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Dietary reconstruction in Migration Period Central Germany: A carbon and nitrogen isotope study
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
Abstract
This study presents bone collagen carbon and nitrogen isotope data from the Migration Period cemeteries (fifth/sixth century AD) of Obermöllern and Rathewitz in Central Germany. The human average δ
13C ratios of −19.8 ± 0.3 ‰ and δ
15N ratios of 9.6 ± 0.9 ‰ (n = 43) reflect a mixed diet in a temperate C3-based ecosystem without significant difference between the two sites. The average offset between human and faunal δ
13C and δ
15N values indicates a significant contribution of plant food to the human diet that has different isotope ratios from the forage of the animals. It furthermore suggests the influence of land management on the δ
15N values. One adult male from Obermöllern stands out due to his elevated nitrogen isotope ratio, body height, grave goods, and burial position. The collagen isotope data of this study are comparable with data from other central European sites and confirm rather stable communities with moderate variation in the environmental conditions of arable land.
... Therefore, based on the available evidence we tentatively suggest that domestic animals played a prominent dietary role in the life of the analyzed individuals. These results support the proposition of a terrestrial diet, which includes both C 3 plant and animal protein (Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984;Knipper et al., 2013). ...
... The results of this study are comparable to the findings from other sites of the northern Europe dated to the Roman and Migration periods. Studies into the diets of 1st millennium AD communities have illustrated that human nutrition was primarily based on consumption of C 3 plants supplemented with terrestrial animal protein while consumption of marine or aquatic resources was of lesser importance (Knipper et al., 2013;Reitsema and Kozłowski, 2013;Vytlačil et al., 2018). In addition, the results from other parts of Europe indicate a relative consistency in dietary patterns within different social groups and relative stability in Roman and Migration periods (Jørkov et al., 2010;Knipper et al., 2013). ...
... Studies into the diets of 1st millennium AD communities have illustrated that human nutrition was primarily based on consumption of C 3 plants supplemented with terrestrial animal protein while consumption of marine or aquatic resources was of lesser importance (Knipper et al., 2013;Reitsema and Kozłowski, 2013;Vytlačil et al., 2018). In addition, the results from other parts of Europe indicate a relative consistency in dietary patterns within different social groups and relative stability in Roman and Migration periods (Jørkov et al., 2010;Knipper et al., 2013). These match the findings of our study and might indicate a relative uniformity in human diet across the northern Europe. ...
This study presents the results of stable isotope analyses performed on human tooth enamel (δ13C), bone collagen (δ13C and δ15N), and animal bone and tooth dentine collagen (δ13C and δ15N). We sampled archaeological material from Late Roman and Early Migration period settlement and burial sites in western Lithuania. Stable isotope analysis of human teeth demonstrated that human diet was primarily based on herbivorous and omnivorous
domestic animals and C3 plants. Also, we established that social stratification was not reflected in the
isotopic data. Finally, the data presented in this paper revealed that human diet remained extremely uniform
during the Late Roman and Early Migration periods.
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... Today, isotopic studies on Early medieval skeletal remains are of growing interest (e.g. Hakenbeck et al. 2010Hakenbeck et al. , 2017Hemer et al. 2013;Knipper et al. 2012;Lösch 2009;McGlynn 2007;Iacumin et al. 2014;Reitsema and Vercellotti 2012). With the Copper Age Iceman being an exception (Hoogewerff and Papesch 2001;Macko et al. 1999), in South Tyrol, there is a lack of comparative framework, and almost no isotope analyses on human bones have been performed. ...
... This is comparable with the low δ 13 C mean value (− 22.1 ± 0.4‰) of the horses from central medieval Germany, probably due to environmental factors (e.g. mixed habitats) as well as metabolic differences (Knipper et al. 2012). As expected, the δ 15 N values of all faunal remains showed the highest variation (from + 2.60 to + 10.65‰). ...
... The C 3 -signal is in accordance with published studies of medieval populations in western and central Europe (e.g. Hakenbeck et al. 2010Hakenbeck et al. , 2017Knipper et al. 2012; Prevedorou et al. 2010;Polet and Katzenberg 2003;Reitsema et al. 2010;Reitsema and Vercellotti 2012;Schutkowski and Herrmann 1999). The data showed significant differences in diet among the populations from the valleys, whereby the δ 13 C and δ 15 N data differed most between the individuals from Adige valley and those from Venosta valley (Fig. 3a, b). ...
In Early Middle Ages (sixth–eleventh centuries AD), South Tyrol (Italian Alps) played a key role for geographical and military reasons. Historical sources document that allochthonous groups (germani) entered the territory, and the material culture shows mutual cultural exchanges between autochthonous and germani. Besides the nature of the migration, the demographic and socio-cultural impacts on the local population are still unknown. Stable isotope analyses were performed to provide insights into dietary patterns, subsistence strategies, changes in socio-economic structures, and mobility, according to spatial (e.g. valleys, altitudes) and chronological (centuries) parameters. Bone collagen of 32 faunal and 91 human bone samples from nine sites, located at different altitudes, was extracted for stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur isotope analyses. In total, 94% (30/32) of the faunal remains were of good quality, while the humans displayed 93% (85/91) of good quality samples for δ13C and δ15N and 44% (40/91) for δ34S stable isotopes. The isotopic results of the animals reflected a terrestrial-based diet. Statistical differences were observed within and among the humans of the different valleys. The δ13C values of individuals sampled from higher altitudes indicated a mainly C3 plant-based diet compared to areas at lower altitudes, where more positive δ13C values showed an intake of C4 plants. The δ15N values suggested a terrestrial-based diet with a greater consumption of animal proteins at higher altitudes. The data revealed higher variability in δ34S values in the Adige valley, with individuals probably migrating and/or changing dietary habits.
... Suidae closely resembled the bovine material with δ 13 C being −21.5 and −21.2‰ and δ 15 N being 7.0 and 7.0‰. The isotopic values of the Galliformes reached −20.7 and −21.2‰ for δ 13 C, and 8.1 and 9.0‰ for δ 15 N, presenting them as omnivorous animals (as seen in: Fuller et al. 2012a;Knipper et al. 2012;Reitsema et al. 2013). ...
... The isotopic values of the faunal samples excavated at the Norroy-le-Veneur burial site corresponded to a C 3 plant based diet (Smith & Epstein 1971;Schoeninger & DeNiro 1984), and resemble those of other contemporary sites in western continental Europe (Hakenbeck et al. 2010;Knipper et al. 2012;Mion et al. 2016). One noteworthy result arises from the Norroy-le-Veneur fauna: the members of the Suidae family did not have the high δ 15 N values that can be seen in omnivorous animals such as Galliformes, but were rather low, even lower than observed in the obligatory herbivorous Bovidae. ...
... The mean humanfaunal (Bovidae and Suidae samples) spacing for δ 15 N (2.7‰) is within the expected range for a balanced human diet, although it might be distorted due to limited faunal samples. Nevertheless, this value suggests an input of animal protein comparable to other early medieval cemeteries, where δ 15 N spacing lies around 3‰ (Schutkowski et al. 1999;Hakenbeck et al. 2010;Knipper et al. 2012). Overall, the diet of the studied population seems very uniform with a narrow isotopic range. ...
The aim of this work was to analyse the diet of a Merovingian population sample of 80 individuals buried at Norroy-le-Veneur, France, with regard to their social status and chronology. A carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of human adult bone collagen and related fauna from the same cemetery showed a diet based primarily on C3 plants, supplemented with animal protein in a range comparable to other contemporary sites. No significant contribution of C4 plants (e.g. millet) or marine-derived protein was detected. In terms of socio-economic stratification, individuals buried with rich grave good assemblages formed a narrow group with a significantly higher mean of δ13C than low-ranking individuals. We argue that this may represent a step in the gradual formation of the dietary exclusivity of Frankish elites, following a progressive rise in power of the Merovingian nobility. Also, during the timespan of the cemetery there was a population-wide decrease of 0.3 ‰ in the mean value of δ13C. The role of the Christian conversion of the population is questioned, but another factor influencing diet might have played a role.
... Although the sample size was small, the absence of statistically significant isotopic differences between pigs and domesticated herbivores confirmed the archaeological premise that, in 9th-11th-Century Bohemia, pigs were kept in a traditional extensive manner typical of less-urbanized areas. A similar pattern has been found at numerous European medieval sites leading up to the 13th Century (Hammond and O'Connor 2013;Kaupová et al. 2016;Knipper et al. 2013;Reitsema et al. 2013). Although with a distinct location as well as a slight difference in dating, both data sets from Prague and Levý Hradec showed comparable isotopic values, ensuring good comparability of human isotopic data between both sites. ...
... Carbon isotopic values were at the border of distinguishable millet consumption (Fuller et al. 2012a). Mean carbon human-faunal offset slightly exceeded a maximum attributable to the higher trophic position (Δ 13 C human-fauna = 1.6) but similar isotopic offsets have also been observed in C 3 -based ecosystems of central Europe (Hakenbeck et al. 2010;Knipper et al. 2013;McGlynn 2007). The average calorie contribution of C4 plants estimated by FRUITS was ca.11%. ...
