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Millets: Nutritional composition, some health benefits and processing - A Review
Abstract and Figures
Millets are a major food source in arid and semi-arid parts of the world. Millets are good sources of energy. They provide protein, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, dietary fibre and polyphenols. Typical millet protein contains high quantity of essential amino acids especially the sulphur containing amino acids (methionine and cysteine). Processing millet by milling removes the bran and germ layers that are rich in fibre and phytochemicals, causing significant loss. The millets are source of antioxidants, such as phenolic acids and glycated flavonoids. Millet foods are characterized to be potential prebiotic and can enhance the viability or functionality of probiotics with significant health benefits. The nutritional significance of millets demands for an examination of the nutritional characteristics and functional properties of different millet cultivars as well as developing value added products from millets.
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... Germination also eliminates the protein and fiber matrix and decreases the concentration of antinutrients such as phytic acid and tannins [50]. Moreover, endogenous enzymes enriched the foxtail millet via germination with higher antioxidant activity [63]. The results suggest that foxtail millet can scavenge free radicals and be employed as a potential source to fight free radicals formed in the human body. ...
The present investigation aims to study the influence of household processing methods, such as soaking, germination, and steam cooking, on nutritional composition (proximates, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins), antinutrient factors (phytochemicals: tannins, total phenols, phytic acid; enzyme inhibitors: trypsin and α-amylase inhibitors) and antioxidant properties of whole grains of foxtail millet. The contents of total ash (1.42%), fat (3.02 g/100 g), and mineral chromium (12.83 mg/100 g) were found to be high upon soaking. Trypsin inhibitors were reduced from 26.84% (steam cooking) to 12.45% upon soaking. Germination enhanced the contents of protein (11.57 g/100 g), minerals, i.e., Ca (32.48 mg/100 g), P (5.82 mg/100 g), Fe (5.81 mg/100 g), amino acid tyrosine and vitamin B 1. A significant decrease in the contents of tannins from 218.93 mg GAE/g (soaking) to 93.93 mg GAE/g), phytic acid from 307.5 mg/g (soaking) to 97.63 mg GAE/g) and α-amylase inhibitors from 35.20% (steam cooking) to 5.61% were recorded upon germination. The TPCs were reduced from 13.63 mg GAE/g (soaking) to 6.81 mg GAE/g upon steam cooking. Germinated grains recorded the highest antioxidant properties based on the scavenging capacity of DPPH (0.59 mg AScE/g), ABTS + (10.77 mg TE/g) radicals and RPA (0.89 mg AScE/g). Overall, different household processing methods altered the composition of nutrients, antinutrients, and antioxidant properties. Germination has enriched the bioavailability of protein, carbohydrates, minerals, amino acids, and antioxidant properties and reduced the anti-nutritional factors, especially phytic acid, tannins, and α-amylase inhibitors.
... One remarkable attribute of millets is their gluten-free nature, making them an ideal choice for individuals with gluten intolerance or celiac disease. [2][3][4][5] Finger millet holds fourth position in global millet significance, trailing sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv.). The Archaeological records reveals the use of millets from early African agriculture in Ethiopia dating back some 5000 years. ...
Millets were a part of human diet as well as fodder in the past and was helpful in prevention of many diseases especially lifestyle diseases. Because of the dependence on wheat and rice as major source of food and the rise in use of junk food, millets were neglected from routine diet. The rise in incidence of non-communicable diseases, across the globe has helped generate an awareness to include nutri-cereals in the daily food to address the contemporary of lifestyle. Information pertaining to millets, especially on Indian millets, has been collected from various resources, books, research papers and e-platforms for the researches on millets. Nine types of millets are widely used across India. Millets have been the cornerstone of Indian cuisine since centuries and there is much scope for its revival in the present era.
... Among cereal crops, millets frequently produce low yields and can easily grow on low-fertility soil. Anyway, it is considered the most suitable crop for sustainable agriculture and food security [9]. ...
