percentage of girls were considered fit compared to boys (85.8% vs. 74.5%). A higher level of cardiorespiratory fitness (stages) and VO2max were associated with a higher level of motivation (self-perceived competence and compared competence) and lower anxiety (all p < 0.05). These associations with motivation were stronger when the music was present in the test. In this sense, including music in activities focused on cardiorespiratory fitness could increase the cardiorespiratory fitness performance and motivation, especially in girls. It should be important to increase adolescents’ cardiorespiratory fitness levels in order to increase motivation in physical education lessons and to include more motivational activities in order to achieve higher performance.
... However, many people struggle with exercising regularly due to lack of motivation hence exercise less. Music is used widely during workouts and can increase motivation and positive affect among exercisers (Hutchinson, et al., 2011;Laukka& Quick, 2013). It may be played over a sound system during exercise in a fitness centre. ...
Music is used widely during workouts and can increase motivation and positive affect among exercisers. It
may be played over a sound system during exercise. The study’s intent was to investigate music genres played
and to explore on associated determinants in selected fitness centres, Eldoret Town, Kenya. It employed an
explorative research design. Four (4) fitness centres located in Eldoret town were purposively selected. All the
instructors at those centres were studied. A key informant interview (KII) guide was used. One-way ANOVA
and Tukey post hoc tests were used to determine significant differences. From the study findings, classical
music was played most with a mean of 5.16±7.05 while twist was played least with a mean of 0.74±0.81.
Generally, there were no significant differences across the fitness centres with only classical music being
significantly (p<0.05) different between fitness centres A and B. Key determinants found were: type of
exercise, age and religion of clients. Other determinants included personal interest, aspirations, goals and role
models, and clients’ health status as well as request, time of the day and sex of the instructor.
... Music can be used to increase motivation, or as a tool to help an athlete achieve a desirable mental state before partaking in sport, due to the ability of music to influence emotional states. For a full treatment of the use of music in enhancing athletic performance, the interested reader is referred to a relatively recent survey in [7]. The use of music for improving athletic performance as measured by physically quantified improved performance and mental performance improvement markers such as reduced perceived difficulty, have been the subject of a significant body of research, including findings that: ...
Music has been shown to be capable of improving runners’ performance in treadmill and laboratory-based experiments. This paper evaluates a generative music system, namely HEARTBEATS, designed to create biosignal synchronous music in real-time according to an individual athlete’s heartrate or cadence (steps per minute). The tempo, melody, and timbral features of the generated music are modulated according to biosensor input from each runner using a combination of PPG (Photoplethysmography) and GPS (Global Positioning System) from a wearable sensor, synchronized via Bluetooth. We compare the relative performance of athletes listening to music with heartrate and cadence synchronous tempos, across a randomized trial (N = 54) on a trail course with 76 ft of elevation. Participants were instructed to continue until their self-reported perceived effort went beyond an 18 using the Borg rating of perceived exertion. We found that cadence-synchronous music improved performance and decreased perceived effort in male runners. For female runners, cadence synchronous music improved performance but it was heartrate synchronous music which significantly reduced perceived effort and allowed them to run the longest of all groups tested. This work has implications for the future design and implementation of novel portable music systems and in music-assisted coaching.
... For example, the New Zealand national rugby team regularly performs Haka, a traditional Maori battle cry, prior to competitions to boost their fighting spirit. Music can make people feel more powerful, happier, and empowered, which in turn leads to greater risk-taking (Brodsky, 2001;Elvers & Steffens, 2017;Elvers, Fischinger, & Steffens, 2018;Laukka & Quick, 2011). This mechanism indicates the proactive function of music and is consistent with the behaviour of people with promotion-focused motivation. ...
Although music is widely used as a sensory marketing tool and incorporated in multisensory consumer–computer interactions, the role of timbre in marketing has not been extensively discussed. This study used five experiments which demonstrate that compared with violin/flute timbres, the piano timbre fits listeners’ prevention focus. This is because the piano timbre is familiar to individuals and induces feelings of security congruent with the listener’s prevention orientation. When exposed to a piano (vs. violin/flute) timbre as background music in an advertisement, consumers evaluate both the advertisement and the product/service more positively when they are prevention (vs. promotion) focused or when the advertisement message is framed in a preventive (vs. promotional) way. However, the timbre’s effect exists only when consumers’ cognitive load is low. This research contributes to sensory marketing in theory and practice and suggests that marketing managers should avoid using obsessive sensory stimuli in virtual and augmented reality.
... Presently, music remains not only ubiquitous across cultures, but also across environments, activities, and times within a given culture (Burnett, 2002); an example of this is the prevalent sonic branding utilisation of music, with almost any store or commercial environment being supported and augmented by background music (Gustafsson, 2015;North & Hargreaves, 1997). Furthermore, with the advent of portable music playback technology, and more recently the development of streaming services that has transformed the music consumption and production process, music has become a powerful tool for everyday life, in that different kinds of music are accessible portably to accompany household tasks or chores, travel and transportation, studying or working, and to aid or enhance activities such as exercise or sports (Greasley & Lamont, 2011;Krause, North & Hewitt, 2015;Laukka & Quick, 2013). ...
The phenomenon of musical chills has attracted extensive attention in previous music and emotion research, correlating the experience with musical structure, psychoacoustics parameters, individual differences in listeners, and the listening situation. However, there are three crucial limitations in the literature: 1) The emotional characteristics of musical chills have not been explored, and are poorly understood; 2) musical chills have never been causally manipulated, and no theories have been tested; and 3) it is unclear whether chills are a unified psychological construct, or a set of distinct experiences, distinguished at the levels of subjective feeling, psychophysiological response, individual differences, and underlying psychological induction mechanisms. Across five studies, ranging from qualitative surveys to experimental manipulations of musical chills, these limitations were addressed in the current thesis, with results suggesting firstly that musical chills are often mixed emotional experiences, described as moving, bittersweet and intense; secondly, that musical chills can be manipulated, and corresponding theories tested, with a novel experimental paradigm, by removing key sections in a piece or changing psychoacoustic parameters such as loudness and brightness; finally, that there are likely distinct types of chills experiences, which across multimedia are linked to both the affective dimension of valence and individual differences such as trait empathy, and with music through mechanisms of fear and vigilance on the one hand, and social bonding on the other. The studies and results are discussed in terms of two categories of musical chills experiences, culminating in a preliminary Distinct Musical Chills Framework, producing a series of testable hypotheses for future empirical work, and a comprehensive research agenda for the field moving forward.
... With this system, people listen to the music of their body movement. Music can create positive emotions and affect in this situation [16]. Thus, by doing exercise which creates the music, people may become more interactive and engaged to the task. ...
Performing independent physical exercise is critical to maintain one's good health, but it is specifically hard for people with visual impairments. To address this problem, we have developed a Musical Exercise platform for people with visual impairments so that they can perform exercise in a good form consistently. We designed six different conditions, including blindfolded or visual without audio conditions, and blindfolded or visual with two different types of audio feedback (continuous vs. discrete) conditions. Eighteen sighted participants participated in the experiment, by doing two exercises - squat and wall sit with all six conditions. The results show that Musical Exercise is a usable exercise assistance system without any adverse effect on exercise completion time or perceived workload. Also, the results show that with a specific sound design (i.e., discrete), participants in the blindfolded condition can do exercise as consistently as participants in the non-blindfolded condition. This implies that not all sounds equally work and thus, care is required to refine auditory displays. Potentials and limitations of Musical Exercise and future works are discussed with the results.