... The Střešovice sample showed a narrow range of carbon (Min-Max = 0.8‰; SD = 0.3) isotopic values as well as the absence of any dietary differences between the sexes. Such a narrow range of δ 13 C with no outliers is uncommon, especially compared with other contexts of the documented input of C 4 plants (Kaupová et al. 2016;Knipper et al. 2015;Lightfoot et al. 2012;Reitsema et al. 2017;Teschler-Nicola et al. 2015) and is comparable or even lower than in populations with a predominantly C 3based diet (Hakenbeck et al. 2010;Knipper et al. 2013;McGlynn 2007;Reitsema et al. 2017). This suggests highly homogenous dietary behavior within this group, who, based on anthropological findings, were suggested to be servants or craftsmen (Stránská 2014). ...
This study explored dietary behavior in the context of the developing medieval power centers of Bohemia (9th–11th Century AD, Czech Republic) with an emphasis on the dietary behavior of elites and the socio-economic stratification within the population of the central places. Carbon and nitrogen isotopic values were measured in collagen samples from 102 humans and 24 animals excavated from the sites of two castles representing the main power centers and their hinterlands. The Bayesian software package FRUITS was employed to estimate the caloric contribution of C3 and C4 plants, terrestrial animals, and freshwater fish. Statistically significant differences in the consumption of animal products and millet were observed between castle elites versus castle non-elite and hinterland samples. Among burial sites located outside the castle areas, substantial dietary variation in terms of both carbon and nitrogen was observed in males but not in females. These results suggest the deep socio-economic stratification within the population of centers. The notable consumption of millet was typical of the lower socio-economic groups buried outside the castle areas. The almost total absence of adult male skeletons at some sites was accompanied by the low contribution of animal products to the diets of the males present. The high dietary variation observed within the ducal family suggests either the rapidly changing position of the Přemyslids during the formation of the Bohemian state structure or the sharp increase in the influence of the Church in terms of elite dietary behavior.
... The diets of agricultural populations of early medieval western and central Europe are characterised by great homogeneity. Populations consumed a terrestrial diet with a medium to high amount of animal protein and limited input of aquatic or marine resources, and they relied largely on C3 plants [8][9][10][11][12]. ...
... Comparative data taken from published literature. Key to sites: WGT-Weingarten (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [9]; AED-Altenerding (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [10]; SB-Straubing (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [10]; OBM-Obermöllern (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [11]; RAT-Rathewitz (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [11]; AID-Ai-Dai (fifth to second century BC, western Siberia) [14]; AYM-Aymyrlyg (eighth to fifth century BC, western Siberia) [14]; TAV-Tavan Tolgoi (thirteenth to fourteenth century AD, eastern Mongolia) [89]; TSA-Tsaganchuluut (thirteenth to fourteenth century AD, eastern Mongolia) [89]; HMC-Hets Mountain Cave (fifteenth to sixteenth century AD, eastern Mongolia) [90]; KFP-Keszthely-Fenékpuszta; HAC-Hács-Béndekpuszta; GYS-Győr; MOZ-Mözs; SZO-Szolnok-Szanda. Columns are labelled as coll-collagen, M2 -second molar and M3 -third molar. ...
... Comparative data taken from published literature. Key to sites: WGT-Weingarten (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [9]; AED-Altenerding (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [10]; SB-Straubing (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [10]; OBM-Obermöllern (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [11]; RAT-Rathewitz (fifth to sixth century AD, Germany) [11]; AID-Ai-Dai (fifth to second century BC, western Siberia) [14]; AYM-Aymyrlyg (eighth to fifth century BC, western Siberia) [14]; TAV-Tavan Tolgoi (thirteenth to fourteenth century AD, eastern Mongolia) [89]; TSA-Tsaganchuluut (thirteenth to fourteenth century AD, eastern Mongolia) [89]; HMC-Hets Mountain Cave (fifteenth to sixteenth century AD, eastern Mongolia) [90]; KFP-Keszthely-Fenékpuszta; HAC-Hács-Béndekpuszta; GYS-Győr; MOZ-Mözs; SZO-Szolnok-Szanda. Columns are labelled as coll-collagen, M2 -second molar and M3 -third molar. ...
We conducted a multi-isotope study of five fifth-century AD cemeteries in modern-day Hungary to determine relationships between nomadic-pastoralist incomers—the historically documented Huns and other nomadic groups—and the sedentary agricultural population of the late Roman province of Pannonia. Contemporary historical sources describe this relationship as adversarial and destructive for the late Roman population, but archaeological evidence indicates high levels of hybridity between different groups. We undertook carbon, nitrogen, strontium and oxygen isotope analyses of bone collagen, dentine and tooth enamel at Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, Hács-Béndekpuszta, Győr-Széchenyi Square, Mözs and Szolnok-Szanda to examine these relationships through past subsistence practices. The patterns at all sites indicate medium to high animal protein consumption with little evidence for a significant contribution of aquatic resources. All populations relied to a great extent on C4 plants, most likely millet. Within each population, diet was heterogeneous, with significant variations in terms of animal protein and C3 and C4 plant consumption. High levels of intra-population and individual variability suggest that populations made use of a range of subsistence strategies, with many individuals exhibiting significant changes over their lifetimes. Rather than being characterised only by violence, the historically-documented influx of nomadic populations appears to have led to widespread changes in subsistence strategies of populations in the Carpathian basin. Nomadic-pastoralist groups may have switched to smaller herds and more farming, and, conversely, local populations may have integrated with a new economic system based on animal herding.
... Despite the small sample size, these results suggest that even though there was unprecedented urban development in the Great Moravian centers, pigs were still raised in the traditional manner of being allowed to feed freely on local vegetation (Reitsema et al. 2013). A similar situation has been reported for pigs from various medieval sites in Germany, Poland, and England leading up to the thirteenth century (Hammond and O'Connor 2013;Knipper et al. 2013;Reitsema et al. 2013). In the case of the Great Moravian centers, the special character of the flood plain may have sustained the maintenance of traditional types of breeding even with the growing population of the site. ...
... When compared to other medieval Central European populations, the relatively high input of millet seems to be characteristic of the Great Moravian population (Hakenbeck et al. 2010;Halffman and Velemínský 2015;Knipper et al. 2013;Lightfoot et al. 2012;McGlynn 2007;Reitsema 2012;Reitsema et al. 2010). The mean δ 13 C value of Great Moravian humans in this study (N = 158) was −17.9 ± 0.6 ‰. ...
... It is interesting to note that values of GM centers are not extraordinarily high, even though the presence of the true elite of Great Moravian society at these centers has been documented. The values of the GMH sample appear to be located in the lower part of this variation, comparable to the sites from early medieval Germany (Knipper et al. 2013) or to the twelfth century site of Gruczno (Reitsema 2012), suggesting significant restriction in access to animal protein. ...
Dietary behavior in the context of the formation of state structure, Christianization, and significant urbanization was studied, using the Great Moravian Empire (ninth–tenth century AD, Czech Republic) as a representative example. We also analyzed the impact of the disruption of social structure at the beginning of the tenth century and subsequent recovery of society during the eleventh century. Carbon and nitrogen isotopic values were measured in 189 adults (both sexes) and 74 animals representing different socioeconomic contexts (power centers/hinterlands) and chronology (Great Moravian/Late Hillfort period). Statistically significant differences in animal protein consumption were observed between centers and hinterlands. For centers, significant relationship was found between nitrogen isotopic values and socioeconomic status in males but not for females. Diachronic diet changes were observed, with the eleventh century diet characterized by higher millet consumption in both sexes and lower consumption of animal protein in males. These results confirm that Great Moravia represented a highly stratified society socioeconomically. Social status appears to determine the consumption of animal protein much more in males than in females. The diet of females also proved to be more uniform in the diachronic frame. The diachronic change in dietary behavior suggests that through the apparent recovery in the eleventh century, Moravian society did not reach its original level of welfare at least in terms of the quality of diet.
... The laboratory procedures for osteological investigations and stable isotope analyses are described in Supplement 3. Charred cereal remains underwent an acidbase-acid treatment following . Collagen extraction of human and faunal bones was based on Longin (1971) with modifications as described by Knipper et al. (2013) Fernandes et al. 2014Fernandes et al. , 2015. Average collagen stable isotope data of barley, herbivores, freshwater fish (Cyprinidae), salmon, and chicken were used as baseline estimates for the different elements contributing to human diets. ...
... In contrast to evidence from Neolithic sites in southwest Germany and Swiss lakeshore settlements, restriction of certain species to specific environments such as shrubby hillsides or soggy floodplains was unlikely (Doppler et al. 2015;Fraser et al. 2013). Slightly lower δ 13 C values of horses in comparison to other herbivore species have been noted before (Knipper et al. 2013;Privat et al. 2002;Stevens et al. 2010) and point to metabolic differences between horses and the ruminant species (Hedges 2003) rather than to fodder from woodland habitats. The δ 13 C values of the cattle and sheep/goat samples but also of the deer of well above −22 ‰ indicated feeding in open habitats (Doppler et al. 2015;Drucker et al. 2008). ...
... Higher δ 15 N values of chickens in comparison to herbivorous species have also been observed in earlier studies (cf. Cheung et al. 2012;Hakenbeck et al. 2010;Knipper et al. 2013). Dogs fed on an omnivorous diet. ...
