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Purpose: The goal of this meta-analysis was to aggregate available empirical studies on the effects of physical exercise on executive functions in preadolescent children (6-12 years of age), adolescents (13-17 years of age) and young adults (18-35 years of age). Method: The electronic databases PubMed, EMBASE and SPORTDiscus were searched for relevant studies reporting on the effects of physical exercise on executive functions. Nineteen studies were selected. Results: There was a significant overall effect of acute physical exercise on executive functions (d=0.52, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.76, p<0.001). There were no significant differences between the three age groups (Q (2)=0.13, p=0.94). Furthermore, no significant overall effect of chronic physical exercise (d=0.14, 95%CI -0.04 to 0.32, p=0.19) on executive functions (Q (1)=5.08, p<0.05) was found. Meta-analytic effect sizes were calculated for the effects of acute physical exercise on the domain's inhibition/interference control (d=0.46, 95% CI 0.33 to 0.60, p<0.001) and working memory (d=0.05, 95% CI -0.51 to 0.61, p=0.86) as well as for the effects of chronic physical exercise on planning (d=0.16, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.89, p=0.18). Conclusions: Results suggest that acute physical exercise enhances executive functioning. The number of studies on chronic physical exercise is limited and it should be investigated whether chronic physical exercise shows effects on executive functions comparable to acute physical exercise. This is highly relevant in preadolescent children and adolescents, given the importance of well-developed executive functions for daily life functioning and the current increase in sedentary behaviour in these age groups.
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... Sample size estimation: Based on the principle of Monte Carlo power analysis for indirect effects, an online tool was used for sample size estimation (Monte Carlo Power Analysis for Indirect Effects, written by Alexander M. Schoemann, Aaron J. Boulton, and Stephen D. Short; website: https://schoemanna.shinyapps.io/mc_power_med/). According to previous reviews (Verburgh 35 and Chang 36 ), the effect size was determined, and with a sample size of 140, the statistical power for indirect effects reached 0.80 or above. Considering a 10% sample attrition rate, 154 participants were planned for recruitment. ...
... There is a positive correlation between physical activity and the accuracy of response inhibition among college students with depressive symptoms-more physical activity is associated with better response inhibition. This is consistent with previous research 35,39,40 . Prior studies suggest that physical exercise can enhance inhibitory function through various mechanisms. ...
... The study also found that the correlation between physical activity and conflict inhibition was not significant, which differs from previous meta-analyses 35,40 . This discrepancy may be due to differences in the subject population and the intensity and duration of exercise interventions. ...
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This study aims to examine the relationship between physical activity and inhibitory function in college students with depressive symptoms and to explore the role of resting EEG as a mediator in this relationship. Specifically, it analyzes how physical activity correlates with inhibitory function and identifies potential routes through which physical activity impacts inhibitory function. A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 154 college students with depressive symptoms. Participants completed the Basic Information Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory-II, and the Physical Activity Rating Scale. Five-minute EEG signals were recorded, and participants performed behavioral tasks to assess inhibitory function. Data were analyzed using independent samples t-tests, χ2 tests, Pearson correlation analysis, and structural equation modeling. Significant differences were found between the adequate and inadequate physical activity groups in BDI scores and response inhibition (P < 0.05). There was a significant positive correlation between physical activity and the average accuracy rate on No-go tasks (r = 0.281, P < 0.001) in students with depressive symptoms. Delta and beta1 lateralization in the central, parietal, and temporal regions were significantly positively correlated with both physical activity and response inhibition (r = 0.20, r = 0.38, both P < 0.05). Both direct and mediating effects were significant, with direct effects accounting for 67.80% of the total effect (B = 0.141, 95% CI: 0.013–0.287) and mediating effects accounting for 32.20% of the total effect (B = 0.067, 95% CI: 0.029–0.136). Gender did not significantly moderate the relationship between physical activity and response inhibition (P > 0.05). There is a close relationship between physical activity, specific EEG indicators, and response inhibition. The central, parietal, and temporal regions serve as potential routes linking physical activity and response inhibition. Delta band lateralization (in the central, parietal, and temporal regions) may be the route through which physical activity influences response inhibition.
... Others have also investigated the impact of acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise on cognitive processing in children, adolescents, and younger adults [8]. In their review, Verburgh and colleagues [8] found an agreement across studies suggesting that acute bouts of physical exercise were associated with boosts in performance on measures of inhibition, interference, and working memory. ...