... Music is known to have an ergogenic effect which means that listening to music before the event helps the athlete with significant 14 15 improvement in performance , to be more motivated , increase pre event activation, thus when music is used in such a purposeful manner 14 it improves performance. This improved performance is what is known as ergogenic effect and there have been many studies which have been conducted across various sports using different music and the direct link between the music tempo and performance has been established by previous studies. ...
Background: Stress is a commonly faced symptom experienced in the 21st century. Aim of the study was to determine effect of different tempo of music heard while exercising had on one's mood. Methodology: Participants were selected and randomly assigned to each of the five groups. Data Collection was started after obtaining informed written consent. Before and after the intervention mood was assessed using the Abbreviated Profile of mood states questionnaire and using this the Total Mood Disturbance was calculated. Result: There is change in TMD score after post intervention in all the groups. Indicating the combined positive effect of music and exercise on an individual's mood. Conclusion: With the help of this study it can be concluded that there is significant changes in the total mood disturbance of the individual after every intervention. This change could be due to the combined effect of exercise and music.
... In addition to individual physical fitness variations, motivation studies show that environmental settings whilst exercising are also important for exercise adherence. Listening to music [37][38][39] or being coached [40,41] while exercising improves compliance and has a positive effect on mood. Here, participants conducted the treadmill walking exercise at the same time of day (i.e.~8 am), in a room that was set-up to eliminate external factors (windows were obstructed, any time indicators or visuals cues on walls or furniture within participant's sight were masked or removed and no one was allowed into the room except the trial coordinator to collect subjective data). ...
Background:
Affective responses experienced during exercise are a significant determinant on exercise adherence. We have previously demonstrated that consumption of New Zealand (NZ) blackcurrants preserves cognition by attenuating the feeling of fatigue. This positive affective response correlated with the ability of blackcurrant polyphenols to support monoamine neurotransmission via inhibition of monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) activity. Here we explore how the consumption of a NZ blackcurrant juice (BJ) influenced affective responses and potential ergogenic action on the motivation to adhere to a low impact walking exercise.
Methods:
In a parallel randomized controlled study (Trial registration #: ACTRN12617000319370p, registered 28th February 2017, http://www.anzctr.org.au/ ), 40 healthy sedentary male and female participants drank a BJ or matched placebo (PLA) (n = 20 per group), 1 h prior to a self-motivated treadmill walk, where heart rate and affective responses (exertion [ES] or feeling / mood [FS]) scores) were recorded at 3 or 5 min intervals. Blood glucose, lactate, malondialdehyde (MDA) and platelet MAO-B activity were measured pre- and post-exercise and comparisons were conducted using with Student's t-tests. Subjective data were analysed using 2-way ANOVA with appropriate post hoc tests.
Results:
Consuming a BJ 1 h prior to exercise caused a 90% decline in platelet MAO-B activity. The exercise had no significant (p > 0.05) effect on blood lactate, glucose or plasma MDA levels. Assessment of affective responses over the first 60 mins (adjusting for participant drop-out) revealed a time-dependent ES increase in both groups, with ES reported by participants in the BJ group consistently lower than those in the PLA group (p < 0.05). FS declined in PLA and BJ groups over 60 mins, but an inverse relationship with ES was only observed within the PLA group (r2 = 0.99, p = 0.001). Whilst the average time walked by participants in the BJ group was 11 mins longer than the PLA group (p = 0.3), and 30% of the BJ group achieving > 10 km compared to only 10% for the PLA group (p = 0.28), statistical significance was not achieved.
Conclusion:
Our findings demonstrate that drinking a polyphenolic-rich NZ blackcurrant juice 1 h prior to exercise supports positive affective responses during a self-motivated exercise.
... Music choice reflects an intention to manage arousal levels Laukka & Quick, 2013) and to support movement (Greb et al., 2017). These are quantitative survey studies with relatively little qualitative data, but the findings are consistent with the reciprocal feedback model of musical response (Hargreaves, 2012) where musical fit is judged in terms of genre and style. ...
This study explores exercisers’ use of self-selected music. Ten participants (seven female, three male) aged 26–58 years who exercised regularly took part in semi-structured interviews about their exercise and music use. Interviews explored how they sourced, selected and experienced music during exercise. The recorded data were transcribed and analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) to identify common patterns while also recognising individual experience. Four themes were identified: Taking control, referring to overcoming internal and external challenges through music; It’s all about me, involving self-identity and social positioning; Exercise-music literacy, concerning musical judgement and technological skills; and Embodiment, concerning body-music-hardware interactions and synchronisation. The results show examples of circumstances under which music provides exercisers with both positive and negative experiences. The findings contribute to understanding of the effects of music in exercise and demonstrate the individuality of preferences and usage.
... For example, the New Zealand national rugby team regularly performs Haka, a traditional Maori battle cry, prior to competitions to boost their fighting spirit. Music can make people feel more powerful, happier, and empowered, which in turn leads to greater risk-taking (Brodsky, 2001;Elvers & Steffens, 2017;Elvers, Fischinger, & Steffens, 2018;Laukka & Quick, 2011). This mechanism indicates the proactive function of music and is consistent with the behaviour of people with promotion-focused motivation. ...
This study examined how musical timbre contributed to regulatory fit and persuasion. The results showed that piano (vs. violin/flute) associated with prevention (vs. promotion) focus (Study 1), which replicated in the marketing context as well (Study 2). Moreover, Study 3 demonstrated that when music played on the piano (violin/flute) was used in an advertisement, regulatory fit occurred among prevention- (promotion-) focused participants, meaning that the participants reported more favorable advertisement and product evaluations. The association between musical timbre and consumers’ regulatory focus offers a novel perspective on the notion of regulatory fit. The current study also provides a theoretical contribution to the sensory marketing and advertising literature by presenting convergent evidence that consumers exposed to music from different types of instruments response a marketing communication differently.
... The remaining respondents believed that music could support either the cognitive or emotional aspects of gambling. Similar to other studies that have investigated the use of music by drivers (Dibben & Williamson, 2007) and athletes (Laukka & Quick, 2013), it appears that some gamblers also use music in purposeful ways to enhance their gambling experience. Self-selected music fulfilled a range of functions for gamblers, including promoting positive affective states (e.g., comfort, relaxation, calmness, easing tension), maintaining arousal levels, diverting attention, aiding concentration, and filling time. ...
Background music is often present in gambling environments and has been found to influence gamblers’ behaviour. However, little is known about gamblers’ perception of environmental influences, including music, and whether gamblers believe that such influences can impact upon their gambling behaviour. An online questionnaire was administered to 136 gamblers to probe the perceived effects of gambling operator-selected and self-selected music on the cognitive, emotional, and behavioural aspects of gambling. In general, few respondents believed that music influences aspects of gambling participation. However, the analysis indicated that some gamblers, particularly those classified as moderate-risk and problem gamblers, self-select music to accompany gambling, and analysis of free-text responses indicated that this was undertaken to match their musical preferences or out of habit. Some gamblers believed that self-selected music promoted positive moods and supported concentration. Furthermore, some poker players thought that music may serve unique functions such as helping them to mask outward emotions and filling time between games. This study demonstrates that self-selected music is sometimes purposefully used by gamblers to support the cognitive and emotional aspects of gambling. However, as few gamblers believed that music could influence the cognitive, emotional, and behavioural aspects of gambling, this research reveals a disparity between subjective opinions and objective evidence, as gathered in published empirical laboratory experiments. This indicates the need to improve gamblers' awareness of the potential influence of background music on the gambling experience.