The late Iron Age (150–80 BC) proto-urban site of Basel-Gasfabrik, Switzerland, yielded numerous human skeletal remains, with individuals of all ages and both sexes being found in two cemeteries and in various features of the settlement itself. About 200 inhumations and two cremation burials as well as isolated skulls and bones attest to complex mortuary practices. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of 90 human, 48 faunal, and seven cereal samples provide a rich database for dietary reconstruction. The results point to a diet that was largely based on C3 plants with a limited contribution of herbivore or pig meat and/or dairy products. Divergent isotope ratios can be attributed to the consumption of chicken meat/eggs or seasonally available salmon. Moreover, the contribution of C4 plants, supposedly millet, to human diets is well documented at Basel as well as at other central European Iron Age sites. We found no significant dietary distinctions between males and females. In children, indications for breastfeeding terminate between 1.5 and about 4 years of age, with isotopic differences emerging with regard to the investigated skeletal elements. The stable isotope data from different burial contexts, forms of mortuary practice, and presence or type of funerary objects overlap widely, providing only tentative indications for dietary differentiation within the living population. These findings distinguish Basel-Gasfabrik from other Iron Age sites and call for further integrative studies for deciphering the complex mechanisms behind the highly differentiated mortuary practices in the late Iron Age.
... The analytical procedure described in the following is mainly based on Müldner and Richards (2005) with modifications as described in Knipper et al. (2013). Bone fragments were cut into smaller pieces and the surfaces and the cancellous portions were removed with dental cutting and milling equipment. ...
... The resultant liquid was transferred into AmiconÓ ultrafilters (Millipore; cut off 30 kDa) for the concentration of the long-chained collagen molecules. Prior to use the glycerol coating of these filters was removed by immersion in deionised H 2 O overnight and centrifugation of 0.1 M NaOH and three times deionised H 2 O for 10 min at 2800 rpm (Knipper et al., 2013) in order to avoid mixing of carbon from the glycerol and the samples which has been shown to affect the isotopic measurements (Bronk Ramsey et al., 2004). The purified solution was then frozen and lyophilised. ...
... Only the d 15 N value of 12.6‰ and a d 13 C of À19.8‰ for an approximately four year old child (individual 93) can be interpreted as a signal of breastfeeding (Fig. 2) which causes isotopic ratios approximately one trophic level above the adults (Fuller et al., 2006;Jenkins et al., 2001). Such signals can be occasionally found in children of this age in other burial communities (Knipper et al., 2013) so that a single data point cannot be interpreted as evidence for a trend towards longer nursing periods at Jechtingen. ...
... The average d 13 C value of the adults from Szólád was up to 1 % higher than that of Migration Period cemeteries in Germany and Austria (cf. data compilation in [ [55], Fig. 4]). This may reflect the drier growing season at Lake Balaton in comparison to several of the central European sites (cf. ...
... The nitrogen isotope ratios of the human bone collagen are closely comparable to those identified at other Migration Period cemeteries (cf. [55], Fig. 4 with further references) and reflect a mixed diet of plant and animal proteins. The average d 15 N value of the adults was 9.660.8 ...
... With a standard deviation of 0.8 % (1 SD), the d 15 N values of the adults were comparatively heterogeneous (cf. [55,[72][73][74][75]), which at least partly results from gender-specific access to animal protein. Six males (Ind. ...
In 2005 to 2007 45 skeletons of adults and subadults were excavated at the Lombard period cemetery at Szólád (6th century A.D.), Hungary. Embedded into the well-recorded historical context, the article presents the results obtained by an integrative investigation including anthropological, molecular genetic and isotopic (δ15N, δ13C, 87Sr/86Sr) analyses. Skeletal stress markers as well as traces of interpersonal violence were found to occur frequently. The mitochondrial DNA profiles revealed a heterogeneous spectrum of lineages that belong to the haplogroups H, U, J, HV, T2, I, and K, which are common in present-day Europe and in the Near East, while N1a and N1b are today quite rare. Evidence of possible direct maternal kinship was identified in only three pairs of individuals. According to enamel strontium isotope ratios, at least 31% of the individuals died at a location other than their birthplace and/or had moved during childhood. Based on the peculiar 87Sr/86Sr ratio distribution between females, males, and subadults in comparison to local vegetation and soil samples, we propose a three-phase model of group movement. An initial patrilocal group with narrower male but wider female Sr isotope distribution settled at Szólád, whilst the majority of subadults represented in the cemetery yielded a distinct Sr isotope signature. Owing to the virtual absence of Szólád-born adults in the cemetery, we may conclude that the settlement was abandoned after approx. one generation. Population heterogeneity is furthermore supported by the carbon and nitrogen isotope data. They indicate that a group of high-ranking men had access to larger shares of animal-derived food whilst a few individuals consumed remarkable amounts of millet. The inferred dynamics of the burial community are in agreement with hypotheses of a highly mobile lifestyle during the Migration Period and a short-term occupation of Pannonia by Lombard settlers as conveyed by written sources.
... Individuals from the caves of the Cracow Upland were further compared to contemporary Central European animals of known dietary preferences (Hakenbeck et al., 2010;Halffman and Velemínský, 2015;Plecerová et al., 2020) and human populations of Central Europe dated to the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period and the Early Middle Ages (Hakenbeck et al., 2010;Reitsema and Kozłowski, 2013;Knipper et al., 2013;Halffman and Velemínský, 2015;Plecerová et al., 2020). ...
... Comparison between human populations living in Central Europe during the Roman and Migration Periods and the Early Middle Ages. . Source:Hakenbeck et al., 2010;Reitsema and Kozłowski, 2013;Knipper et al., 2013 ...
Although caves have been used for funerary purposes almost since the dawn of time, there is very little evidence of such use in Central European Barbaricum. This paper presents newly obtained results from the Cracow Upland (southern Poland) concerning multiple skeletal remains that apparently share a similar third-fifth centuries AD chronology, corresponding to the Late Roman and Early Migration Periods. Multiple analyses have been performed to supplement archaeological data, including radiocarbon dating, osteoarchaeological analysis, ancient DNA research and isotopic analysis. The complex picture points towards unusual burial practices, which generally spanned from the third to the fifth centuries AD and involved a broad demographic, with no indication of selection based on an individual's biological profile. Isotopic analysis has also indicated the individuals' heterogeneity with regard to diet and local versus nonlocal origin. The results point towards the previously unrecognized unique role of caves in the Przeworsk culture, then present in southern Poland.
... In general, it is inferred that chickens feed largely on the remains of human food, since their isotopic signals are at a higher trophic level than herbivores, which are midway between domestic ungulates and humans, if not entirely similar to those of humans. This is the case, for instance, in Byzantine levels of Sagalassos in southwestern Turkey (Fuller et al. 2012); in Early medieval cemeteries of Saxony-Anhalt in Central Germany (Knipper et al. 2012); and in the Merovingian cemetery of Norroy-le Veneur, France (Vytlačil et al. 2018). ...
... With the expansion of millet cultivation, its isotopic signature has been appearing westward in both humans and their domestic animals since ancient times, but always sporadically and with a limited to appreciable contribution. This is the case, for example, of Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Pearson et al. 2015); Bronze Age Northern Italy (Tafuri et al. 2009); Late Roman to early medieval Bavaria (Hakenberg et al. 2010); Early Byzantine Sagalassos, Turkey (Fuller et al. 2012); early Middle Ages of Central Germany (Knipper et al. 2012); and late Middle Ages of North-Central Poland (Reitsema et al. 2013). In these studies, isotopic carbon values suggest that millet was not an important component of ...
In an attempt to have a glimpse at the past trophic relationships of human-dependent animals, particularly those that were able to receive or find food of different origins, we applied bone collagen stable isotope analysis (SIA) to domestic dogs, chickens and several other domestic and wild animals that were sampled from eight sites in Ukraine, Eastern Europe, and were chronologically ranging from Classical antiquity to the Middle Ages. The results show a variety of diets in chickens and dogs from different sites, but those specimens that were cohabiting mostly share similar isotope signatures, indicating the lack of obvious differential feeding and suggesting the consumption of human food waste. This implies their relatively free-ranging status rather than penning and feeding on specifically prepared food.
... Ces données démographiques sont en adéquation avec la synthèse réalisée par J. Oexle29 sur les dépôts d'équidés en Europe pour la période mérovingienne (450 à 700 Knipper et al. 2012) leur aspect ostentatoire32. L'Alsace n'est qu'assez peu concernée par ces découvertes, d'autant que l'examen critique de son corpus d'équidés montre des incertitudes chronologiques qui nécessitent de différencier ce qui relève de datations fiables de ce qui provient de découvertes anciennes aux datations plus aléatoires33. ...
... Rodière et al. 1996. Hakenbeck et al. 2010et Knipper et al. 2012. Drucker et al. 2008. ...