Characterization and variability analysis of germplasm is a prerequisite for the improvement of high-yielding variety. Thus, a study was executed with ninety-seven proso millet accessions to characterize and assess their variability using multivariate analysis. The study showed a wide range of variations in the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of proso millet accession. Of the qualitative characters, growth habits, sheath pubescence, ligule pubescence, inflorescence shape, degree of lodging, and seed color showed distinct variation. The highest coefficient of variation was obtained in grain yield (43.2%) within the quantitative traits. The total variation of principal components was 18.8, 13.6, 11.6, 10.8, and 10.3% in the PC1, PC2, PC3, PC4, and PC5, respectively. The overall variability in the number of secondary inflorescence branches, plant height, grain yield, days to flowering 50%, and sheath length of flag leaf has been recorded as the most relevant contributing factors regarding the diversity of the accession in PC1. In addition, the clustering analysis of ninety-seven proso millet accessions was able to group them into five clusters based on ten quantitative characters, while the maximum number of accessions (27) were contained in cluster V. In conclusion, the existing variability of the proso millet accession can attract plant breeders to adopt certain recipient accessions for breeding programs.
... Its consumption is recommended for children, convalescents, the elderly and pregnant women due to the grain's high calorie content (Bekoye, 2011). Additionally, it is recommended for people with anemia because of its high iron content (Amadou et al., 2013). ...
... Based on the size the millets are divided into two categorizes; major and minor millets wherein the major varieties of millets include pearl, foxtail, finger, and proso. The minor varieties include barnyard, kodo, little and foxtail millet (Belton and Taylor, 2002;Amadoubr and Le, 2013;Shahidi and Chandrasekara, 2013). Hence, the objective of the study was to conduct a nutritional characterization of a complementary food made from acid whey and millets (major variety; proso & minor variety; kodo) to evaluate the efficacy of a microencapsulation process for polyphenolic compounds. ...
Introduction
Disposal of the acid whey waste stream is one of the major challenges faced by the Greek yogurt industry. However, based on its physicochemical characteristics and composition analysis, it has huge potential in the health industry. Likewise, millets are highly nutritive and health benefitting ancient grains. Combining acid whey and millet matrix can help in solving the problem of both food losses and food security. Hence, the objective of the study is to analyze the enhancement or degradation of the nutrition profile when acid whey is combined with millet matrix using spray-drying technology.
Method
The methodology of the study includes composition analysis and functional characterization based on antioxidant properties, microbial analysis, and sensory evaluation.
Results and discussion
The results showed that there was enhancement of functional properties of the millet-acid whey formulation matrix specifically in terms of polyphenolic compounds, lactose content, and mineral content. Overall, the study aims to provide an alternative method for the utilization and consumption of acid whey that is currently being mishandled and considered as waste by the Greek yogurt manufacturing companies.
... Pearl millet contains on average 6% of essential amino acids whereas finger millet has 3.2%. In particular, glutamic acid is 22.8% and 23.2% for pearl millet and finger millet, respectively (Amadou et al., 2013). ...
review of available literature shows that small grains are widely
used across the globe for human and livestock feed. Sustainable chicken production
can significantly contribute to dietary needs and resolve food insecurity
in the smallholder sector. It is estimated that local chickens constitute 80% of
poultry production in sub-Saharan countries, 28% in America, 15% in Europe,
and 60% in Asia. The success of production of small grains such as sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), and pearl millet (Pennisetum
glaucum) has been attributed to their drought resilience and adaptability to
climate change. Sorghum, in particular, is the fifth most important global cereal
crop after maize. Chicken producers use local small grains as major components
for inclusion in poultry diets in order to decrease the cost of production and
increase the profits. The potential use of small grain as a major source of native
chicken is attributed to their richness in the composition of diverse nutrients.
