Women as a Key to Agriculture and Food Security in Sudan: The Case Study of Northern Kordofan State.

Abstract

In the rural areas where most of the world’s hungry people live, women produce most of the locally consumed food. Their contribution could be much greater if they had equal access to essential resources and services, such as land, credit, and training. In Sudan, women have always been active in agriculture and food security, constituting 17% to agricultural labor force. However, culture coupled with imperfections of official data underestimates their contribution. Accordingly, this study was carried out in the western part of Sudan, namely, North Kordofan State in order to identify and assess the role of women in agriculture and food security and identify the main factors and constraints affecting their contribution to agricultural production in the state. The findings confirm that women contribute 74% to the monthly agricultural income, 65% to total income, 62% to the labor work, and 65% to the household activities. Their average daily working hours are 14, while, those of men are only 8. The study suggests that the removal of the obstacles those women face could increase their contribution to and enhances the livelihood of the people in the state. Hence, a review to the relevant government policies is needed, so that women are empowered by improving their access to resources and credit.

Full text

Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology B 2 (2012) 614-620
Earlier title: Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, ISSN 1939-1250
Women as a Key to Agriculture and Food Security in
Sudan: The Case Study of Northern Kordofan State
Adam Elhag Ahmed1, Nawal Abdalla Imam2 and Khalid H. A. Siddig3
1. College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, P.O. Box 10219, Riyadh 11433, Saudi Arabia
2. Administration of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Khartoum, Sudan
3. Department of Agricultural Economics, Khartoum University, Khartoum, Shambat13314, Sudan
Received: October 10, 2011 / Published: May 20, 2012.
Abstract: In the rural areas where most of the world’s hungry people live, women produce most of the locally consumed food. Their
contribution could be much greater if they had equal access to essential resources and services, such as land, credit, and training. In
Sudan, women have always been active in agriculture and food security, constituting 17% to agricultural labor force. However,
culture coupled with imperfections of official data underestimates their contribution. Accordingly, this study was carried out in the
western part of Sudan, namely, North Kordofan State in order to identify and assess the role of women in agriculture and food
security and identify the main factors and constraints affecting their contribution to agricultural production in the state. The findings
confirm that women contribute 74% to the monthly agricultural income, 65% to total income, 62% to the labor work, and 65% to the
household activities. Their average daily working hours are 14, while, those of men are only 8. The study suggests that the removal
of the obstacles those women face could increase their contribution to and enhances the livelihood of the people in the state. Hence, a
review to the relevant government policies is needed, so that women are empowered by improving their access to resources and
credit.
Key words: Women, food security, Sudan, Kordofan, case study.
1. Introduction
The agricultural sector is the most important
contributor to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in
Sudan, as it accounts for 35.3% of GDP [1]. It
contributes about 70% and 75% of the population
livelihood and labor force, respectively. Women
constitute almost half of the world population and play
an important role in livelihood security of rural
communities. They produce more than half of the
produced food in the developing world and as much as
three-fourths in Africa [2]. Moreover, they play a
substantial role in the storage, processing, and
marketing of food and cash crops, and they often in
charge of small livestock herds.
Corresponding author: Adam Elhag Ahmed, associate
professor, research field: food and nutrition security policy.
E-mail: adamelhag2002@yahoo.com.
Women are the major food producers in developing
countries, where they generate a large part of the
family’s cash earning. In many African countries,
rural women account for 60% of the agricultural labor
force and contribute 80% to total food production [3].
In the rural areas where most of the world’s hungry
people live, women produce most of the locally
consumed food. Their contribution could be much
greater if they had equal access to essential resources
and services, such as land, credit, and training.
Eliminating the obstacles that impede women could be
the key to achieving household food and nutritional
security. However, this requires domestic policies to
be reshaped based on better information about the
difficulties experienced by women, and their
aspirations, as well as by the use of their indigenous
knowledge and participation [4, 5].