... Th e scientifi c investigation follows an integrated interdisciplinary research agenda including archaeological fi eldwork, geoinformatic modelling and the application of geo-and bioarchaeological methods. Among the latter, stable isotope analyses of human and faunal teeth and bones have great explanatory value regarding the reconstruction of mobility patterns and dietary compositions (Ambrose, 1993;Knipper et al., 2013;Shishlina et al., 2014). In combination with modern physical anthropology, strontium ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) and carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses (δ 13 C, δ 15 N) add considerably to our understanding of subsistence, lifestyle and mobility practices in the environmentally highly diverse areas of the Caucasus. ...
... Th e preparation of the collagen samples followed Oelze et al. (2011) and Knipper et al. (2013) with omission of the ultrafi ltration step. It involved the thorough removal of bone surfaces with dental cutting and milling devices, demineralisation in 0.5 M HCl at 4°C for ca. ...
... Th e scientifi c investigation follows an integrated interdisciplinary research agenda including archaeological fi eldwork, geoinformatic modelling and the application of geo-and bioarchaeological methods. Among the latter, stable isotope analyses of human and faunal teeth and bones have great explanatory value regarding the reconstruction of mobility patterns and dietary compositions (Ambrose, 1993;Knipper et al., 2013;Shishlina et al., 2014). In combination with modern physical anthropology, strontium ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) and carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses (δ 13 C, δ 15 N) add considerably to our understanding of subsistence, lifestyle and mobility practices in the environmentally highly diverse areas of the Caucasus. ...
... Th e preparation of the collagen samples followed Oelze et al. (2011) and Knipper et al. (2013) with omission of the ultrafi ltration step. It involved the thorough removal of bone surfaces with dental cutting and milling devices, demineralisation in 0.5 M HCl at 4°C for ca. ...
The flanks of the Caucasus Mountains and the steppe landscape to their north offered highly productive grasslands for Bronze Age herders and their flocks of sheep, goat, and cattle. While the archaeological evidence points to a largely pastoral lifestyle, knowledge regarding the general composition of human diets and their variation across landscapes and during the different phases of the Bronze Age is still restricted. Human and animal skeletal remains from the burial mounds that dominate the archaeological landscape and their stable isotope compositions are major sources of dietary information. Here, we present stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data of bone collagen of 105 human and 50 animal individuals from the 5th millennium BC to the Sarmatian period, with a strong focus on the Bronze Age and its cultural units including Maykop, Yamnaya, Novotitorovskaya, North Caucasian, Catacomb, post-Catacomb and late Bronze Age groups. The samples comprise all inhumations with sufficient bone preservation from five burial mound sites and a flat grave cemetery as well as subsamples from three further sites. They represent the Caucasus Mountains in the south, the piedmont zone and Kuban steppe with humid steppe and forest vegetation to its north, and more arid regions in the Caspian steppe. The stable isotope compositions of the bone collagen of humans and animals varied across the study area and reflect regional diversity in environmental conditions and diets. The data agree with meat, milk, and/or dairy products from domesticated herbivores, especially from sheep and goats having contributed substantially to human diets, as it is common for a largely pastoral economy. This observation is also in correspondence with the faunal remains observed in the graves and offerings of animals in the mound shells. In addition, foodstuffs with elevated carbon and nitrogen isotope values, such as meat of unweaned animals, fish, or plants, also contributed to human diets, especially among communities living in the more arid landscapes. The regional distinction of the animal and human data with few outliers points to mobility radii that were largely concentrated within the environmental zones in which the respective sites are located. In general, dietary variation among the cultural entities as well as regarding age, sex and archaeologically indicated social status is only weakly reflected. There is, however, some indication for a dietary shift during the Early Bronze Age Maykop period.
... The shift from former centralised Roman administrative structures to fragmented dwellings in the transition period of the late 5th century also reflects a shift in production-and dietary-communities (Bakels, 2005;Knipper et al., 2013). Small-scale human spheres are represented by small-scale housing patterns with local food-production of a continuous population. ...
... But how do we model mobility, and what proxies can we use to make this mobility visible? Fur holt 2018;Knipper et al. 2013;Schweissing and Gr upe 2000). ...
Landscape and nature are considered a methodological dichotomy. However, this
approach includes an anthropocentric conception of the world, which has developed
from the emic perspective of the acting human being within his cultural landscapes. In
this approach, nature is attributed a meaning – what inevitably contradicts itself. But
how can such semantic categories be identified and how are landscapes assembled
from different spatial and temporal components? In this work, the concept of landscape
affordances developed by James J. Gibson in the late 1970’s is combined with the
interdisciplinary approach of geoarchaeology to analyse and interpret human activity
patterns in different chronological periods. Comprehensive environmental landscape
analyses from two study areas of the Ostalb (Lauchheim) and the Upper Rhine region
are presented, which are linked to archaeological distribution patterns, chronological
phases, and sociocultural developments. The temporal focus lies on the Roman
Empire and the Early Middle Ages and covers the first 700 years AD. The aim of this
work is to link GIS-supported spatial analyses of past landscape dynamics with current
issues of population development in pre-modern societies, their landscape perception,
and transformation.
... Species consuming kitchen waste like dogs and chickens (NOE-Nygaard, 1988;Eriksson and Zagorska, 2003;Ncobela and Chimonyo, 2016) showed the highest δ 13 C (-19.2‰) and δ 15 N (8.6‰). For the Migration Period and Early Middle Ages in Central Europe, the values observed for dogs and chickens are usually within the variation of human values (Hakenbeck et al., 2010;Knipper et al., 2013). In this case, however, these values are lower than the human data. ...
... The sample variation in δ 15 N was 3.5‰, with Δ 15 N human-fauna ranging from 1.7‰ to 5.2‰. On other Migration Period sites, the mean Δ 15 N human-fauna ranges from 2.7‰ to 4.3‰ (McGlynn, 2007;Hakenbeck et al., 2010;Knipper et al., 2013;Alt et al., 2014); the nitrogen isotopic values of the Kyjov population thus fall well into this range. At the Lombard site of Szólád in Hungary, however, the width of the interval of δ 15 N values was 5.6‰, and individuals with the highest values differed from domesticated animals by 8.1‰, Table 3 The impact of biological and socio-economic factors on the Kyjov human isotopic values: mean, SD, median of carbon (δ 13 C) and nitrogen (δ 15 N) isotopic values; the results of t-tests (p-values) for the adults and the results of the stratified Wilcoxon test (p-values) for intra-population differences. ...
The diet of the Lombard (Langobard) population of the Kyjov site (5th-6th centuries AD, Moravia, Czech
Republic) was reconstructed from carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopic values in the bone collagen from 73
human and 19 faunal samples. Results indicate that the diet of the Lombard population sample was based on C3
plants and animal proteins. The presence of three outliers with δ13C values above−18‰, however, suggests that
millet was accessible and consumed by at least some members of the community in substantial quantities. Given
the dating and exogenous character of the grave goods, these individuals are most probably members of the
indigenous population of Moravia who grew millet before the arrival of the Lombards. The Lombard population
shows a sex-based difference in the consumption of animal protein, with males on average showing higher values
of δ15N than females. These findings match well with the (limited) prior isotopic research into the Central
European phase of the Lombard migration. This study thus significantly enhances our knowledge about general
trends in the dietary behaviour of Central European Lombards.
... According to Robin Fleming, this hypothesis is almost certainly wrong (Fleming, 2016). Corina Knipper et al. showed that the Strontium isotope ratios as well as the plotted Carbon and Nitrogen samples of the two female individuals with deformed skulls of Obermöllern, Germany (graves 5 and 6) fall into the local range (Knipper et al., 2013). Matthew Schweissing and Gisela Grupe could also not verify a possible foreign origin for five out of six individuals with skull modifications from Bavaria (Schweissing and Gruppe, 2000). ...
... The shift from former centralised Roman administrative structures to fragmented dwellings in the transition period of the late 5th century also reflects a shift in production-and dietary-communities (Bakels, 2005;Knipper et al., 2013). Small-scale human spheres are represented by small-scale housing patterns with local food-production of a continuous population. ...
... Pokud jsou konzumovány C4 rostliny -tedy v našich podmínkách proso -nebo zvířata jimi krmená, dochází k nárůstu hodnot uhlíku, přičemž hodnoty dusíku zůstávají nízké (Kaupová a kol. 2018;Knipper et al. 2013;Reitsema et al. 2017;Teschler-Nicola et al. 2015). Jiným případem by byli jedinci a populace, u nichž jsou podstatnou složkou jídelníčku sladkovodní ryby; ty se projevují zvýšením hodnot dusíku při současně nízkých hodnotách uhlíku (Katzenberg-Weber 1999). ...
... V kontextu raně středověké střední Evropy byla izotopová analýza výživy opakovaně použita zejména ke studiu dopadu změn souvisejících s nárůstem sociální komplexity společnosti na potravní chování jednotlivých skupin populace (Kaupová a kol. 2018;Knipper et al. 2013;Reitsema et al. 2017). Opakovaně tak byl prokázán rozdílný přístup jednotlivých socioekonomických skupin raně středověkých populací (definovaných na základě místa pohřbu či jednotlivých vlastností pohřebního ritu) k potravním zdrojům zejména živočišného původu. ...