Small grains contain diverse amino acids and energy levels. Millets, in particular,
are high in minerals such as calcium, iron, and pyridoxine (vitamin B6). Sorghum
has metabolizable energy, calcium, and phosphorus for supporting chickengrowth and production. Studies reviewed on on the performance of broilers on varying degrees of small grain inclusion have been made using broiler chickens fed on varying degrees of small grain inclusion in various diets. Studies showed that a diet containing 12.34 MJ ME/kg dry matter (DM) to 12.91 MJ ME/kg DM is recommended for growth performance during the starter and grower phases of Venda spotted breed chicks. Furthermore, indigenous naked neck chickens aged between 1 and 6 weeks were reported to require a diet containing an energy level of 14 MJ ME/kg DM for optimal growth and carcass quality. Chicken feed formulation through least cost feed formulation recommended small grain inclusion at 13.9 ME (MJ/kg) to obtain diets with 11.8% crude protein. Physical (such as grain germination, soaking, and grinding) and chemical (such as fer
mentation, urea treatment, and use of alkali substance) strategies can enhance the utilization of small grains by chickens. There is a greater scope for improving small grain utilization by chickens by establishing convenient and accurate levels of inclusion in the diets and adding their value through biofortification interventions.
Millets are important food crops widely grown by smallholder farmers in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Millets are rich in protein, dietary fiber, micronutrients, and have a low glycemic index (GI) and desirable bioactive compounds. Due to their higher nutritional content, millets are popularly known as "nutricereals". Coinciding with the United Nations and the Food and Agriculture Organization's declaration of 2023 as the "International Year of Millets," this review underscores the nutritional value of these grains from the Poaceae family.
The consumption of nutricereals is associated with several health benefits including lowering of blood sugar levels (diabetes), controlling blood pressure, and providing protection against thyroid, cardiovascular, and cancer diseases. A review of the literature from PubMed and Google Scholar was done focusing on the health benefits and anti-cancer properties of different millets. Millets have a rich content of macronutrients like carbohydrates and proteins, as well as micronutrients and bioactive compounds, including dietary fibers, essential fatty acids, and phytochemicals. This article explores millets' nutritional elements, i.e., macronutrients, micronutrients, and bioactive compounds, and provides insights into the types of carbohydrates present, the prebiotic function of dietary fibers, and millets' low GI. The study identified the mechanisms by which millets may deter cancer growth, focusing on the roles of dietary fibers, plant protease inhibitors, and bioactive peptides. Additionally, it compared the mineral and vitamin content of millets to other common grains, such as rice and wheat, and explored the potential health advantages of millets over other cereal crops. This review systematically investigated the health advantages of millets, particularly, their anti-cancer capabilities. Dietary fibers, plant protease inhibitors, and bioactive peptides present in millets have the capacity to induce apoptosis, inhibit cell proliferation, and interact with gut microbiota leading to potential anti-cancer effects. This review also identified existing challenges in the bioavailability and effective delivery of millets' bioactive peptides, advocating for further research to maximize their health benefits.
Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) is an orange, red or yellow fruit widely cultivated in Central America. It is an energy-rich source of carbohydrates, fats and carotenes, and contains small amounts of protein and fiber. The aim of this study was to describe its carotenoid concentration, antioxidant activity and glycemic index. For the carotenoid composition, antioxidant activity and lipid peroxidation protection two B. gasipaes varieties were analyzed: Ecuador and Yurimaguas. Total carotenoids content was 7.43±0.2 mg/100g for Ecuador and 5.74±0.05 mg/100g for Yurimaguas. The amount of each variety necessary to reach 50% radical scavenging activity (DPPH) was 11.6±0.2mg carotenoids/mL for Yurimaguas and 9.1±0.3mg carotenoids/mL for Ecuador. In addition, the IC 50 of the inhibition lipid peroxidation was 11.2±2.1μg carotenoids/ml and 10.9±2.2μg carotenoids/ml for Yurimaguas and Ecuador respectively. Glycemic index value obtained was 35±6, which classified B. gasipaes as a low GI food. It is concluded that peach palm is an important source of carotenoids and its antioxidant activity and low glycemic index can provide nutritional benefits that may play an important role in the prevention or management of several chronic diseases.