... Numerous studies investigate how athletes of frontcountry sports listen to music to psychological and physiological effect (Bishop, Karageorghis, & Loizou, 2007;Karlović, Jakšić, Barić, 2016;Laukka & Quick, 2013;Smirmaul, Dos Santos, & Da Silva Neto, 2015;Stork & Martin Ginis, 2017), but none examine the role of music surrounding outdoor pursuits. This study purposes to describe the role listening to music plays for outdoor adventurers. ...
Copious research describes a relationship between music and traditional sports, though few-if any-investigate music and adventure sports. To address this dearth, undergraduate students of Southern Oregon University's Outdoor Adventure Leadership major completed a survey that sought insight to their musical preferences and how music might affect them in the psychological and physiological dimensions of motivation, energy, concentration, performance, and relaxation; a smaller number of qualitative responses augment quantities. Generally, findings illustrated a favor for musical genre styles of contemporary (funk, rap/hip-hop, reggae, soul/R&B) or intense (alternative, heavy metal, punk, rock); an average tempo of 90 bpm across respondents' selections; a perception that music affords a positive influence to psychophysiological characteristics (particularly before and after activity); and open-ended input that variably conveyed eschew and extol for the presence of music in an outdoor adventure setting. Results largely concur with analogous research in frontcountry sports, though they express perhaps less significance in the adoption of music concurrent with adventure sport. Recommendations to enhance rigor of future research close the paper.
... Individual music preferences and responses to music involve distinctly subjective factors and inherent properties of the music itself (22), which makes it challenging to study (6). For example, Laukka and Quick (27) surveyed 252 athletes and found that when using music during sports, 32% of participants preferred music that was intense and rebellious, 28% preferred energetic and rhythmic, 25% preferred uptempo and conventional, 1% preferred reflective and complex, and 14% preferred other categories. Music choices are distinct to each individual's arousal response to variables such as tempo, lyrics, melody, and personal associations (22) and a particular song that greatly motivates one athlete may have little effect on another athlete. ...
Clark, JC, Baghurst, T, and Redus, BS. Self-selected motivational music on the performance and perceived exertion of runners. J Strength Cond Res 35(6): 1656-1661, 2021-Music is used by athletes and exercisers to improve performance outcomes, but it is less known whether its properties can enhance performance at maximal intensity. This study measured subjects' performance time, average heart rate, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) on a 1.5-mile running trial when listening to self-selected motivational music vs. no music. Subjects were 17 runners (male = 8, female = 9) who completed 2, 1.5-mile time trials in a repeated-measures randomized crossover design. For the music trial, subjects were asked to select and listen to a motivational song, which was scored by the subject for its motivational quotient using the Brunel Music Rating Inventory-2. Subjects improved mean performance time by 10 seconds and increased average heart rate by 4.5 b·min-1 in the motivational music condition, but neither were significantly different (p = 0.09, 0.10). However, the music condition significantly lowered subjects' RPE by 0.5 points (p = 0.02). That motivational music improved performance time, although not significant, is noteworthy considering the significantly lower RPE reported. Therefore, ergogenic qualities of motivational music may elicit a greater performance from experienced runners while simultaneously lowering perception of effort when working at maximal intensity.
... With this system, people listen to the music of their body movement. Music can create positive emotions and affect in this situation [16]. Thus, by doing exercise which creates the music, people may become more interactive and engaged to the task. ...
Performing independent physical exercise is critical to maintain one's good health, but it is specifically hard for people with visual impairments. To address this problem, we have developed a Musical Exercise platform for people with visual impairments so that they can perform exercise in a good form consistently. We designed six different conditions, including blindfolded or visual without audio conditions, and blindfolded or visual with two different types of audio feedback (continuous vs. discrete) conditions. Eighteen sighted participants participated in the experiment, by doing two exercises - squat and wall sit with all six conditions. The results show that Musical Exercise is a usable exercise assistance system without any adverse effect on exercise completion time or perceived workload. Also, the results show that with a specific sound design (i.e., discrete), participants in the blindfolded condition can do exercise as consistently as participants in the non-blindfolded condition. This implies that not all sounds equally work and thus, care is required to refine auditory displays. Potentials and limitations of Musical Exercise and future works are discussed with the results.
... Research in the area of the relationship between music and education has recently focused on studying the effects of music as a source for well-being and happiness. Both aspects are becoming increasingly important in the psychosocial development of children because of their influence on self-perception, self-efficacy, and self-concept, according to recent studies published in this field (Dingle, Brander, Ballantyne, & Baker, 2013;Laukka & Quick, 2013;or Van den Tol & Edwards, 2013). According to Ritchie & Williamon (2011, p. 328), "[an] individual's attitudes and beliefs play an integral role in the execution of any task, be it musical or not, as well as the level of perseverance and the outcome achieved (Bandura & Schunk, 1981;Bandura & Wood, 1989;Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992;Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994)." ...
“Music and Talent” is an educational project for children between 3 and 9 years old. The aim of the project is to use music and musical intelligence as resources for enhancing important skills in social and cognitive development. These skills are self-esteem, self-confidence, motivation, social and emotional relationships, and well-being. The first part of the article describes the project’s foundation, organization and developed activities. The second part of the article presents the results of two exploratory studies that have been carried out to evaluate some of the developed activities. Study 1 measured the impact of an active music language learning methodology on the “originality” dimension of creativity. A quasi-experimental design was adopted, with experimental and control groups tested pre and post the musical intervention. Findings show a statistically significant increase in the originality dimension in the experimental group. Study 2 measured the children’s self-efficacy in relation to their participation in the Music and Talent project, with positive results. An exploratory study was adopted as the research design, using a validated 10 steps Likert questionnaire with 15 items.
... Studies from the field of consumer psychology suggest that the tempo of in-store music might influence visual exploration and the consequent process of consumer decision-making (e.g., Millimen, 1982;Petruzzellis, Chebat, & Palumbo, 2015). Music can also influence mood and arousal level before/during sports performance (Karageorghis & Priest, 2012;Laukka & Quick, 2013;Lane, Davis, & Devonport, 2011;Nakamura, Pereira, Papini, Nakamura, & Kokubun, 2010), resulting in an improved performance. Karageorghis, Terry, and Lane (1999) developed a conceptual framework for predicting the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sports environments. ...
To date, there is insufficient knowledge of how visual exploration of outdoor scenes may be influenced by the simultaneous processing of music. Eye movements during viewing various outdoor scenes while listening to music at either a slow or fast tempo or in silence were measured. Significantly shorter fixations were found for viewing urban scenes compared with natural scenes, but there was no interaction between the type of scene and the acoustic conditions. The results revealed shorter fixation durations in the silent control condition in the range 30 ms, compared to both music conditions but, in contrast to previous studies, these differences were non-significant. Moreover, we did not find differences in eye movements between music conditions with a slow or fast tempo. It is supposed that the type of musical stimuli, the specific tempo, the specific experimental procedure, and the engagement of participants in listening to background music while processing visual information may be important factors that influence attentional processes, which are manifested in eye-movement behavior.
Introduction
Stroke survivors struggle to meet clinical recommendations for physical exercise duration and intensity. During the past two decades, emerging evidence has shown effectiveness of music interventions for several motor tasks in stroke rehabilitation. Additionally, music has been found effective for increasing exercise performance in athletes and clinical populations. It is postulated that the therapeutic effects of music in physical exercise are modulated by preference and task-specificity of the music.