An early medieval burial site investigated in 2012 in Prague-Strešovice provided anthropological material from the skeletal remains of nineteen adults, with anthropological determination of sex in order to study the composition of their diet by means of the analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the bones. It is a representative series as it contains 65.5 % of all adults buried on the site. The isotope values of carbon and nitrogen point towards terrestrial diet, without a substantial proportion of fish and with a relatively high proportion of millet. Although grave goods clearly show differences in wealth, the low variability of the isotopic values (especially carbon) suggests a homogenous diet of the whole population group, which is specific for this sample. Isotopic values acquired from a location situated in a close distance to Prague Castle were compared with those from burial sites within the castle complex and with those in its hinterland. The comparison of the values points towards a socioeconomic gradient in the diet in comparison with the Prague Castle population. In contrast to other series from the hinterlands of Premyslid centres, Strešovice shows above-average diet quality.
... Stable and radiogenic isotope analysis of teeth and bone has become an established method in historical and archaeological studies to document changes in diet, mobility, residency patterns and exploitation strategies (Fontanals-Coll et al., 2016;Knipper et al., 2013;Saragoça et al., 2016;Al-Shorman and El-Khouri, 2011). This is all due to the principle that ingested food and water leave a chemical 'fingerprint' in body tissues that reflect different components of the diet and the biogeochemical environment in which they are formed (Ambrose, 1993;Bentley, 2006). ...
... Collagen was extracted from the bone samples for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis following protocols established by Longin (1971) with some modifications (Britton et al., 2008;Knipper et al., 2013). ...
Perdigões is located in the Alentejo region of southeastern Portugal, with occupational phases dating from the Late Middle Neolithic to Late Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age (middle 4th and 3rd millennium BCE) periods. It is a complex site that can be considered as a centre of social aggregation and a part of a larger settlement network. In this study, the nature of animal subsistence patterns as well as husbandry management practices and mobility are examined using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic values from bone collagen of 35 archaeological faunal samples (Canis familiaris, Bos taurus, Bos primigenius, Sus sp., Ovis/Capra, Cervus elaphus, O. cuniculus, Equus sp.) and strontium isotope (87 Sr/ 86 Sr) analysis of 23 enamel samples. To provide necessary biological 87 Sr/ 86 Sr baseline data, the strontium isotopic composition of 14 modern plant samples were measured. The stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data shows that animals subsisted on a selection of C 3 terrestrial resources, with subtle differences in animal husbandry practices in domesticated animals, while strontium isotope analysis shows that < 5% of analysed fauna is consistent with the local bioavailable strontium isotopic range. Other animals can be divided into two clusters-those having strontium isotope values either lower or higher than the bioavailable range, showing that most of the fauna browsed and grazed within 10 km of the site's surrounding landscape, which is not such an unusual practice during prehistoric times.
... Th e scientifi c investigation follows an integrated interdisciplinary research agenda including archaeolog- ical fi eldwork, geoinformatic modelling and the appli- cation of geo-and bioarchaeological methods. Among the latter, stable isotope analyses of human and faunal teeth and bones have great explanatory value regard- ing the reconstruction of mobility patterns and dietary compositions (Ambrose, 1993;Knipper et al., 2013;Shishlina et al., 2014). In combi- nation with modern physical anthropology, strontium ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) and carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses (δ 13 C, δ 15 N) add considerably to our understanding of subsistence, lifestyle and mobility practices in the envi- ronmentally highly diverse areas of the Caucasus. ...
... Th e preparation of the collagen samples followed Oelze et al. (2011) and Knipper et al. (2013) with omission of the ultrafi ltration step. It involved the thorough removal of bone surfaces with dental cutting and milling devices, demineralisation in 0.5 M HCl at 4°C for ca. ...
... The obtained value falls under the range of C 4 type of dietary pattern, indicating possibility of exploitation of C 4 type of plants. (Ambrose 1990;Knipper et al. 2013;Macko et al. 1999;Touzeau et al. 2014) (Table S2). Consequently, δ 13 C TOC value of human enamel suggests possible C 4 type of food consumption of Sinaulians during the second millennium BC. ...
For the first time in the Indian subcontinent, a series of royal burials with chariots have been recovered from the Chalcolithic period at the archaeological site Sinauli (29°8′28″N; 77°13′1″E), Baghpat district, western Uttar Pradesh, India. Eight burials were excavated from the site; among them a royal burial with copper decorated legged coffin (lid with a series of anthropomorphic figures) and headgear has also been recovered. Among these remarkable discoveries, three full-sized chariots made of wood and copper, and a sword with a wooden hilt, made this site unique at historical ground. These cultural findings signify that the ancients from this place were involved in warfare. All these recovered exclusive antiquities also proved the sophistication and the high degree of craftsmanship of the artisans. According to the ¹⁴ C radiocarbon dating and recovered material culture, the site date back to 4000 yr BP (∼2000 BCE) and is thought to belong to Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP)/Copper Hoard culture. This culture was believed to develop in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and was contemporary to the late phase of the Indus civilization. Altogether, the findings indicate that the time period of this culture is plausibly contemporary to Late Indus, Mesopotamian and Greece civilizations.
... Isotopic approaches to animal diet in the Roman and early medieval periods, however, are still very rare (an exception is, for example, Sirignano et al. 2014), and many works deal with animal diet only secondarily, when using them as baselines to investigate human diet (e.g. Knipper et al. 2013;Iacumin et al. 2014;López-Costas and Müldner 2016;Lubritto et al. 2017;García-Collado 2020). Only few works have focused on carbon and nitrogen data from animals of the Roman period (e.g. ...
Zooarchaeological research all over Europe has suggested a generalised pattern of livestock size decrease during the transition between the Roman times and the Early Middle Ages. Different reasons have been proposed to explain this pattern, including a change in management and feeding practices, in the context of a shift of animal husbandry from large to small scale production. This paper is based on faunal material from Roman and early medieval Augusta Raurica, north-western Switzerland, and provides a first attempt to test this hypothesis, by combining zooarchaeological information (taxonomic frequencies and biometrical analysis) and stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data from bone collagen of cattle and pig. The results suggest important changes in livestock management, such as a shift towards pig husbandry, and evidence for increased use of pannage and forest pastures has been found.
... This fits isotopic ranges for this taxon previously reported by other studies and interpreted based on environmental (cfr. Canopy effect- [129][130][131][132] and/or metabolic factors (e.g., [133]). ...
Animal remains are a common find in prehistoric and protohistoric funerary contexts. While taphonomic and osteological data provide insights about the proximate (depositional) factors responsible for these findings, the ultimate cultural causes leading to this observed mortuary behavior are obscured by the opacity of the archaeological record and the lack of written sources. Here, we apply an interdisciplinary suite of analytical approaches (zooarchaeological, anthropological, archaeological, paleogenetic, and isotopic) to explore the funerary deposition of animal remains and the nature of joint human-animal burials at Seminario Vescovile (Verona, Northern Italy 3rd-1st c. BCE). This context, culturally attributed to the Cenomane culture, features 161 inhumations, of which only 16 included animal remains in the form of full skeletons, isolated skeletal parts, or food offerings. Of these, four are of particular interest as they contain either horses (Equus caballus) or dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)–animals that did not play a dietary role. Analyses show no demographic, dietary, funerary similarities, or genetic relatedness between individuals buried with animals. Isotopic data from two analyzed dogs suggest differing management strategies for these animals, possibly linked to economic and/or ritual factors. Overall, our results point to the unsuitability of simple, straightforward explanations for the observed funerary variability. At the same time, they connect the evidence from Seminario Vescovile with documented Transalpine cultural traditions possibly influenced by local and Roman customs.
... In Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages millet was not unknown in Central Europe [132][133][134], but its cultivation was rather uncommon [121,130,135,136]. Also according to isotope studies, C4 plants are known to comprise only an insignificant part of the human diet in Early Medieval Central Europa [22,137], but was commonly consumed in Southern and Eastern Europe [e.g., [138][139][140][141][142][143], as well as in Northern Central Asia at the time [e.g., 144]. ...
During the transition from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages, the Roman Empire dissolved in the West and medieval empires were founded. There has been much discussion about the role that migration played in this transition. This is especially true for the formation of the Baiuvariian tribe and the founding of this tribal dukedom, which took place from the 5th to the 6th century in what is now Southern Bavaria (Germany). In this study, we aimed to determine the extent of immigration during the beginning of this transformation and to shed further light on its character. To achieve this goal, we analyzed stable isotope values of strontium, carbon, and nitrogen from the teeth and bones of over 150 human remains from Southern Germany, dating from around 500 AD. This group of individuals included women with cranial modifications (ACD) which can be found sporadically in the burial grounds of this period. Our results showed an above-average migration rate for both men and women in the second half of the 5th century. They also indicate that a foreign background may also be assumed for the women with ACD. The demonstrably different origins of the immigrants from isotopically diverse regions, and the identification of local differences in detectable migration rate, as well as indication for different timing of residential changes, highlight the complexity of immigration processes and the need for more studies at the regional level.
... An encounter narrated by Priscus of Panium, the only written source that provides an eyewitness account of relations between Huns and Romans, aptly illustrates how identity can be mediated through social and economic conformity. While waiting for an audience at the court of Attila, Priscus meets a well-dressed Greek-speaker in Scythian (i.e., Hunnic) Knipper et al. 2013;Privat et al. 2002;Schutkowski et al. 1999. clothing. ...