The objective of the study was to assess the antioxidant potential of defatted foxtail millet protein hydrolysates (DFMPH). Gel filtration (Sephadex G-25) chromatography was used to fractionate DFMPH. The amino acid composition, ABTS, DPPH, inhibition of linoleic acid autoxidation, metal-chelating free radical scavenging ability, and reducing power were tested to determine their antioxidant potency. The antioxidant activity of fraction (FIV) (85.71%) was closer to that of α-tocopherol (86.27%) but lower than that of BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) (92.44%) in the linoleic acid oxidation system. Furthermore, FIV exhibited higher ABTS (2,2'-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) and metal-chelating activity than the other fractions with a significant difference (P < 0.05). Amino acid profile revealed that FIV, with the strongest antioxidant activity, had the highest hydrophobic amino acids content (51.94%) and hydrophobicity (8.62 kJ/moL amino acid residue "AAR"). Molecular weight of the fractions varied from 77-1042 Da. The data obtained by the in vitro systems established antioxidant potency of DFMPH fractions.
The number of hypercholesterolemic people is increasing rapidly in the world. Diet and nutrition are important factors in the promotion and maintenance of health throughout life. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), several dietary patterns, along with lifestyle habits (exercise, smoking, and alcohol consumption), constitute major modifiable risk factors in relation to the development of non communicable diseases: cardiovascular diseases (CVD), cancer, type 2 diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis and dental diseases. Improving diet and lifestyle is a critical component of the American Heart Association's (AHA) strategy for cardiovascular disease risk reduction in the general population. Hypercholesterolemia is one of the major risk factors for heart disease. In this review, cholesterol reducing effects of different categories of food are presented. Also technical aspects of adding these functional components to foods are discussed.
The microbial contamination of samples of processed date fruits collected from a factory in Al-Hofuf City, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, was measured immediately after processing and then after refrigerated storage at 4-7oC for 2, 4 and 6 months. Freshly processed samples were found contaminated with potential spoilage microorganisms including mesophilic aerobic bacteria, molds, and yeasts. The amount of contamination in general decreased steadily with storage time. The main contaminants of freshly processed fruits were mesophilic aerobic bacteria and the mold Aspergillus niger. The yeasts Zygosaccharomyces mellis, Debaryomyces hansenii, Candida lipolytica, and Torulaspora delbrueckii were detected in stored samples up to 6 months. Coliforms, fecal coliforms and nonpathogenic Escherichia coli strains were detected in freshly processed samples and in samples stored for 2 months. The potential pathogens Staphylococcus aureus and Aspergillus flavus/parasiticus were detected in the freshly processed samples only.
Though millets and sorghum account for only 4.7% of the world grain production [1], they are extremely important in the semi-arid and sub-humid zones as staples and ethnobotanical crops. These crops are a major source of energy and protein for millions of people in Asia and Africa. The average annual global production of millets stood at 28.1–30.5 million tonnes from an area of 38–54 million ha by 1994 [2] (Table 6.1).
Domiati cheese was made from reconstituted milk (20% total solids) containing normal (C) and high level (T) of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content respectively using mixed probiotic Lactobacillus casei and Enterococcus fecium (1:1) as starter. The cheeses were stored in brine at 25±5°C for 60 d storage. The added probiotics grow equally well in C and T cheeses. The total viable and Lb casie counts increased to a maximum after 15 d of storage and then decreased while the counts of Enterococcus fecium and total lactic acid continued to increase until the end of the storage period. The cheeses retained high counts of these probiotics (>l0 7 cfu g -1) throughout the storage period. The acidity, soluble nitrogen, free amino acid, and conjugated dienes increased significantly in Domiati cheese during storage with small differences between treatments except for the significantly higher conjugated dienes in T than C treatment.