D
DAVID PUBLISHING

Women as a Key to Agriculture and Food Security in Sudan:
The Case Study of Northern Kordofan State
615
Women have a stronger voice in household decision
making when they contribute cash income. In a survey
of women beneficiaries of Grameen Bank loans in
Bangladesh, all the women interviews revealed that the
relationship with their husbands and their relatives had
improved as a result of their individual economic
contributions to family welfare [3].
Women have always worked in the agricultural
sector in Sudan, they constitute 17% of the total
agricultural labor, but this role seems to be heavily
underestimated. In the northern, central, and eastern
regions of the country, women are relatively more
secluded and their participation in agriculture is
confined to their household where they are responsible
for keeping small ruminants, poultry, or fowl. Young
girls assist in the pasture of small ruminants and
elderly women weed or glean open fields for livestock
fodder. Within the home compounds, women
participate in threshing, drying, and storing farm
produce. Women are likewise equal partners in
traditional household farming, but their participation
is dramatically diminished as the farms became
commercial and labor from outside is introduced,
women are then restricted to the internal family
affairs.
In Western Sudan, as result of droughts and
declining income from agriculture, men have migrated
in large numbers to urban centers, large commercial
agricultural schemes or overseas, while in Southern
Sudan, more men joined the fight where many have
either killed or disabled. Therefore, women in these
regions have taken the responsibility not only for
household food production but also for growing cash
crops. Yet statistics indicate that these regions have
the lowest female literacy rates; and hence they are
less likely to benefit from any advanced technologies
and targeted mass media programs.
The 1993’s population census estimated that only
25% of female population was economically active
compared to 71% economically active male
population. However, there are wide regional
variations in percentage of economically active
women. For instance, women activities in the northern,
eastern and central parts of Sudan, are limited to
household domestic chores, therefore, the share of
economically active women is low. In the contrary,
those in the western and southern parts are active in
the traditional agriculture, where they work in the
open fields. Traditionally, women in Sudan have
always been active in agriculture and food security;
however, culture coupled with imperfections of
official data underestimates their contribution.
Accordingly, this study focusses on the western part
of Sudan, and particularly North Kordofan State in
order to identify and assess the role of women in
agriculture and food security and identify the main
factors and constraints affecting their contribution to
agricultural production.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
The total population of Northern Kordofan State is
estimatedat 1.4 million inhabitants. More than 70% of
the agriculture land in the state is sandy soils that have
low water holding capacity and poor fertility status.
Other land types are sandy clay soils locally known as
Gardud, which constitute 20%, and the clay soils,
which is characterized by its high fertility. The main
sources of drinking water in North Kordofan State are
natural seasonal water pools, hand dug wells, and
shallow tube wells fitted with hand pumps [6].
The economy of Northern Kordofan state is based
on agricultural production, which is mainly traditional
rain-fed crop farming. The main staple food crops
grown are millet and sorghum, while the main cash
crops are sesame and groundnut. Forest products
include Gum Arabic, fuel wood, charcoal, and
construction materials. Livestock keeping is also
practiced in villages where they raise camel, sheep,
goat and cattle. Milk and milk products made locally
specially by rural women are sold in the nearby
markets as means of income generation activities.

Women as a Key to Agriculture and Food Security in Sudan:
The Case Study of Northern Kordofan State
616
2.2 Data Analysis
Both secondary and primary data are collected
and used in this study. The secondary data were
collected from different official sources including
reports and published surveys, while the primary
data were collected through a structured
questionnaire. From the five localities in the state,
Omrawaba locality was selected, which is divided
into four administrative units, of which three were
selected, namely Wadashana, central Omrawaba,
and Alrahad. Afterwards, three villages were
selected from each administration and from each
village 10 households were randomly selected.
Therefore, the total sample size is 90 respondents.
For the data analysis, descriptive statistics were
applied.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 The Contribution of Women to the Family Income
Parkash [7] stated that women continue to
outnumber men among the world’s illiterates by about
3:2 ratio, but school enrolment boom is closing the
education gap between boys and girls. In this study,
results of women’s enrolment in formal education
revealed that 57% of women in the study area are
illiterate. It showed also that, 32% of the surveyed
women attended basic education, 10% attended
secondary education, and only 1% had a university
education. The higher illiteracy rates prevailing
among women compared to men limit their ability to
understand technical information and adopt new
technologies those aim at increasing agricultural
productivity and contribute to food security and
income growth.