The Hunnic incursions into eastern and central Europe in the 4th and 5th c. CE have historically been considered one of the key factors in bringing the Roman Empire to an end. However, both the origins of the Huns and their impact on the late Roman provinces remain poorly understood. Here we provide a new, combined assessment of the archaeological, historical, and environmental evidence. Hunnic raids and warfare within the Roman provinces are most intensely attested for the first half of the 5th c. We propose that severe drought spells in the 430s to 450s CE disrupted the economic organization of the incomers and local provincial populations, requiring both to adopt strategies to buffer against economic challenges. We argue that the Huns’ apparently inexplicable violence may have been one strategy for coping with climatic extremes within a wider context of the social and economic changes that occurred at the time.
... In applied ecology, human beings are quickly equated with 'disturbing' or 'external factors', but human beings and their cultural capacity are not only subject to anthropological, biological, and human ecological, but also archaeological research (Winiwarter 2002, 197). But how do we model mobility, and what proxies can we use to make this mobility visible (Furholt 2018;Knipper et al. 2013;Schweissing/ Grupe 2000)? Migration and mobility are fi nally dependent on the correct scale and the formative equation of 'peoples' and distinct regions of potential origin. ...
Landscapes bear traces of the use of resources over long periods. These reflect not
only ways of using, shaping, organising, controlling and exchanging resources, but
also knowledge, perceptions, motivations for actions and related social dynamics.
Resources can be material as well as immaterial and constitute the basis for the
development and decline of societies. They are usually not exploited in isolation,
but as parts of complexes whose specific constellation in time and space can be best
described as assemblages.
This topic was the subject of the session ‘Human-Made Environments: The
Development of Landscapes as Resource Assemblages’ held at the 24th Annual Meeting
of the European Association of Archaeologists (Barcelona, 5–8 September 2018) and
forms the basis of this volume. The general purpose is a debate on new concepts
of the interrelation of social dynamics and resource use and a discussion of case
studies in which landscapes were shaped to facilitate the utilisation of resources. The
identification of what has been considered to be a resource is discussed as well as the
means through which the corresponding landscapes were transformed and the results
of these transformations. This implies not only material, but also spiritual aspects
linked to the exploitation of resources. Since ResourceAssemblages are products of
historical evolution and mutual relations the mechanisms of these processes are of
great significance. Supreme aspects comprise the detection of a conscious human
formation of landscapes in order to suit the exploitation of resources, the connected
social practices as well as socio-cultural dynamics linked to the use of resources
... In applied ecology, human beings are quickly equated with 'disturbing' or 'external factors', but human beings and their cultural capacity are not only subject to anthropological, biological, and human ecological, but also archaeological research (Winiwarter 2002, 197). But how do we model mobility, and what proxies can we use to make this mobility visible (Furholt 2018;Knipper et al. 2013; Schweissing/ Grupe 2000)? Migration and mobility are fi nally dependent on the correct scale and the formative equation of 'peoples' and distinct regions of potential origin. ...
This paper is based on a talk given at the EAA in Barcelona back in 2018.
... Most of the isotope data, however, come from the Neolithic period (Grupe et al., 1997;Price et al., 2001Price et al., , 2002Bentley et al., 2002;Nehlich et al., 2009;Oelze et al., 2011;Ash et al., 2016), and many of these studies focus on migration. The paleodietary studies that do focus on the Middle Ages in Europe mostly deal with the Early Middle Ages (Schutkowski et al., 1999;Czermak et al., 2006;Strott et al., 2007;Hakenbeck et al., 2010;Knipper et al., 2013;Varano et al., 2020); few focus on the High to Late Middle Ages (Grupe et al., 2009;Olsen, 2013). ...
The precise time, the original location, and the processes involved in the creation of Germany’s capital Berlin are still unknown due to a lack of surviving documents. As such, archaeology and bioarchaeology play a critical role in understanding the people who lived in medieval Berlin. In this paper, we describe an isotope analysis aimed at identifying what the early inhabitants of Berlin were eating and at inferring dietary variation among skeletons sexed as male versus female, and among those interred before and after the Yersinia pestis pandemic known as the Black Death (1347–1352 CE). Carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotope ratios from 66 skeletons from the medieval cemetery site of Petriplatz indicate that males consumed proportionately more protein than females before the Black Death. However, a significant increase in δ¹⁵N values in skeletons associated with post-Black Death contexts suggests an increased consumption of animal protein for both males and females. This study is the first dietary isotopic analysis to be conducted on the skeletons at Petriplatz and is only the second paleodietary isotopic reconstruction of the High Middle Ages in Germany. Consequently, this study provides key insights into the cultural responses to the ecology of the Black Death by the people of Berlin within the broader context of medieval Germany and medieval Europe.
... Collagen was extracted using a modification of the method originally developed by Longin (1971) (Britton et al., 2008;Knipper et al., 2013;Salesse et al., 2014;Saragoça et al., 2016). In brief, around 0.5 g of human and faunal bone samples were collected and cleaned with a Dremel Rotary Tool. ...
The aim of this study is to examine the diet, using bone stable isotope analysis (δ13C and δ15N), of a Late Roman population (4th–7th centuries CE) from the Roman villa of Mondragones (Granada, Spain). This archaeological site presents an exceptionally high number (n = 121) of well-preserved skeletal remains (adults and non-adults), giving the opportunity to study for the first time the nutritional and health conditions of a Late Roman population by the analysis of stable isotopes and pathologies in the context of the south-eastern Iberian Peninsula. Stable isotopes ratios of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) were analysed in 46 individuals (21 adults and 25 non-adults) as well as in 7 faunal samples (2 cows/ox, 2 goats/sheep, and 3 large mammals). Frequencies of cariogenic lesions, dental calculus, dental enamel hypoplasia, porotic hyperostosis, and cribra orbitalia were also explored. The anthropological study revealed a high presence of dental caries and calculus in adults, which are related to a diet rich in starch and carbohydrates, and non-specific stress markers in non-adults, probably pointing to the weaning process or childhood diseases. Collagen isotope ratios suggested that the population of Mondragones had a diet rich in C3 plants, with some meat intake from terrestrial herbivores. There were significant differences between non-adults and adults, but no differences were detected by sex. The youngest non-adults (aged 1 year ± 4 months) showed the δ15N mean value almost 4‰ above the adult female one, which could reflect the breastfeeding period.
... A comparison at the regional (Central European) level brings the same conclusion (e.g. Hakenbeck et al. 2010;Reitsema, Kozłowski, and Makowiecki 2013;Knipper et al. 2013). In terms of the intensity of vegetation shading, the majority of the δ 13 C values point to pig grazing in the undergrowth of an open habitat, not in a closed canopy environment (Drucker et al. 2008;Kohn 2010). ...
The archaeozoological analysis sets point to the vital role of pigs in the subsistence economy of Early Medieval Mikulčice, an important Great Moravian centre (Czech Republic). The results of slaughtering distribution analyses indicate that pigs were a meat source for a consumer population. Analyses of stable isotopes of nitrogen and carbon suggest that the demand for pork was predominantly met by animals raised by extensive husbandry. . In addition to extensive breeding, small-scale household rearing was also documented. The assumed length of the fattening period represented a more important factor for δ¹⁵N values. It has been determined that pigs that were slaughtered at the latest after two years consumed protein-richer fodder when the roots of their third molars were formed. By contrast, the collagen of pigs that were expected from the outset to be used for long-term breeding shows lower values of the isotope in question. It has also been corroborated that the root dentine collagen of domestic pigs from the bailey has slightly higher average δ¹⁵N values compared to the collagen of pigs from the acropolis. Such a difference may be explained by different husbandry management techniques having been applied within a single settlement.
... Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis. Sample preparation for carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis followed previously published protocols 69 with omission of the ultrafiltration step. Compact bone samples were cut, the surfaces removed, and demineralised in 10 ml of 0.5 N HCl at initially 4°C and later at room temperature for 14 days, rinsed to neutrality and reacted with 10 ml of 0.1 M NaOH for 24 h at 4°C, rinsed again to neutrality and gelatinised in 4 ml of acidified H 2 O (pH 2-3) for 48 h at 75°C. ...
The later phase of the Central European Early Neolithic witnessed a rise in collective lethal violence to a level undocumented up to this date. This is evidenced by repeated massacres of settled communities of the Linearbandkeramik (ca. 5600-4900 cal BC), the first full farming culture in this area. Skeletal remains of several dozen victims of this prehistoric warfare are known from different sites in Germany and Austria. Here we show that the mass grave of Halberstadt, Germany, a new mass fatality site from the same period, reveals further and so far unknown facets of Early Neolithic collective lethal violence. A highly selected, almost exclusively adult male and non-local population sample was killed by targeted blows to the back of the head, indicating a practice of systematic execution under largely controlled conditions followed by careless disposal of the bodies. This discovery significantly increases current knowledge about warfare-related violent behaviour in Early Neolithic Central Europe.
... For carbon isotope analysis, collagen extraction followed established methods [50], with modifications [51] and omission of the ultrafiltration step [52,53]. Chunks of bone were cut and subsamples were taken from a clean surface using a dental drill. ...