... Others have also investigated the impact of acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise on cognitive processing in children, adolescents, and younger adults [8]. In their review, Verburgh and colleagues [8] found an agreement across studies suggesting that acute bouts of physical exercise were associated with boosts in performance on measures of inhibition, interference, and working memory. In general, the studies that Verburgh and colleagues [8] reviewed found that even a brief bout of exercise (e.g., 10-40 min) was related to improvements in these executive functions. ...
... In their review, Verburgh and colleagues [8] found an agreement across studies suggesting that acute bouts of physical exercise were associated with boosts in performance on measures of inhibition, interference, and working memory. In general, the studies that Verburgh and colleagues [8] reviewed found that even a brief bout of exercise (e.g., 10-40 min) was related to improvements in these executive functions. They hypothesized that the results were likely due to a temporary increase in blood flow and cerebral oxygenation within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that underlie executive functions. ...
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Background/Objectives: We examined the effects of cardiovascular exercise on verbal fluency using a between-groups design. Methods: Within our experimental (i.e., exercise) group, participants performed phonemic and semantic verbal fluency tasks (VFTs) before, during, and after a vigorous 30 min bout of cycling. Participants within our control group also completed these VFTs before, during, and after a non-physical activity. We compared the VFT performance of the experimental (exercise) and control (no-exercise) groups of participants in terms of the characteristics of the words that they produced within the VFTs. In addition, we examined these aspects of VFT performance for each participant group across time within the experiment session. Conclusions: From these comparisons, we see that exercise influenced VFT performance. Most notably, participants engaged in exercise changed their VFT performance over time, while control group participants did not. Exercising participants produced more words over the course of their exercise session that contained fewer letters over time and were lower in frequency during and after exercise as compared to before exercise. Additionally, topic switches in the VFTs increased after exercise as compared to before exercise. Participants in the control group did not change their VFT performance over time according to any of these measures. These findings indicate that exercise impacted participants’ lexical access and that these VFT performance changes were not due to practice effects.
... Physical exercise is a natural means of promoting the development of executive functions in children and adolescents (Verburgh et al., 2014;Xue et al., 2019). Currently, research on the relationship between physical exercise and executive functions mainly focuses on the exploration of dose-effect relationships. ...
... Firstly, open-skill exercises have a positive effect on all dimensions of executive functions in both the 5-9 year old and 10-16 year old groups, which is consistent with the research findings of Verburgh et al. (2014). Additionally, open-skill exercises have a more positive effect on inhibitory control in the 5-9 year old group and on working memory in the 10-16 year old group, which partially supports the research hypothesis 7, but does not fully support it. ...
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Background The research on the intervention of open-skill exercise on the executive functions of children and adolescents still requires quantitative synthesis, and there is inconsistency in the effects of intervention by strategic and interceptive skills, which are sub-divided from open-skill exercise. Therefore, this study systematically explores the aforementioned issues and examines the potential moderating factors in the effects of open-skill exercise intervention on executive functions. Methods Computer searches of the CNKI, WOS, PubMed, ScienceDirect and SPORTDiscus databases were conducted. Two researchers independently screened the articles and extracted data, and used the bias risk assessment tool recommended by the Cochrane Collaboration Network and the Methodological Index for Non- Randomized Studies (MINORS) scale to assess included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental designs (QEDs). Statistical analyses were performed using Stata 16.0 software. Results A total of 16 articles and 17 studies were included, comprising 11 RCTs and 6 QEDs. The participants were 1,298 children and adolescents aged 5 to 16. Open skill exercises have significant intervention effects ( p < 0.01) on inhibitory control ( SMD = −0.627, 95% CI = −0.890 to −0.363), working memory ( SMD = −0.517, 95% CI = −0.768 to −0.266), and cognitive flexibility ( SMD = −0.652, 95% CI = −1.085 to −0.219). The effects of strategic skill exercises are higher than those of interceptive skills, particularly in the dimension of inhibitory control ( SMD = −0.707, 95% CI = −0.819 to −0.594, p < 0.05). In addition, moderate-intensity and higher-frequency exercises overall have a more positive effect on promoting executive functions ( p < 0.05); interventions of 6 to 10 weeks are more effective for working memory ( p < 0.05), while 30-min sessions are the most effective for working memory ( p < 0.05), and sessions lasting 75 to 120 min are the most effective for cognitive flexibility ( p < 0.05). Open-skill exercise has a more positive impact on inhibitory control in the 5–9 age group and on working memory in the 10–16 age group ( p < 0.05); open-skill exercise, especially, has a more positive intervention effect on inhibitory control in the Eastern group ( p < 0.05). Both Egger linear regression analyses and literature sensitivity analyses suggested that the Meta-analysis results were stable and reliable. Conclusion Open-skill exercise has a positive intervention effect on executive functioning in children and adolescents, and strategic skill exercise interventions are more effective. In addition, the quantitative elements of exercise (intensity, frequency, and duration per session) and demographic factors (age and ethnicity) play a potential moderating role in this context. Based on this, it is recommended that children and adolescents choose more strategic open-skill exercises according to their actual situation and select appropriate quantitative exercise factors to maximize the enhancement of their executive functions. Systematic review registration https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#myprospero , CRD42025636714.