According to the survey results, women are found
to have considerable contribution to household
income through farm and home garden production as
well as wage labor. As depicted in Fig. 1, women
contribute 74% of the monthly agricultural income. The
average contribution of women to the total monthly
income is 65%. This reflects the importance of women
role in agricultural production and food security in
the study area.
3.2 The Contribution of Women to Agricultural
Production
Khider [8] stated that, women involve in farming
activities mainly between June and October in
Northern Kordofan State. Beside their agricultural
activities, women are also involving in other income
generating activities such as producing butter and
cheese from milk and oil from groundnut and sesame.
Moreover, they make carpets, mats, and ropes using
local raw materials, such as wool and palm tree leaves,
in addition to their participation in feeding animals
and marketing animal by-products and agricultural
crops.
Despite their growing of about half of the world’s
food, women ownership of land is limited, they can
hardly obtain credit, and are overlooked by
agricultural advisors and projects. In Africa, women
do three-quarters of the agricultural work while in
Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East; women
comprise half of the agricultural producers [7]. In
sub-Saharan Africa, women contribute 60% to 80% of
the labor in both food productions for household
consumption and for sale [4]. In Northern Kordofan
State, women contribute significantly to food and cash
crops production activities from land preparation to
post harvesting activities. They cultivate food crops
such as sorghum and millet, and cash crops like
groundnut, sesame, and rosella, beside other crops
such as okra, white beans, and watermelon for
household consumption as well as for the market.
Fig. 2 reveals that, women as labor contribute more
than 70% of white bean, okra, and hibiscus
agricultural work, while they contribute 64% and 60%
of the agricultural work of groundnut and sesame, and
53% and 47% for sorghum and millet, respectively. On
average, women contribution to food and cash crops
production outnumbered men contribution as they

Fig. 1 The
c
Fig. 2 Wo
m
contribute
6
study area
agricultural
Northern K
o
and cash
contributio
n
millet, whe
r
activities w
o
3.3 The Co
n
Activities
Women
c
Northern
K
agricultural
0
20
40
60
80
100
Share (%)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Share (%)
c
ontributions
o
m
en contributi
o
6
2% of the
t
(Fig. 2). W
o
production a
n
o
rdofan Stat
e
crops pr
o
n
in all crop
s
r
e women sti
o
rk.
n
tributions o
f
c
ontribution
K
ordofan is
producers
a
100
Craft
76
24
White Beans
Women as
The
C
o
f men and wo
m
o
n to agricultu
r
t
otal agricult
u
o
men play
a
n
d househol
d
e
as their co
n
o
duction
o
s
produced
w
ll contribute
f
Women to
O
to househo
not limite
d
a
nd income
74
26
Agricultu
re
74 72
26 28
Okra
Hibiscus
a Key to Ag
r
C
ase Study
o
m
en to the m
o
r
al productio
n
u
ral work i
n
a
central rol
d
food securi
t
n
tribution to
f
o
utnumber
w
ith exceptio
47% of the
t
O
ther House
h
ld livelihoo
d
d
their rol
e
generators,
65
35
Total
64
36
Groundnut
r
iculture and
o
f Northern
K
o
nthly family i
n
n
in North Ko
r
n
the
e in
t
y in
f
ood
men
n of
t
otal
h
old
d
in
e
as
but
the
y
of
f
ma
n
in
F
ho
m
me
n
co
n
we
l
per
act
i
3.4
Y
pro
p
to
t
4
4
5
6
Jobs
62
38
Average
Food Securi
t
K
ordofan Sta
t
n
come.
r
dofan State.
y
also perfo
r
f
lour, prepar
i
n
aging the f
a
F
ig. 3, wom
e
m
e activities
n
contribut
e
n
tribution to
l
l as home ta
s
day in bot
h
i
vities, while
The Structu
r
Y
oung [9] ar
g
p
ortion o
f
th
t
hei
r
families
4
4
6
5
Jobs
60 5
3
40 4
7
Sesame
Sorghum
t
y in Sudan:
t
e
r
m other ho
m
i
ng food, fet
c
a
mily affairs,
e
n outnumbe
with the exc
e
e
63%. Thu
both agricul
t
s
ks. Moreov
e
h
agricultur
a
men work o
r
e of Househ
o
g
ues that, w
o
ei
r
resources
in general.