Reconstructing stock herding strategies and land use is key to comprehending past human social organization and economy. We present laser-ablation strontium and carbon isotope data from 25 cattle (Bos taurus) to reconstruct mobility and infer herding management at the Swiss lakeside settlement of Arbon Bleiche 3, occupied for only 15 years (3384–3370 BC). Our results reveal three distinct isotopic patterns that likely reflect different herding strategies: 1) localized cattle herding, 2) seasonal movement, and 3) herding away from the site year-round. Different strategies of herding are not uniformly represented in various areas of the settlement, which indicates specialist modes of cattle management. The pressure on local fodder capacities and the need for alternative herding regimes must have involved diverse access to grazing resources. Consequently, the increasing importance of cattle in the local landscape was likely to have contributed to the progress of socio-economic differentiation in early agricultural societies in Europe.
... The animal samples are from this study unless otherwise specified. For chickens, the samples marked "Germany" are from Hakenbeck, McManus, Geisler, Grupe, and O'Connell (2010) and Knipper et al. (2013). Other sources of data are Denmark (Jørkov, 2007), Birka (Linderholm, Jonson, Svensk, & Lid en, 2008), and Haithabu (Doppler et al., 2010 performed. ...
Objectives:
The diet and subsistence in Iron-Age ?land is debated as earlier studies and different archaeological sources seemingly provide conflicting interpretations. The objectives of this study are therefore to: (i) add new insights on diet and (ii) investigate the chronological variation in detail. It is common in studies of diet to investigate differences between datasets defined by archaeological periods (determined by artefact typology), but it is rare to explore whether these dietary changes are, in fact, well correlated with these temporal categories or not.
Materials and methods:
Stable isotope analysis of 108 individuals and 25 animals was used to interpret diet in comparison with data from earlier studies. Different values of TLE (Trophic Level Effect) for ?(15) N were compared for interpretations of diet. Of the 108 individuals, 42 were subjected to (14) C analysis in this study.
Results:
The isotopes from Iron-Age animals on ?land indicate that the local, contemporary ecology is specific. The human isotope values show chronological development both when pooled in chronological groups by typology and by more specific (14) C chronology.
Discussion:
The new samples of animals as well as the use of 5? TLE for ?(15) N values results in the diet reinterpreted as mainly domesticate-based, with at least two shifts in diet occurring in the Iron Age. The use of (14) C dates in connection with the stable isotope results indicates a dietary transition occurring between 200 BC and AD 200, a date range that spans two typologically determined time periods.
... The mean δ 15 N col of the sampled individuals is +9.9‰, while the mean δ 15 N col for terrestrial herbivores is +5.7‰. The herbivore mean is consistent with other medieval German samples that have δ 15 N col ranging from +5.2 to +7. 4‰ (Strott et al. 2007;Doppler et al. 2010;von Heyking 2012;Knipper et al. 2013;Olsen 2013). If the Dalheim population had subsisted primarily on C 3 plants, the average nitrogen-isotope composition would resemble that of terrestrial herbivores (e.g., cows or sheep). ...
This study investigates the diet of an eleventh century CE parish community located in northwestern Germany. We assessed the isotopic compositions of human (n = 24) and faunal (n = 17) bone collagen (δ13Ccol, δ15Ncol) and human structural carbonate (δ13Csc) using skeletal material recovered from the Dalheim cemetery. Traditional interpretation of the isotopic data indicates that Dalheim residents likely relied on a C3 plant-based diet and consumed some terrestrial animal products without evidence of marine resource input in the diet. Bivariate and multivariate models used as an additional means to assess diet indicate minor consumption of C4 plant foods in this community. The multivariate-isotope model identified regional similarities and differences in C4 plant/marine food consumption and in dietary protein sources by comparing data from Dalheim with those of other medieval sites from the published literature. We did not observe sex differences in this population but differences in δ15Ncol suggest that juveniles consumed the lowest trophic level protein.
... There is a δ 13 C offset of~2 ‰ between humans and herbivores and the omnivore pig. Similar enrichment in 13 C was observed by Knipper et al. (2013) among fifth and sixth century individuals from Central Germany and interpreted as resulting from the consumption of cereal grains having higher δ 13 C values (−22.2 ± 1.1 ‰ for wheat) over forage (−23.0 ± 1.1 ‰ for barley) consumed by domestic animals (e.g., Lightfoot and Stevens 2012;Merah et al. 2002). However, the high human δ 15 N coll values observed in this study suggest larger protein contributions from animal sources. ...
This study investigated human diets during the nineteenth and twentieth century in Copenhagen through stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen according to sex, age, socio-economic status, and period (of death). Stable isotope analysis was conducted on bone collagen (n = 114) and hair keratin (n = 21) recovered from indi- viduals buried at the Assistens Cemetery. Animal samples (n = 40) from eighteenth and nineteenth century deposits in Copenhagen were also analyzed. Significant differences in collagen δ13C signals were found between males and females, while the differences in collagen δ15N values were not significant. When analyzed temporally, the male–female difference in δ13C values is significant dur- ing the twentieth century, but not during the nineteenth century. Significant differences were found in collagen δ15N values between males of different socio-economic status, while female diets showed no wealth dependence. Diet was not correlated with age; however, bone–hair analysis indicated change in nutritional intake or change in health status months prior to death. For some individ- uals, this may have been associated with disease and/or ill health. The impact of manuring in elevating baseline δ15N values was not detected. Overall isotopic results indicate a diet rich in protein from brackish fish and ter- restrial C3-based animal products with a larger dietary
diversity among males during the twentieth century. Male diet may have been more affected by economical means than female diet.
... Collagen was extracted using the method of Longin (1971) with some modification (Britton et al., 2008;Knipper et al., 2012;Salesse et al., 2014). Between 300 and 500 mg of bone sample was demineralized in 10 ml 0.5 M HCl at 4°C for approximately 14 days, with regular vortex and an acid change after one week. ...
... Collagen preparation for carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis followed the procedure described in Knipper et al. (2014Knipper et al. ( , 2013. The workflow included surface removal, demineralization using 0.5 N HCl, neutralization, gelatinization, separation of the insoluble portion using Ezee-Filter TM separators (Elkay), concentration of the >30 kDa fraction with precleaned AmiconV C ultrafilters (Millipore), and freeze drying of the resulting collagen. ...
Objectives: Inhumations in so-called settlement pits and multiple interments are subordinate burial practices of the Early Bronze Age Unetice culture in central Germany (2200–1700/1650 BC). The majority of the Unetice population was entombed as single inhumations in rectangular grave pits with a normative position of the body. The goal of the study was to test archaeological hypotheses that the deviant burials may represent socially distinct or nonlocal individuals.
Materials and Methods: The study comprised up to two teeth and one bone each of 74 human individuals from
eight sites and faunal comparative samples. The inhumations included regular, deviant burials in so-called settlement or storage pits, and multiple burials. We investigated radiogenic strontium isotope compositions of tooth enamel (87Sr/86Sr) and light stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen of bone collagen (d13C, d15N) aiming at the disclosure of residential changes and dietary patterns.
Results: Site-specific strontium isotope data ranges mirror different geological properties including calcareous
bedrock, loess, and glacial till. Independent from burial types, they disclose low portions of nonlocal individuals of up to some 20% at the individual sites. The light stable isotope ratios of burials in settlement pits and rectangular graves overlap widely and indicate highly similar dietary habits.
Discussion: The analytical results let to conclude that inhumations in settlement pits and multiple burials were
two of the manifold burial practices of the Early Bronze Age. The selection criteria of the individuals for the different forms of inhumation remained undisclosed.
... For Queen Edith, histological thin sections of a femur (Doppler 2008) and the assessment of the translucency of a tooth root (Lamendin et al. 1992) extended these methods. Collagen extraction from bones for light stable isotope analysis followed (Knipper et al. 2013) and included surface removal, demineralization, neutralization, gelatinization, separation of the insoluble portion using Ezee-Filter separators, ultrafiltration (cutoff 1 30 kDa), and freeze-drying. The ultrafiltration step was omitted for the samples from Morken/ Frimmersdorf. ...
Food production provoked social inequality in agricultural societies. Starting in the European late Neolithic, conspicuously equipped inhumations with elaborate grave architecture indicated representatives of local and possibly regional elites. However, burials are always shaped by a complex combination of the desires of the deceased and of the bereaved, along with ritual customs and norms. Therefore, a superior burial may not always be preceded by long-term superior life conditions. One widely accepted characteristic of social distinction is access to different, supposedly higher-quality food, which is deducible from light stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen in bone collagen (δ13C and δ15N). Four remarkable cases of high-elite individuals from the modern territory of Germany spanning from the Early Bronze Age to Medieval times exhibited δ15N values that exceeded those of contemporaneous “commoner” populations significantly. This demonstrates outstanding dietary compositions, including larger shares of meat and dairy products but also possibly fish, poultry, and the meat of young animals. The results support enduringly different lifestyles and privileges for the representatives of the respective highest social class, despite very different prehistoric and historic contexts.