... The term "young people" typically encompasses both of these groups. Additionally, some scholars define the preadolescent age range as 9-12 years old (Buhrmester, 1990;Verburgh et al., 2014) or 10-12 years old (McMakin and Alfano, 2015), typically from Grade 4 to Grade 6, thereby distinguishing this subset of young individuals more precisely from children and adolescents. ...
... Upon a closer examination of the existing literature, two significant study limitations are present. First, despite the multiple studies on the developmental trajectories of PYD during adolescence, there is a notable lack of investigation during preadolescence (which is commonly regarded as a period between 9 to 12 years; Buhrmester, 1990;Verburgh et al., 2014), especially in a Chinese context. Preadolescence is considered a unique period during which preadolescents undergo concurrent physical, cognitive, and socialemotional changes, manage changes in school and social relationships, and address increased conflicts in interpersonal relationships, which warrants specific attention (Mascia et al., 2023). ...
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Introduction There is a notable scarcity of research examining the developmental trajectories of positive youth development (PYD) attributes among Chinese preadolescents and adolescents and the predictive effect of family functioning on these trajectories over time. Methods Using four waves of data, this longitudinal study investigated preadolescents and adolescents in China in January 2020 (T1), June 2020 (T2), June 2021 (T3), and June 2022 (T4). The study utilized the 90-item “Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale” and the 33-item “Chinese Family Assessment Instrument” to assess PYD and family functioning, respectively. The final matched sample comprised 2,652 Chinese students from grades 4 to 8, with an average age of 10.9 years (SD = 1.32; range 9–15) at the first wave of the survey, and with 51.1% male (n = 1,354). Results The Latent Growth Curve Modeling (LGCM) revealed that the PYD developmental trajectories of preadolescents and adolescents followed a quadratic U-shaped curve, characterized by an initial decline from T1 to T3, followed by a rebound from T3 to T4. Although the time-invariant covariate LGCM indicated no significant gender difference in the initial level of PYD, girls exhibited a slower decline rate and a faster growth rate in PYD over time than did boys. The parallel LGCM demonstrated that initial levels of family functioning significantly and positively predicted both the initial level and the rate of change in PYD over time. Discussion This study highlights the critical importance of considering the direct and sustained impact of family functioning within Chinese contexts on positive developmental outcomes among Chinese preadolescents and adolescents. This study also suggests that when designing and formulating specific programs or interventions, it is essential to consider gender differences in the development of competencies to ensure the optimal development of young individuals of different genders.
... Drug treatments often lead to adverse side effects, such as headaches, nausea (16), and an increased risk of suicidal ideation (17, 18), while psychotherapy exhibits limited efficacy in younger populations and a high recurrence rate (19,20). In contrast, exercise interventions have emerged as a promising alternative due to their ability to improve both depressive symptoms (21) and cognitive functions (22), particularly executive functions like working memory (23). Enhancing working memory through exercise has been associated with improved emotion regulation, reduced negative emotional responses, and activation of brain regions responsible for both cognitive and emotional regulation, such as the ventrolateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (24)(25)(26). ...