A
4
3
5
7
Others
3
50
7
50
Sorghum
Water Mellon
m
e tasks suc
c
hing the dr
i
and shoppi
n
e
r men contr
i
e
ption of sh
o
s, women
h
t
ural crops
p
e
r, women
w
a
l productio
n
nly eight ho
u
o
ld Expendit
u
o
men mostly
on children
A
lso in food,
34
66
Trade
47
53
Millet
61
7
h as makin
g
i
nking water
,
n
g. As show
n
i
bution in al
l
o
pping wher
e
h
ave a hig
h
p
roduction a
s
w
ork 14 hour
s
n
and hom
e
u
rs per day.
u
re
spend highe
r
than men d
o
distribution
,
Men
Women
Men
Women
7
g
,
n
l
e
h
s
s
e
r
o
,

618
Fig. 3 The
c
there is a bi
expenditure
s
personal c
o
huge differ
e
men, where
quantities o
f
At the
sometimes
i
contributio
n
particularly
however,
expenditure
several tas
k
processing
argument i
n
shown that
w
marketing
a
meet house
h
their earnin
g
the monthl
y
Food costs
r
the househ
o
and educati
o
women’s ro
l
3.5 Factor
s
Agriculture
0
20
40
60
80
100
Share (%)
c
ontributions
o
as in favor o
s
on health,
o
nsumption.
I
e
nces in food
men enjoy
f
food whe
r
e
a
global leve
l
i
mpossible t
o
n
to tot
a
in rural area
s
women c
o
is large a
n
k
s in relatio
and prepari
n
n
the line wi
w
omen use
a
a
gricultural
p
h
old needs,
w
g
s for other
y
household
e
r
epresent ab
o
o
ld expendit
u
o
n. This agai
n
l
e in househo
l
s
Undermin
i
99
1
Food
preparation
Women as
The
C
o
f men and wo
m
f
men. The
s
education,
I
n most co
u
security bet
w
the highe
r
q
a
s women ha
v
l
, it is ve
r
o
segregate
w
a
l househo
l
s
. In Norther
n
o
ntribution
n
d expandin
g
n to food
s
n
g food for
th Wikigen
d
a
lmost all th
e
p
roducts an
d
w
hile men us
e
purposes (4
)
e
xpenditure i
o
ut 58% of t
h
u
re, while 26
%
n
indicates t
h
l
d food secur
i
i
ng the Rol
e
76
24
Bringing wood
a Key to Ag
r
C
ase Study
o
m
en to other
h
s
ame is foun
d
work tools,
u
ntries, there
w
een women
uality and l
a
v
e the remai
n
r
y difficult
w
omen and
l
d expend
i
n
Kordofan
S
to house
h
g
. They per
f
s
ecurity suc
h
household.
d
er Stories
w
e
ir earnings
f
d
handicraft
s
e
at least 25
%
)
. Table 1 s
h
n the study
a
h
e total amou
n
%
are for h
e
h
e significan
c
i
ty.
e
of Wome
n
68
6
32
3
Taking care of
children
Managing
r
iculture and
o
f Northern
K
h
ome activitie
s
d
for
and
are
and
a
rger
n
s.
and
men
i
ture
S
tate,
h
old
f
orm
h
as
This
w
hich
f
rom
s
to
%
of
h
ows
a
rea.
n
t of
e
alth
c
e of
n
in
F
im
p
pre
r
he
n
Re
s
tha
t
an
d
ext
e
ins
u
rat
e
acc
rai
n
A
ran
k
ha
v
Th
i
wo
m
cul
int
e
ex
p
91
%
the
lac
k
ha
n
ha
v
b
e
6
665
3
435
Managing
family affairs
Avera
g
e
Food Securi
t
K
ordofan Sta
t
s
.