Methods
We tested this hypothesis in a pilot study using a three-arm randomized cross-over design comprising the following auditory conditions during cycle ergometry cardiorespiratory exercise sessions: (a) a group-tailored music playlist, (b) radio music, and (c) a non-music control condition. Participants (n = 19) were inpatient stroke survivors undergoing rehabilitation between 2 and 12 weeks post infarct.
Results
Our results demonstrate that clinical characteristics are an important determinant for identifying patients who can benefit from music. Specifically, participants with a higher level of gait functioning experienced no benefit, whereas participants with a low level of gait functioning showed an increase in both exercise duration (M = 4.46 minutes) and time spent in the recommended heart rate intensity (M = 6.39 and M = 2.49 minutes for the playlist and radio condition, respectively).
Discussion
The findings suggest a beneficial role of music in rehabilitation of stroke patients with low gait functioning. Future studies should ultimately disentangle which musical parameters are more likely to induce the putative ergogenic effects.
Trial registry number: NCT05398575.
Araştırmada, savunma ihtiyacı doğrultusunda ortaya çıkan ve Dünya genelinde yaygınlaşan mücadele sporlarında, performans sırasında dinlenilen müziğin psikolojik sağlamlık, performans (fiziksel sağlamlık) ve motivasyon üzerine etkileri araştırılmıştır. Katılımcılara “Sportif Uygulamalarda Müziğin Etkisi Ölçeği (SUMEÖ)” (Karayol M. ve ark.,2020) uygulanmıştır. Elde edilen verilerin analizi Spss 23 programı aracılığı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. %95 güven aralığında p
Running music, which refers to background music for running, plays a crucial part in various mobile applications for running. Existing solutions for presenting running music cannot simultaneously address runners’ preferences, physical conditions, and training goals, resulting in lower running efficiency, higher injury likelihood, and significant mental fatigue. We proposed a novel running music adaptation method to address this problem. Specifically, the adaptation starts with a trial run, where the runner’s running statistics are sampled. Then, with parameters identified from the trial run, cadence goals are set accordingly. The song list provided by the runner is augmented with recommendation systems and later tagged, screened, sorted, and split. Finally, the music parts are rearranged and adjusted to match the cadence goals before being mixed with the training instructions. Unlike previous running music interventions, our method introduces a way to blend different music parts, giving runners unprecedented pleasure in running. Quantitative and qualitative results have shown that the crafted remix can reduce perceived effort, boost the pleasures, run more safely, and help the runners reach their second wind, providing novice runners with a passion for following the training programs.KeywordsDigital artHealthPreferred musicSynchronous musicRemix
D'Agata, MN, Staub, JP, Scavone, DJ, and Kane, GM. The effect of external dissociative stimuli on plank duration performed by male collegiate soccer players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-Individuals commonly use music as an external auditory stimulus to divert their attention away from aerobic endurance exercise tasks. Music generally results in lower ratings of perceived exertion, which may be the mechanism by which it increases aerobic exercise task duration. However, less is known regarding how music affects the performance of other forms of exercise, such as isometric exercise. Moreover, the effects of different external stimuli on isometric task duration, such as the use of virtual reality (VR), have yet to be investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of self-selected music (SSM) and VR on isometric exercise task duration using a forearm plank. We hypothesized that both SSM and VR would effectively increase plank duration compared with no external stimuli. Seventeen male collegiate soccer players (19 ± 1 year) completed 3 planks to failure on 3 separate days, with 48-72 hours between the trials. The ordering of each exercise condition (SSM, VR, or None) was randomized for a total of 6 potential orders. A one-way repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to evaluate differences in plank duration and average heart rate (HRavg) between each trial, and significance was set at p < 0.05. There were no differences in plank duration (SSM: 200 ± 44, VR: 173 ± 38, None: 177 ± 37 seconds) or HRavg (SSM: 96 ± 18, VR: 92 ± 21, None: 87 ± 18 beats per minute) between the conditions. We conclude that there was no effect of external stimuli (SSM or VR) on isometric exercise task duration and the use of these modalities should be based on exerciser preference.
Music may modify the impression of a visual environment. Most studies have explored the effect of music on the perception of various service settings, but the effect of music on the perception of outdoor environments has not yet been adequately explored. Music may make an environment more pleasant and enhance the relaxation effect of outdoor recreational activities. This study investigated the effect of music on the evaluation of urban built and urban natural environments. The participants ( N = 94) were asked to evaluate five environments in terms of spatio-cognitive and emotional dimensions while listening to music. Two types of music were selected: music with a fast tempo and music with a slow tempo. In contrast with a previous study by Yamasaki, Yamada & Laukka (2015), our experiment revealed that there was only a slight and not significant influence of music on the evaluation of the environment. The effect of music was mediated by the liking of music, but only in the dimensions of Pleasant and Mystery . The environmental features of the evaluated locations had a stronger effect than music on the evaluation of the environments. Environments with natural elements were perceived as more pleasant, interesting, coherent, and mysterious than urban built environments regardless of the music. It is suggested that the intensity of music may be an important factor in addition to the research methodology, individual variables, and cultural differences.
This study aimed to investigate and compare the effects of preferred music on anaerobic threshold determination in an incremental running test, as well the physiological responses and perceived exertion at this intensity, in physically active men and women. Additionally, by using area under the curve (AUC) analysis of the parameters of interest during the graded test, we studied the effects of music at two physiological moments—before and after anaerobic threshold intensity (iAT)—in men and women. Twenty (men = 10; women = 10) healthy and active participants completed four visits to the laboratory. The first and second sessions were used for sample characterization. In the third and fourth sessions, participants performed an incremental running test (started at 7 km.h⁻¹ with increments of 1 km.h⁻¹ at each 3-minute stage) under preferred music and non-music conditions. Blood lactate ([Lac]), heart rate (HR), and perceived exertion were measured by two scales (RPEBorg and the estimation of time limit ‒ ETL) during all tests, and the total time of effort (TT) was considered as performance. Individual curves of the “intensity vs blood lactate” analyzed by the bissegmentation method provide the iAT and the AUC of [Lac], HR, RPEBorg, and ETL before and after the iAT attainment were calculated. The iAT for men (non-music: 11.5±0.9km.h⁻¹ vs music: 11.6±1.1km.h⁻¹) and women (non-music: 9.8±0.7km.h⁻¹ vs music: 9.7±0.7km.h⁻¹) was not affected by music, and for both sexes, there was no difference between non-music and music conditions in all variables obtained at iAT. The AUC of all variables were not affected by music before the iAT attainment. However, [Lac], HR, and RPEBorg presented higher values of AUC after iAT for the female group with preferred music. This may be due to the fact that 70% of women have increased TT under music conditions. Overall, preferred music did not affect the iAT determination in an incremental running test. However, some physiological responses and perceived exertion after iAT of female subjects seems to be influenced by preferred music.