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Objective Various guidelines emphasize the cognitive and emotional benefits of physical activity. However, it is not yet clear what kind of exercise intensity is suitable for individuals with subthreshold depression. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effects of high intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) on the working memory and emotional state. Methods Forty-nine female students with subthreshold depression (mean age 16.3 ± 0.5 yrs) completed 20-min group of sit (SIT), MICT, and HIIT on separate days in a counterbalanced order. The modified n-back task was employed to evaluate working memory. Emotional state was assessed using the Feeling Scale (FS) and Felt Arousal Scale (FAS). Results Regarding working memory, for accuracy, SIT (82.41 ± 13.79%), MICT (81.79 ± 13.19%) and HIIT (82.06 ± 11.36%) have no significant difference (all p > 0.05). However, for reaction time, MICT (459.86 ± 131.47 ms) is significantly faster than HIIT (491.16 ± 115.68 ms) ( p = 0.046), and there is no significant difference between MICT and SIT (462.71 ± 120.64 ms) ( p > 0.05). Concerning emotional state, for arousal, FAS scores significantly increased after both HIIT (2.39 ± 1.30 to 3.76 ± 1.12, p < 0.001) and MICT (2.55 ± 0.88 to 3.94 ± 1.08, p < 0.001) compared to pre-exercise, and the increase caused by them was significantly higher than that of SIT (HIIT: p = 0.011; MICT: p < 0.01). For pleasure, the increase in FS score after MICT (−0.27 ± 1.13 to 1.06 ± 1.79) was significantly higher than that of SIT (0.32 ± 1.38 to 0.58 ± 1.53) ( p < 0.01). Conclusion Acute MICT can enhance working memory and improve the emotional state of adolescent women with subthreshold depression, while HIIT may decrease working memory and pleasure in this particular population.
... The findings of this study also revealed mood variations after acute exercise. Consistent with previous literature, exercise practice increases positive affect and decreases negative affect (Verburgh et al., 2014;Tartar et al., 2018;Schmitt et al., 2019). Our results replicate this pattern, further linking these changes to decreased FC between different areas of the MT network, including the amygdala. ...
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The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between lab- and field-based response inhibition tasks and their associations with taekwondo athletes' on-field performance. Twenty-eight senior high-school taekwondo athletes were recruited to participate in this study. Athletes’ on-field performances were evaluated by three experts (i.e., national-level coaches) using a 5-point Likert scale based on the observations of regular training and competitive performances. Further, all athletes completed a series of physical fitness and skill tests, as well as response inhibition tasks measured in the lab (i.e., the go/no-go task) and the field (i.e., the go/no-go task designed using BlazePod™ technology). The results revealed that, although a significant correlation was found between lab- and field-based response inhibition measures, only the field-based go/no-go decision-making performance correlated with expert-rated on-field performance. Specifically, this measure was found to be a stronger predictor of on-field performance than anthropometry, physical fitness and taekwondo-specific skill performance. In sum, our findings suggest that using field-based measures for assessing response inhibition offers a greater predictive power for real-life performance, which may be more beneficial for other practical applications.
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This meta-review provides the first meta-analytic evidence from published meta-analyses examining the effectiveness of acute exercise interventions on cognitive function. A multilevel meta-analysis with a random-effects model and tests of moderators were performed in R. Thirty systematic reviews with meta-analyses (383 unique studies with 18,347 participants) were identified. Acute exercise significantly improved cognitive function with a small-to-medium effect (N of standardized mean difference [SMD] = 44, mean SMD [M SMD] = 0.33, 95% CI [0.24, 0.42], p < .001). A generalized effect was observed across cognitive domains, showing benefits to tasks identified as attention (M SMD = 0.37), mixed/other (M SMD = 0.36), executive function (M SMD = 0.36), memory (M SMD = 0.23), and information processing (M SMD = 0.20). The timepoint of assessment was a significant moderator (p < .05) with the largest benefits observed when cognitive function was assessed following exercise (M SMD = 0.32). Sample descriptors (i.e., age, cognitive status) and exercise parameters (i.e., intensity, type, duration) did not moderate the positive acute exercise effect on cognitive function (ps > .05). Acute exercise facilitates cognitive function, with the size of the effect varying depending on the timing of assessment in relation to exercise. Notably, these benefits are evident across cognitive domains and occur regardless of participants’ characteristics and exercise settings, supporting the adoption of acute exercise for improved cognitive function across the lifespan.