F
armers’ acc
e
p
roved seed,
r
equisites f
o
n
ce realizatio
s
pondents w
e
t
constraint t
h
d
food secu
r
e
nsion serv
i
u
fficient acc
e
e
of women
ess to lan
d
n
fall are maj
o
A
s shown in
k
s first. Des
v
e no acces
s
i
s could be
m
en as ext
e
tural barrie
e
raction be
t
p
erts. Insect
a
%
, which is
d
costs. Mor
e
k
access to
i
n
d, 59% of t
h
v
e insufficie
n
attributed
56
44
g
Making flour
t
y in Sudan:
t
e
e
ss to produ
c
fertilizer, t
e
o
r improvin
g
n of food se
c
e
re asked t
o
h
e role of w
o
r
ity. Result
s
i
ces, insect
s
e
ss to impro
v
farmer, la
c
d
and insu
f
o
r constraint
s
Fig. 4, the l
a
pite their ro
l
s
to agricul
t
attributed t
o
e
nsion agent
rs, which
n
t
ween wom
e
a
nd pest infe
s
d
ue to their
i
e
over, wom
e
i
mproved se
e
h
e responden
t
n
t access to f
o
to their hi
g
53
47
Fetching water
c
tion inputs
s
e
chnology a
n
g
crops pro
d
c
urity at hou
o
list the m
a
o
men in cro
p
s
indicate t
h
s
and pest
v
ed seeds, h
i
c
k of credit,
f
ficient and
s
.
a
ck of exten
s
l
e in agricul
t
t
ural extens
i
o
the limite
d
s as well a
s
n
egatively
a
e
n and mal
s
tation ranks
i
nability to
a
e
n in Northe
e
ds (70%).
O
t
s mentione
d
o
rmal credit,
g
h level o
f
38
63
Shopping
s
uch as land
,
n
d credit ar
e
d
uctivity an
d
sehold level
.
a
in problem
s
p
s productio
n
h
at, lack o
f
infestation
,
i
gh illiterac
y
insufficien
t
fluctuatin
g
s
ion service
s
t
ure, wome
n
i
on services
.
d
number o
f
s
social an
d
a
ffected th
e
e extensio
n
second wit
h
a
fford payin
g
rn Kordofa
n
O
n the othe
r
d
that wome
n
which coul
d
f
illiteracy
,
Men
Women
,
e
d
.
s
n
f
,
y
t
g
s
n
.
f
d
e
n
h
g
n
r
n
d
,

Table 1 Mo
Expenditure i
t
Food
Education
Health
Clothing
Energy (fuel)
Transportatio
n
Water
Other
Total
Fig. 4 Wha
t
nature of t
h
collateral fo
r
Addition
a
women and
are lastly
r
affect wom
e
Northern
K
insufficienc
y
water-harve
s
as growing
varieties of
f
Studies h
a
access to r
e
men farmer
s
argument b
y
average gr
o
0
20
40
60
80
100
Share (%)
nthlyhouseho
l
t
ems
n
t
does women
l
h
eir agricult
u
r
formal cre
d
a
lly, results
insufficient
r
anked amo
n
e
n contributi
K
ordofan S
y
of rainfall
s
ting techni
q
of draught
f
ood and cas
h
a
ve shown t
h
e
sources, th
e
s
(Saito et a
l
y
a case stud
y
o
ss value
o
94
Agricultural
extension
Women as
The
C
l
d expenditure
l
ack in agricul
u
ral product
d
it.
revealed th
a
and fluctuati
n
g the main
on agricultu
r
tate. The
could be so
l
q
ues when a
p
resistant an
d
h
crops.
h
at when wo
m
e
y are more
l
. [10]). The
y
y
applied to
K
o
f output p
e
91
Control on
insects/pests
a Key to Ag
r
C
ase Study
o
in North Kor
d
Val
u
464
109
95
49
34
22
19
5
797
ture?