Recent research has suggested that low-level psychoacoustic parameters such as loudness and spectral brightness are correlated with musical chills, a subjective emotional experience accompanied by goosebumps, shivers, and tingling sensations. These relationships may be explained by a vigilance theory of chills, through the process of auditory looming; however, these correlations or theories have never been causally tested. In the current study, participants (N 1⁄4 40) listened to five variations (original, low loudness, high loudness, low brightness, high brightness) of an experimental and control piece of chills music, characterized by a crescendo and guitar solo respectively; this qualitative distinction was made based on whether the underlying musical structure of the pieces was or was not capable of engaging auditory looming processes. It was predicted that increases in loudness would result in increased chills frequency across participants, indicated by button presses; brightness was included as an exploratory parameter. Results show that for the experimental piece, increases in loudness resulted in significantly more frequent chills experiences, and increases in brightness signif- icantly reduced the frequency of chills, whereas no effects were found for the control piece. Findings are discussed in terms of vigilance and social bonding theories of chills, and the complex interactions between low-level psychoacoustic prop- erties and higher-level musical structures.
In westlichen Kulturen ist der Musikgeschmack als eine Einstellung oder verfestigte Meinung zu Musik ein wichtiger Faktor des Selbstkonzeptes und der Selbstwahrnehmung. Als affektives und expressives Medium dient Musik dabei nicht nur der Befriedigung emotionaler und sozialer Bedürfnisse, sondern ist in seiner individuellen Ausprägung von gemochter oder abgelehnter Musik auch ein Mittel zur Konstruktion und Bestätigung der eigenen Identität. Bei detaillierten Untersuchungen des Musikgeschmacks steht jedoch meist nur die Seite der gemochten Musik im Vordergrund; abgelehnte Musik wird zwar zum Teil mit erhoben, spielt aber bei der Auswertung und Konzeptualisierung des Musikgeschmacks nur selten eine Rolle.
Aus diesem Grund konzentriert sich diese Arbeit auf die abgelehnte Musik, genauer auf die individuellen Begründungsstrategien für die Ablehnung bestimmter Musik und die Funktionen, die durch die Ablehnung bestimmter Stücke und Musikstile auf persönlicher und sozialer Ebene erfüllt werden. In einer ersten Studie wurden offene Fragebögen an 113 Teilnehmer ausgegeben, die mit zwanzig leeren Textzeilen die Fragen „Was ist mein Musikgeschmack?“ und „Was ist mein Musikgeschmack nicht?“ erhoben. Die Auswertung nach der Methode der Grounded Theory konnte insgesamt 17 Antwortkategorien identifizieren. Die größte Antwortkategorie bildeten Stile und Substile, gefolgt von allgemeinen Beschreibungen.
Ausgehend von diesen Ergebnissen wurden als zweite Studie semistrukturierte Leitfadeninterviews mit 21 Personen aus verschiedenen Altersgruppen durchgeführt. Die Teilnehmer berichteten auf der Grundlage einer selbst erstellten Liste mit unbeliebter Musik, warum sie diese nicht mögen, wobei sie explizit dazu aufgefordert wurden, auch andere musikalische Ordnungskategorien als Musikstile miteinzubeziehen. Mit Hilfe der qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse wurden aus dem Material drei Hauptstrategien der Legitimation abgeleitet: objektbezogene, subjektbezogene und soziale Begründungsstrategien. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen wurden Hypothesen generiert und in eine Online-Befragung mit 656 Teilnehmern überführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass a) die Teilnehmer in ihren Begründungen für die Abneigung gegen Musik zwischen Stilen und Künstlern unterscheiden und b) Funktionen für die Abneigung gegen Musik sich von der bevorzugten Musik unterscheiden. Die Ergebnisse widersprechen der gängigen Hypothese, dass musikalische Abneigungen überwiegend sozial sind, und zeigen, dass musikbezogene sowie emotionale und körperliche Gründe eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Sie unterstützen ferner die Wichtigkeit der Integration der abgelehnten Musik in die Musikgeschmacksforschung. Zuletzt wurde ein Modell des Musikgeschmacks vorgestellt, das die Bewertungsdimension mit dem Verhalten sowohl in positiver wie negativer Ausprägung verbindet.
Objectives: To examine the effects of self-selected asynchronous (background) music on flow and netball shooting performance in three netball players. Based on the research of Karageorghis and Terry (1999) it was hypothesized that music would promote flow and would therefore have a positive impact on netball shooting performance. Design: An idiographic single-subject multiple baselines across-subjects design was employed (Wollman, 1986). The rationale centred upon the work of Patrick and Hrycaiko (1998) who indicated that single-subject designs were the most appropriate methodology for applied research. Methods: The participants comprised three collegiate netball players who were asked to complete 11 performance trials. Each trial involved taking 12 shots from lines located at three shooting positions. After each performance trial, flow and the internal experience of each player were assessed using the Flow State Scale (Jackson & Marsh, 1996) and Practical Assessment Questionnaire. Participants received the intervention of asynchronous music with the length of pre-intervention baseline increasing for each succeeding player. Results: Two of the participants experienced an increase in the perception of flow while all three participants improved their netball shooting performance. In addition, participants indicated that the intervention helped them to control both the emotions and cognitions that impacted upon their performance. Conclusions: Interventions comprising self-selected music and imagery can enhance athletic performance by triggering emotions and cognitions associated with flow.
Three studies involving 3 participant samples (Ns = 39, 55, and 53) tested the hypothesis that people retrieve episodic emotion knowledge when reporting on their emotions over short (e.g., last few hours) time frames, but that they retrieve semantic emotion knowledge when reporting on their emotions over long (e.g., last few months) time frames. Support for 2 distinct judgment strategies was based on judgment latencies (Studies 1 and 2) and priming paradigms (Studies 2 and 3). The authors suggest that self-reports of emotion over short versus long time frames assess qualitatively different sources of self-knowledge.
The value of music in people's everyday lives depends on the uses they make of it and the degree to which they engage with it, which are in turn dependent on the contexts in which they hear it. Very few studies have investigated people's experiences of music in naturalistic, everyday circumstances, and this exploratory study provides some initial normative data on who people listen with, what they listen to (and what their emotional responses to this music are), when they listen, where they listen, and why they listen. A total of 346 people who owned a mobile phone were sent one text message per day for 14 days. On receiving this message, participants were required to complete a questionnaire about any music they could hear, or had heard since their previous message. Responses indicated a high compliance rate; a high incidence of exposure to music; that the greatest number of musical episodes occurred while participants were on their own; that pop music was heard most frequently; that liking for the music varied depending on who the participant was with, where they were, and whether they had chosen to be able to hear music; that music was usually experienced during the course of some activity other than deliberate music listening; that exposure to music occurred most frequently in the evening, particularly between 10 pm and 11 pm, and on weekends; that music was heard most frequently at home, with only a small number of incidences occurring in public places; that the importance of several functions of music varied according to temporal factors, the place where the music was heard, and the person or people the participant was with. Further research should include participants from a greater range of sociodemographic backgrounds and should develop context-specific theoretical explanations of the different ways in which people use music as a resource.
To date, not much is known about how the functions of music relate to music preference. This article examines the basic hypothesis that the strength of preference for a given kind of music depends on the degree to which that kind of music serves the needs of the listener; that is, how well the respective functions of music are fulfilled. Study 1. a pilot study, identified the best-known musical styles of the participants, yielding 25 styles that were known by at least 10 percent of them. Study 2 used these 25 styles and found that rock, pop and classical music were liked most. A factor analysis yielded six distinct dimensions of music preference. People showed great variation in the strength of preference for their favourite music. This is explained by the impact of different functions of music. The potential of music to express people's identity and values and to bring them together was most closely related to the strength of preference. However, the reasons for liking a particular style are not congruent With the functions that people ascribe to their favourite music in general. A theoretical model of the development of music preferences is suggested.