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Background The widespread ownership of digital devices among adolescents presents challenges and opportunities in schools, particularly during recess. This study aimed to examine the association of screen use during recess with physical activity behaviours. Methods The study was based on a population-based cross-sectional study including 1347 adolescents from 28 schools (2017–2018). Physical activity behaviours were assessed using thigh-attached accelerometers, worn 24/7 for up to 6 weekdays and 2 weekend days. We examined accelerometer data for all recess periods, aligned with each adolescent’s school schedule, along with leisure-time activity from the same days. Physical behaviours were classified during recess and leisure-time behaviour (negative control). Frequency of screen use during recess was based on self-report using a 5-point ordinal scale. Results Greater frequency of screen use during recess was associated with less time engaged in physically active behaviours and more time spent sitting, consistent with dose-dependent associations. In multivariable-adjusted analysis, adolescents with no screen use during recess spent an absolute 11.1% (95% CI 5.4 to 6.8) more of their recess time being physically active compared to those with frequent use. Based on the mean recess duration observed in the sample, adolescents not using screens during recess engaged in physical activities for an average of 44.9 min per day (95% CI 42.3 to 47.6), compared with 35.1 min (95% CI 26.0 to 44.3) for frequent screen users. Leisure time activities, used as a negative control, showed no link to screen use during recess. Conclusion Increased screen use during recess was associated with lower physical activity levels. These findings suggest that regulating digital device use during recess could enhance physical activity among adolescents.
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Systematic reviews should build on a protocol that describes the rationale, hypothesis, and planned methods of the review; few reviews report whether a protocol exists. Detailed, well-described protocols can facilitate the understanding and appraisal of the review methods, as well as the detection of modifications to methods and selective reporting in completed reviews. We describe the development of a reporting guideline, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses for Protocols 2015 (PRISMA-P 2015). PRISMA-P consists of a 17-item checklist intended to facilitate the preparation and reporting of a robust protocol for the systematic review. Funders and those commissioning reviews might consider mandating the use of the checklist to facilitate the submission of relevant protocol information in funding applications. Similarly, peer reviewers and editors can use the guidance to gauge the completeness and transparency of a systematic review protocol submitted for publication in a journal or other medium.
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Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have become increasingly important in health care. Clinicians read them to keep up to date with their field [1],[2], and they are often used as a starting point for developing clinical practice guidelines. Granting agencies may require a systematic review to ensure there is justification for further research [3], and some health care journals are moving in this direction [4]. As with all research, the value of a systematic review depends on what was done, what was found, and the clarity of reporting. As with other publications, the reporting quality of systematic reviews varies, limiting readers' ability to assess the strengths and weaknesses of those reviews. Several early studies evaluated the quality of review reports. In 1987, Mulrow examined 50 review articles published in four leading medical journals in 1985 and 1986 and found that none met all eight explicit scientific criteria, such as a quality assessment of included studies [5]. In 1987, Sacks and colleagues [6] evaluated the adequacy of reporting of 83 meta-analyses on 23 characteristics in six domains. Reporting was generally poor; between one and 14 characteristics were adequately reported (mean = 7.7; standard deviation = 2.7). A 1996 update of this study found little improvement [7]. In 1996, to address the suboptimal reporting of meta-analyses, an international group developed a guidance called the QUOROM Statement (QUality Of Reporting Of Meta-analyses), which focused on the reporting of meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials [8]. In this article, we summarize a revision of these guidelines, renamed PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses), which have been updated to address several conceptual and practical advances in the science of systematic reviews (Box 1). Box 1: Conceptual Issues in the Evolution from QUOROM to PRISMA Completing a Systematic Review Is an Iterative Process The conduct of a systematic review depends heavily on the scope and quality of included studies: thus systematic reviewers may need to modify their original review protocol during its conduct. Any systematic review reporting guideline should recommend that such changes can be reported and explained without suggesting that they are inappropriate. The PRISMA Statement (Items 5, 11, 16, and 23) acknowledges this iterative process. Aside from Cochrane reviews, all of which should have a protocol, only about 10% of systematic reviewers report working from a protocol [22]. Without a protocol that is publicly accessible, it is difficult to judge between appropriate and inappropriate modifications.
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Exercise can have profound effects on numerous biologic systems within the human body, including the central nervous system (CNS). The inherent complexity of the CNS, and the methodologic difficulties in evaluating its in vivo neurochemistry in humans, provide challenges to investigators studying the impact of exercise on the CNS. As a result, our knowledge in this area of exercise science remains relatively limited. However, advances in research technology are allowing investigators to gain valuable insight into the neurobiologic mechanisms that contribute to the bidirectional communication that occurs between the periphery and the CNS during exercise. This article examines how exercise-induced alterations in the CNS contribute to central fatigue and the overtraining syndrome, and how exercise can influence psychologic wellbeing and cognitive function.
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IntroductionDefinitional IssuesStructure–Function MappingEF in Typical DevelopmentEF in Atypical DevelopmentConclusion