ion and lac
k
a
t land titlin
g
ng rainfall,
b
constraints
r
al producti
o
fluctuation
l
ved by ado
p
p
plicable as
d
early mat
u
m
en farmers
h
productive
y
supported
t
K
enya, wher
e
e
r hectare
f
71
Improved
seeds
r
iculture and
o
f Northern
K
d
ofan State.
u
e (SDG)
k
of
g
to
b
oth,
that
o
n in
and
p
ting
well
u
ring
h
ave
than
t
heir
e
the
f
rom
ma
l
fe
m
sa
m
inc
r
wo
m
No
r
wo
m
4.
C
T
co
n
No
r
inc
o
ho
u
ho
u
Ho
w
59
Education
Food Securi
t
K
ordofan Sta
t
l
e-managed
p
m
ale-manage
d
m
e resources
r
ease by 22
%
m
en in a
g
r
thern Kord
o
m
en access t
o
C
onclusio
n
T
he major fi
n
n
tribute 74%
r
thern Kord
o
o
me, 62% to
u
sehold activ
u
rs per day
w
w
ever, desp
i
5
Credit
t
y in Sudan:
t
e
Share in
t
58
14
12
6
4
3
2
1
100
p
lots was us
u
d
plots, but
as men;
t
%
. Hence, thi
s
g
riculture
a
o
fan State t
o
o
resources a
n
n
s and Rec
o
n
dings of this
to the mont
h
o
fan State, 6
5
the total lab
o
ities. Moreo
v
w
hile men w
i
te their co
n
5
9
Credit
At
t
he total (%)
u
ally 8% hig
h
when wo
m
t
heir produc
t
s
study expe
c
a
nd food
o
increase si
g
n
d services
h
o
mmendat
i
study
r
eveal
h
ly agricultu
r
5
% to month
o
ur work, an
v
er, women
ork only for
n
tributions t
o
19
A
ccess
t
o
land
61
9
h
er than fro
m
m
en used th
e
t
ivity woul
d
c
ts the role o
f
security i
n
g
nificantly i
f
as improved.
i
ons
that, wome
n
r
al income i
n
l
y househol
d
d 65% to th
e
work for 1
4
eight hours
.
o
agricultura
l
19
Rainfall
9
m
e
d
f
n
f
n
n
d
e
4
.
l

Women as a Key to Agriculture and Food Security in Sudan:
The Case Study of Northern Kordofan State
620
production and food security, women role tend to be
invisible as their contributions are often
underestimated. This could be due to several reasons;
however, the major one is that their in-home activities,
which consume the majority of their time is often
considered a part of their responsibility as wives and
mothers, rather than being a work that could be
reflected in the statistics. In addition, their
contribution to agricultural activities are mainly in
forms of unpaid labor that can hardly be reflected in
the farming costs and hence the statistics.
Lack of access to extension services, insecticides,
pesticides, improved seedsand credit, as well as high
illiteracy rate of women farmers, insufficient access to
land and insufficient and fluctuating rainfall, are main
constraints affecting the role of women in agricultural
production in Northern Kordofan State. In conclusion,
women have considerable contributions to the
production of food and cash crops, income generating
activities, and household expenditure as well as to
other in-home household activities in Northern
Kordofan State. Therefore, efforts need to be exerted
to make their role in agricultural production and food
security acknowledged. Women multiple roles in
agricultural production, food security, and house
activities should fairly be reflected in household and
national statistics.
In this regard, removal of the main obstacles facing
women such as lack of access to agricultural resources
and services by reviewing and re-orienting
government policies is crucially needed. This is
expected to increase their income, expand their
contribution to agricultural production, and improve
their livelihood; hence household food security will be
realized.
References
[1] CBOS, Central Bank of Sudan, 47th Annual Report,
Khartoum, Sudan, 2007, pp. 126-127
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http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921
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[3] I. Jazairy, A. Mohiudden, P. Theresa Pannuccio, The
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http://www.hubrural.org/pdf/fao_wia_africa.pdf.
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