The aim of this exploratory study was to (a) test the viability of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) as a means of identifying unfolding episodes of everyday musical experience, (b) examine the consistency of situations where music listening occurs by comparing the findings of previous studies involving retrospective data, and (c) investigate the extent to which degree of personal choice over the music and psychological outcomes, such as mood change, are associated with participants' descriptions of the functions of music in particular contexts. Eight non-musicians (aged 16–40 yrs) were asked to carry an electronic pager with them for a 1-week period. A remote computer activated the pagers once at random in every 2-hour period between 0800 and 2200 hrs. On each paging, participants were asked to stop what they were doing as soon as practicable and complete a diary of self-report forms with open-ended and scaled items, allowing "on the spot" thoughts and feelings in real life everyday situations to be recorded as sequential episodes. At the end of the week, each respondent was individually interviewed. Results indicated that the ESM is a robust method for exploring daily musical experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A B S T R AC T The aim of this study was the exploration and theoretical clarification of the role of music in adolescents' mood regulation. The phenomenon was approached through an inductive theory construction. The data were gathered from eight adolescents by means of group interviews and follow-up forms, and were then analysed using constructive grounded theory methods. The analysis resulted in a theoretical model, which describes mood regulation by music as a process of satisfying personal mood-related goals through various musical activities. The general nature of the mood regulation is described, the goals and strategies of mood regulation are examined, and finally the specific role of music in mood regulation is discussed. K E Y W O R D S : adolescence, emotion regulation, grounded theory, mood, mood regulation, music Aim and approach of the study Affective experiences are shown to be central reasons for music consumption and musical activities (DeNora, 1999; Laiho, 2004; North et al., 2000; Roe, 1985; Sloboda and O'Neill, 2001; Wells and Hakanen, 1991; Zillmann and Gan, 1997). However, the study of emotion has not been central to music psychology. Despite the recent growth of interest in the area, our under-standing of the psychological functions of the emotional experiences of music is still conceptually diverse and theoretically unstructured. Researchers have engaged in investigating emotional functions of music in everyday life but there is a serious lack of theoretical grounding of the empirical results. Sloboda and Juslin (2001) argue that theoretical development on emotional experiences of music has been hindered by the complexity of the phe-nomenon, and the reluctance of music psychologists to turn to emotion psychology for theoretical guidance. sempre :
A B S T R AC T The aim of this study was the exploration and theoretical clarification of the role of music in adolescents' mood regulation. The phenomenon was approached through an inductive theory construction. The data were gathered from eight adolescents by means of group interviews and follow-up forms, and were then analysed using constructive grounded theory methods. The analysis resulted in a theoretical model, which describes mood regulation by music as a process of satisfying personal mood-related goals through various musical activities. The general nature of the mood regulation is described, the goals and strategies of mood regulation are examined, and finally the specific role of music in mood regulation is discussed. K E Y W O R D S : adolescence, emotion regulation, grounded theory, mood, mood regulation, music Aim and approach of the study Affective experiences are shown to be central reasons for music consumption and musical activities (DeNora, 1999; Laiho, 2004; North et al., 2000; Roe, 1985; Sloboda and O'Neill, 2001; Wells and Hakanen, 1991; Zillmann and Gan, 1997). However, the study of emotion has not been central to music psychology. Despite the recent growth of interest in the area, our under-standing of the psychological functions of the emotional experiences of music is still conceptually diverse and theoretically unstructured. Researchers have engaged in investigating emotional functions of music in everyday life but there is a serious lack of theoretical grounding of the empirical results. Sloboda and Juslin (2001) argue that theoretical development on emotional experiences of music has been hindered by the complexity of the phe-nomenon, and the reluctance of music psychologists to turn to emotion psychology for theoretical guidance. sempre :
This paper provides a narrative review of recent theory, research and applications pertaining to the psychophysical effects of music in the sport and exercise domains. A conceptual framework is presented, which emphasises that the principal benefits of music – improved mood, arousal control, reduced perceived exertion, enhanced work output, improved skill acquisition, flow states, dissociation from feelings of pain and fatigue – are determined by the four factors of rhythm response, musicality, cultural impact, and extra-musical associations. A simple example involves the tendency for humans to respond to the rhythmical qualities of music by synchronising movement patterns to tempo. Synchronous music has been reliably shown to produce an ergogenic effect. Therefore, if athletes or exercisers work in time to music, they will likely work harder for longer. Responses to asynchronous, or background, music are less predictable and beneficial effects are less reliable, although considerable potential remains if certain principles are followed. An example is that fast, upbeat music produces a stimulative effect whereas slow, soft music produces a sedative effect. Several evidence-based examples are presented of how music has been used effectively in our work as applied practitioners with groups ranging from exercise participants to elite athletes.
The main objective of the current study was to examine the impact of musically-induced emotions on athletes’ subsequent choice reaction time (CRT) performance. A random sample of 54 tennis players listened to researcher-selected music whose tempo and intensity were modified to yield six different music excerpts (three tempi x two intensities) before completing a CRT task. Affective responses, heart rate (HR), and RTs for each condition were contrasted with white noise and silence conditions. As predicted, faster music tempi elicited more pleasant and aroused emotional states; and higher music intensity yielded both higher arousal (p < .001) and faster subsequent CRT performance (p < .001). White noise was judged significantly less pleasant than all experimental conditions (p < .001); and silence was significantly less arousing than all but one experimental condition (p < .001). The implications for athletes’ use of music as part of a preevent routine when preparing for reactive tasks are discussed.
The well-established link between mood and sport performance highlights a need for athletes to develop mood regulation strategies. The present study investigated such strategies among 195 volunteer athletes. Participants completed the Regulation of Feelings Scale, a 37-item measure assessing frequency of use and perceived effectiveness of strategies to reduce feelings of anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and increase feelings of vigour on the day of a competition. The most popular strategies were “engage in physical pre-competition activities”, “spend time alone”, “give myself a pep talk”, “talk to someone about my feelings”, and “use humour”. Frequency of use and perceived effectiveness of strategies varied according to the specific mood dimension athletes sought to regulate. Strategies did not differ by gender, type of sport, or level of competition, but the order in which strategies were presented to the athletes influenced their responses. Exploratory factor analyses for each of the six mood dimensions did not support a theoretical model, which proposed that mood regulation strategies can be grouped into four types – behavioural distraction, behavioural engagement, cognitive distraction, and cognitive engagement. The present findings provide a rich source of information that may help to guide interventions among applied practitioners.
This study examined the interaction of exercise and music to establish the impact of these factors on state-anxiety and time to exhaustion comparing trained and active participants.
Twenty-six university students (13 trained, 13 active) completed the State-anxiety Inventory questionnaire before and after a submaximal treadmill running until volitional exhaustion in both music and no-music condition.
ANOVA showed that both trained and active groups significantly reduced their State-Anxiety scores after exercise tasks (P<0.01, partial η2=0.26) independently by the presence of music. Finding also revealed that active group reported a higher significant reduction of their state anxiety score after exercise in music condition compared to no-music task (P<0.05, d=0.80), while this effect in trained group was not significant. Moreover, data showed that only active-subjects significantly prolonged their exercise experience in presence of music (P<0.05, d=0.47), while trained group did not.
This study supports the general finding that exercise is associated with state-anxiety reduction, and suggests that music during exercise may improve this effect in active but not in trained participants. Further, listening to music during exercise may prolong the participants' exercise experience but different training status seems to qualify differently this response.
Most academics agree that emotions and moods are related but distinct phenomena. The present study assessed emotion-mood distinctions among a non-academic population and compared these views with distinctions proposed in the literature. Content analysis of responses from 106 participants identified 16 themes, with cause (65% of respondents), duration (40%), control (25%), experience (15%) and consequences (14%) the most frequently cited distinctions. Among 65 contributions to the academic literature, eight themes were proposed, with duration (62% of authors), intentionality (41%), cause (31%), consequences (31%) and function (18%) the most frequently cited. When the eight themes cited by both academics and non-academics were rank ordered, approximately 60% overlap in opinion was evident. A data-derived summary of emotion-mood distinctions is provided. These data should prove useful to investigators interested in developing a clearer scientific distinction between emotion and mood than is currently available.
A questionnaire was sent to a random sample of 500 community living older adults in Sweden (aged 65–75 years). The questionnaire
assessed uses of music in everyday life: frequency of listening, situations where music is encountered, emotional responses
to music, and motives for listening (i.e., listening strategies). Also, different facets of psychological well-being (e.g.,
affective well-being, life satisfaction, and eudaimonic well-being) and selected background variables (e.g., education level,
health status, activity level, and Big-5 personality characteristics) were assessed. Results showed that listening to music
is a common leisure activity encountered in many everyday situations, and that listening to music is a frequent source of
positive emotions for older adults. Also, the participants reported using a variety of listening strategies related to emotional
functions (e.g., pleasure, mood regulation, and relaxation) and issues of identity, belonging, and agency. The associations
between listening strategies and well-being were explored through correlation and multiple regression analyses where the influence
of background variables was controlled for. Health status and personality were the most important predictors of well-being,
but some listening strategies were also significantly associated with psychological well-being. The results give important
insights into older adults’ uses of music in everyday life and give clues regarding possible relationships between musical
activities and well-being.
This study examined regular exercisers' perceptions of specific components of music during circuit training. Twenty-four men (38.8 years, s = 11.8 years) and 31 women (32.4 years, s = 9.6 years) completed two questionnaires immediately after a circuit training class. Participants rated the importance of 13 components of music (rhythm, melody, etc.) in relation to exercise enjoyment, and each completed the "Affect Intensity Measure" (Larsen, 1984, Dissertation Abstracts International, 5, 2297B. (University microfilms No. 84-22112)) to measure emotional reactivity. Independent t-tests were used to evaluate gender differences in perceptions of musical importance. Pearson correlations were computed to evaluate the relationships between affect intensity, age and importance of musical components. Consistent with previous research and theoretical predictions, rhythm response components (rhythm, tempo, beat) were rated as most important. Women rated the importance of melody significantly higher than did men, whereas men gave more importance to music associated with sport. Affect intensity was found to be positively and significantly related to the perceived importance of melody, lyrical content, musical style, personal associations and emotional content. Results suggest that exercise leaders need to be sensitive to personal factors when choosing music to accompany exercise. Qualitative research that focuses on the personal meaning of music is encouraged.
The Experience Sampling Method was used to explore emotions to music as they naturally occurred in everyday life, with a focus on the prevalence of different musical emotions and how such emotions are related to various factors in the listener, the music, and the situation. Thirty-two college students, 20 to 31 years old, carried a palmtop that emitted a sound signal seven times per day at random intervals for 2 weeks. When signaled, participants were required to complete a questionnaire on the palmtop. Results showed that music occurred in 37% of the episodes, and in 64% of the music episodes, the participants reported that the music affected how they felt. Comparisons showed that happiness-elation and nostalgia-longing were more frequent in episodes with musical emotions, whereas anger-irritation, boredom-indifference, and anxiety-fear were more frequent in episodes with nonmusical emotions. The prevalence of specific musical emotions correlated with personality measures and also varied depending on the situation (e.g., current activity, other people present), thus highlighting the need to use representative samples of situations to obtain valid estimates of prevalence.
Research indicates that people value music primarily because of the emotions it evokes. Yet, the notion of musical emotions remains controversial, and researchers have so far been unable to offer a satisfactory account of such emotions. We argue that the study of musical emotions has suffered from a neglect of underlying mechanisms. Specifically, researchers have studied musical emotions without regard to how they were evoked, or have assumed that the emotions must be based on the "default" mechanism for emotion induction, a cognitive appraisal. Here, we present a novel theoretical framework featuring six additional mechanisms through which music listening may induce emotions: (1) brain stem reflexes, (2) evaluative conditioning, (3) emotional contagion, (4) visual imagery, (5) episodic memory, and (6) musical expectancy. We propose that these mechanisms differ regarding such characteristics as their information focus, ontogenetic development, key brain regions, cultural impact, induction speed, degree of volitional influence, modularity, and dependence on musical structure. By synthesizing theory and findings from different domains, we are able to provide the first set of hypotheses that can help researchers to distinguish among the mechanisms. We show that failure to control for the underlying mechanism may lead to inconsistent or non-interpretable findings. Thus, we argue that the new framework may guide future research and help to resolve previous disagreements in the field. We conclude that music evokes emotions through mechanisms that are not unique to music, and that the study of musical emotions could benefit the emotion field as a whole by providing novel paradigms for emotion induction.
The effect of synchronized and asynchronized movement to music on the ability to endure a physical task was examined. The relative work loads for 32 male and female subjects (ranging in age from 19 to 22 years) on the PWC170 test (physical work capacity, 170 bpm) were calculated and used as the criterion for exercise intensity. Subjects were then assigned in counterbalanced order to each of three conditions: synchronous movement to music, asynchronous movement to music, and a control condition. A Sex by Conditions repeated-measures ANOVA indicated that music, particularly if synchronized to physical movement, had a positive effect on the ability to endure the task and that male subjects endured longer than female subjects.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of stimulative (energizing) and sedative (relaxing) music on grip strength. A 2 x 3 (gender x condition) repeated-measures analysis of variance and post hoc tests showed that participants (N = 50) evidenced higher grip strength after listening to stimulative music (M = 43.94 kg.force) than after sedative music or a white noise control condition. Sedative music yielded lower scores than white noise. Men evidenced higher grip strength than women, but there was no interaction between gender and music condition. It was concluded that a simple motoric task such as grip strength provides a sensitive measure of psychophysical responses to music.
To investigate, based on the parallel information processing model and arousal hypothesis, whether musical tempo and its manipulation during exercise affect the maximal workload (watts) achieved during progressive cycling.
Design: repeated measures experiment that involved one control and four treatment conditions. Settings: the experiment was performed in a controlled laboratory environment. Participants: twenty-four male and female volunteers, recruited from among a University population, were tested. Intervention: the data collection proceeded in five counterbalanced test-sessions that included control (C), slow music (SM), fast music (FM) slow to fast music (SFM) and fast to slow music (FSM) interventions. In the last two conditions, musical tempo was changed when the participant's maximal HR reserve has reached 70%. In all test-sessions, participants started to cycle at 50 watts and then the workload was increased in increments of 25 watts every minute until self-declared exhaustion. Maximal ergometer cycling was defined as the workload at the last completed minute of exercise. Measures: workload, HR, and postexperimental ratings of test-session preferences were the dependent measures.
Significantly higher workload was accomplished in the SFM condition. No between-session differences were seen in HR. The results also yielded significantly better "efficiency", in terms of workload/HR reserve ratio, in the SFM session. Participants preferred the FM and SFM sessions more than the other sessions.
Switching to FM during progressive exercise results in the accomplishment of more work without proportional changes in HR. These effects may be due to distraction from fatigue and are, apparently, dependent on the attention capturing strength of the distracting stimulus.
Effects of the listening context on responses to music largely have been neglected despite the prevalence of music listening in our everyday lives. This article reports 2 studies in which participants chose music of high or low arousal potential during (Experiment 1) or immediately after (Experiment 2) exercise or relaxation. In Experiment 1, participants preferred appropriate arousal-polarizing music over arousal-moderating music. In Experiment 2, participants preferred arousal-moderating music over arousal-polarizing music, such that their listening times contrasted clearly with those in the first study even though the same music and methods were used. Thus musical preferences interact with the listening situation, and participants' music selections represent an attempt to optimize their responses to that situation. When motivated to maintain a state of polarized arousal, listeners use music to achieve this; when they have no such goal, they use music to moderate arousal.
The power of music to influence mood, create scenes, routines and occasions is widely recognised and this is reflected in a strand of social theory from Plato to Adorno that portrays music as an influence on character, social structure and action. There have, however, been few attempts to specify this power empirically and to provide theoretically grounded accounts of music's structuring properties in everyday experience. Music in Everyday Life uses a series of ethnographic studies - an aerobics class, karaoke evenings, music therapy sessions and the use of background music in the retail sector - as well as in-depth interviews to show how music is a constitutive feature of human agency. Drawing together concepts from psychology, sociology and socio-linguistics it develops a theory of music's active role in the construction of personal and social life and highlights the aesthetic dimension of social order and organisation in late modern societies.
Empirical studies have indicated that listeners value music primarily for its ability to arouse emotions. Yet little is known about which emotions listeners normally experience when listening to music, or about the causes of these emotions. The goal of this study was therefore to explore the prevalence of emotional reactions to music in everyday life and how this is influenced by various factors in the listener, the music, and the situation. A self-administered mail questionnaire was sent to a random and nationally representative sample of 1,500 Swedish citizens between the ages of 18 and 65, and 762 participants (51%) responded to the questionnaire. Thirty-two items explored both musical emotions in general (semantic estimates) and the most recent emotion episode featuring music for each participant (episodic estimates). The results revealed several variables (e.g., personality, age, gender, listener activity) that were correlated with particular emotions. A multiple discriminant analysis indicated that three of the most common emotion categories in a set of musical episodes (i.e., happiness, sadness, nostalgia) could be predicted with a mean accuracy of 70% correct based on data obtained from the questionnaire. The results may inform theorizing about musical emotions and guide the selection of causal variables for manipulation in future experiments. © 2011, European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music. All rights reserved.
Subjective estimates of physical work intensity are considered of major importance to those concerned with prescription of exercise. This article reviews major theoretical models which might guide research on the antecedents for ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). It is argued that an active rather than passive view of perception is warranted in future research, and a parallel-processing model is emphasized as providing the needed structure for such reconceptualization. Moreover, existing exercise research is reviewed as support for this latter approach and several suggestions are offered with regard to needed empirical study.
The purpose of this study was to examine the personality characteristics and developmental issues of 3 groups of adolescent music listeners: those preferring light qualities of music, those preferring heavy qualities of music, and those who had eclectic preferences for music qualities. One hundred sixty-four adolescents completed an age-appropriate personality inventory and a systematic measure of music listening preference. The findings indicate that each of the 3 music preference groups is inclined to demonstrate a unique profile of personality dimensions and developmental issues. Those preferring heavy or light music qualities indicated at least moderate difficulty in negotiating several distinct domains of personality and/or developmental issues; those with more eclectic music preferences did not indicate similar difficulty. Thus, there was considerable support for the general hypothesis that adolescents prefer listening to music that reflects specific personalities and the developmental issues with which they are dealing.
This study examined strategies used to self-regulate mood dimensions assessed by the Profile of Mood States (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971) in athletes. One hundred and seven athletes completed a 29-item mood regulation questionnaire (Thayer, Newman, & McClain, 1994) assessing strategies aimed at regulating anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor. Results indicated that to 'change location', 'exercise', and 'listen to music' were strategies common to each mood dimension. Findings indicate that there were self-regulating strategies unique to certain mood dimensions; "try to be alone" for anger; "analyze the situation" for confusion; "engage in pleasant activities" for depression; and "use relaxation techniques" for tension. Vigor and fatigue shared the same self-regulating strategies although in different proportions. We propose that identification of strategies used to regulate mood lend support to the notion that mood can be controlled by the individual, and is not simply a reaction to external factors. It is suggested that there is a need for further research to investigate mood-regulating strategies used by athletes.
Recent studies have examined reactions to music within the framework of the circumplex model of emotion. The present study employed questionnaire measures of psychoticism (P) and impulsive sensation seeking (ISS) to explore the relationship between personality and reactions to music selected to produce the emotions in the quadrants of the circumplex. The 65 female and 27 male undergraduate students listened to four excerpts of music representing each of the four quadrants, with music in each quadrant selected to reflect classical/contemporary and familiar/unfamiliar distinctions. Participants rated each excerpt with respect to liking, familiarity, pleasantness and arousal potential, and on seven pairs of emotion-related adjectives. P was associated with the tendency to enjoy music that was unsettling and boring: that is, in the 'unpleasant' half of the circumplex. P was also linked with negative emotional responses to music that was relaxing and exciting: that is, in the 'pleasant' half of the circumplex. There were few significant correlations with ISS, although high scorers reported being sadder, and less happy, than low scorers when listening to relaxing/peaceful music. The results provided general support to previous studies relating psychoticism to liking for music sometimes characterized as 'problem' or 'deviant'.
Configural frequency analysis (CFA) is a new method for identifying types. Types are defined as patterns (configurations) of binary variables occurring more frequently than may be expected under the assumption of complete independence of the respective variables, and are tested for significance by multiple binomial tests or suitable approximations. CFA is illustrated numerically by an example. Relations to latent class analysis and to factor analysis are discussed. It is suggested to use CFA as a type-defining method instead of factor analysis if the variables are linked to each other not only by first but also by higher-order associations.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of fast- and slow-tempo music on 500-m rowing sprint performances. Twenty-two rowers performed 500-m sprints 3 times: rowing without music, rowing to slow music, and rowing to fast tempo music. Strokes per minute (SPM), time to completion, (TTC), and rated perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded. Although RPE did not differ between the rowing conditions, TTC was shortest in the fast music condition. Further, shorter TTC was observed in the slow music condition in contrast to the control condition, indicating that slow music also enhanced performance. The strongest treatment effects emerged, however, in the examination of the SPM that were significantly higher during rowing to fast music in comparison with rowing to slow music or no music. These results suggest that fast music acts as an external psyching-up stimulus in brief and strenuous muscle work.
In this article, we provide an up-to-date overview of theory and research concerning expression, perception, and induction of emotion in music. We also provide a critique of this research, noting that previous studies have tended to neglect the social context of music listening. The most likely reason for this neglect, we argue, is that that most research on musical emotion has, implicitly or explicitly, taken the perspective of the musician in understanding responses to music. In contrast, we argue that a promising avenue toward a better understanding of emotional responses to music involves diary and questionnaire studies of how ordinary listeners actually use music in everyday life contexts. Accordingly, we present findings from an exploratory questionnaire study featuring 141 music listeners (between 17 and 74 years of age) that offers some novel insights. The results provide preliminary estimates of the occurrence of various emotions in listening to music, as well as clues to how music is used by listeners in a number of different emotional ways in various life contexts. These results confirm that emotion is strongly related to most people's primary motives for listening to music.