... For Queen Edith, histological thin sections of a femur (Doppler 2008) and the assessment of the translucency of a tooth root (Lamendin et al. 1992) extended these methods. Collagen extraction from bones for light stable isotope analysis followed (Knipper et al. 2013) and included surface removal, demineralization, neutralization, gelatinization, separation of the insoluble portion using Ezee-Filter separators, ultrafiltration (cutoff 1 30 kDa), and freeze-drying. The ultrafiltration step was omitted for the samples from Morken/ Frimmersdorf. ...
Food production provoked social inequality in agricultural societies. Starting in the European late Neolithic, conspicuously equipped inhumations with elaborate grave architecture indicated representatives of local and possibly regional elites. However, burials are always shaped by a complex combination of the desires of the deceased and of the bereaved, along with ritual customs and norms. Therefore, a superior burial may not
always be preceded by long-term superior life conditions. One widely accepted characteristic of social distinction is access to different, supposedly higher-quality food, which is deducible from light stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen in bone collagen (d13C and d15N). Four remarkable cases of high-elite individuals from the modern territory of Germany spanning from the Early Bronze Age to Medieval times exhibited d15N values that exceeded those of contemporaneous “commoner” populations significantly. This demonstrates outstanding dietary compositions, including larger shares of meat and dairy products but also possibly fish, poultry, and the meat of young animals. The results support enduringly different lifestyles and privileges for the representatives of the respective highest social class, despite very different prehistoric
and historic contexts.
... Analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in human and animal tissues from archaeological contexts has become an established method for the reconstruction of diet and subsistence in past human populations (Katzenberg, 2008;Lee-Thorp, 2008). Studies on dietary variation within and between populations (e.g., Le Huray and Schutkowski, 2005;Knipper et al., 2013) as well as overarching questions about diachronic change (e.g., Grupe et al., 2013;Müldner et al., 2014) have produced an increasingly fine-grained appreciation of past subsistence regimes and dietary behaviour. While this includes the Eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia and adjacent regions (e.g., Budd et al., 2013;Gregoricka and Sheridan, 2013;Pearson et al., 2013;Schutkowski and Richards, 2014), there is still little understanding of subsistence change in Mesopotamia, and sporadic attempts to address this so far were either confined or met with limited success (Batey, 2011;Hornig, 2010;Schutkowski, 2012). ...
The history of the Fertile Crescent is well documented through archaeology and epigraphy. However, contrary to adjacent regions in the Mediterranean and Middle East, the reconstruction of diet and food ways through isotope analysis is limited for Mesopotamia and, consequently, matters of subsistence change are not well understood. To address this, collagen carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios of human (N = 84) and animal (N = 8) samples from Tell Barri, Syria, predominantly ranging from the Early Bronze Age to Roman/Parthian times, were analysed to ascertain diachronic dietary patterns as well as gender- and age-related differences.
... Evidently, pigs at Ka1dus consumed foods similar to those of the larger grazing animals. A similar situation is reported for pigs from various sites in Germany leading up to the medieval period (Knipper et al., 2013). Although some of the domestic mammals reared in the early Fig. 5. Stable isotope values of carbonate from terrestrial animals. ...
The Basel-Waisenhaus burial community (Switzerland) has been traditionally interpreted as immigrated Alamans because of the location and dating of the burial
ground – despite the typical late Roman funeral practices. To evaluate this hypothesis, multi-isotope and aDNA analyses were conducted on the eleven individuals buried there. The results show that the burial ground was occupied around AD 400 by people belonging largely to one family, whereas isotope and genetic recordsmost probably point toward a regionally organized and indigenous, instead of an immigrated, community. This strengthens the recently advanced assumption that the withdrawal of the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian limes after the ‘‘Crisis of the Third Century AD’’ was not necessarily related to a replacement of the local population by immigrated Alamannic peoples, suggesting a long-lasting continuity of occupation at the Roman periphery at the Upper and High Rhine region.
The Basel-Waisenhaus burial community (Switzerland) has been traditionally interpreted as immigrated Alamans due to the location and dating of the burial ground – despite the typical late Roman funeral practices. To evaluate this hypothesis, multi-isotope and aDNA analyses were conducted on the eleven individuals buried there. The results show that the burial ground was occupied around 400 AD by people belonging largely to one family, while isotope and genetic records most probably point towards a regionally-organized and indigenous, instead of an immigrated, community. This strengthens the recently advanced assumption that the withdrawal of the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian limes after the “Crisis of the Third Century AD” was not necessarily related to a replacement of the local population by immigrated Alamannic peoples, suggesting a long-lasting continuity of occupation at the Roman periphery at the Upper and High Rhine region.
Here
we report the reconstruction of the osteobiography of an adult male buried in the Longobard cemetery of Povegliano Veronese (Northern Italy, late 6th – early 8th century CE), who shows signs of interpersonal violence. The palaeopathological investigation reveals sharp force traumas on the body of the fourth lumbar vertebra and on two right ribs. The absence of signs of healing or bone remodelling indicates that the defects were perimortem. The injuries probably affected vital organs, leading to death. Further macroscopic observations of the skeleton suggest horseback-riding activity. Strontium isotope data from tooth enamel indicate a non-local origin of the individual. X-ray and CT scan acquisition and Scanning Electron Microscopy analyses were performed to investigate the bone defects. His osteobiography was interpreted and contextualised in the complex socio-political scenario of post-classical Italy. The results document that he spent his childhood outside the Povegliano Veronese area, that during his life he was likely a horseback rider active in battle, but that his violent death did not happen during warfare/battle. This multi-layered approach, supported by archaeological information, osteological investigation, biomolecular analysis, and virtual imagery, allowed for the extensive reconstruction of an individual's life history.
The article summarises and brings together the results of isotopic studies of the population of Great Moravia, mainly of the inhabitants of the Mikulčice agglomeration, focused on the reconstruction of diet, migration, but also methods of farming in the studied area. The work interprets as yet unpublished data on the diet of individuals buried inside the Mikulčice churches (n = 10) and on the residential mobility of individuals from Mikulčice with specific grave goods (n = 33). It also presents precise quantitative models of the reconstruction of the diet of the Mikulčice population using recently published data on grains found in various parts of the Mikulčice settlement agglomeration. The final part is devoted to areas of future research.
Drawing on the papers in this volume that precede it, our discussion brings all the chapters of the long story of Alsónyék into a single narrative, discussing in more interpretive terms notions of persistent place, community, aggregation and coalescence, with an eye on different scales of analysis and the broader tempo of change. We look especially at the remarkably long persistence of Alsónyék, the intensity of its occupation and the trajectory of population increase and decline at the site.
We begin by comparing general conditions of early village emergence with the specific evidence for the development of settlement and population in Transdanubia and beyond in central Europe, before summarising date estimates for the successive periods of occupation at Alsónyék itself, from Starčevo through LBK and Sopot to the Lengyel. We emphasise the long continuity of occupation except for the gap between Starčevo and LBK, the probable overlap between LBK and Sopot, and the acceleration of growth in the Lengyel period. The exceptional persistence of place seen at Alsónyék is examined in further detail, with comparison to elsewhere leading on to discussion of the sense of place and community that may have been experienced through the Alsónyék sequence. Characterisation of the Lengyel occupation as not only a major aggregation but also a coalescent community is explored; the causes of such developments elsewhere, as seen in the historical and ethnographic record, are noted, including periods of social instability and inter-community violence. The extraordinary intensity of activity at Alsónyék is further modelled in various ways to provide estimates of population and numbers of buildings in use through the Lengyel sequence. The peak of intense activity was probably only maintained for a generation or two around 4700 cal BC, and the decline of the Lengyel site was perhaps only slightly slower than its rise (covering two or three generations in the latter part of the 47th century cal BC). Activity did not reduce to its pre-Lengyel levels, however, but persisted for several more centuries at perhaps two or three times the intensity of any pre-Lengyel occupation.
A search for the causes of the Alsónyék aggregation — and of its decline — remains challenging, though answers may eventually be found in the further study of the regional settlement complex or the detailed history of disease. No extensive signs of violence have so far been recorded. We further discuss possible constituents of the coalescence represented at Alsónyék, noting the frequent houses and possible households and neighbourhoods, and looking beyond these to the idea of wards, clans and moieties. Possible clues to internal differences within the site are noted for future research, and it is only with further work that the full Alsónyék story can be told.
The Neolithic settlement of Alsónyék reached its greatest extent during the Late Neolithic Lengyel period. Nearly 9000 features, including postholes associated with 123 houses, pits and pit complexes, and ca. 2300 burials, could be assigned to it. The traces of Lengyel settlement and burials were found over the entire excavated area, with an estimated extent of some 80 ha.
The burials uncovered mostly form part of groups of graves, actually being small cemeteries within the various parts of the settlement. Apart from the grave groups, several solitary or scattered graves were also found. Other large Lengyel burial grounds or large Lengyel settlements with numerous burials are known in Transdanubia, but the enormous number of graves at Alsónyék is unprecedented within the Lengyel cultural complex as a whole and provides exciting opportunities for varied archaeological and bioarchaeological investigations.
The discovery of 122 surface-level, timber-framed houses at a single site is also unique for the area and the Lengyel period as a whole. These buildings help to build a better understanding of the architecture and lifestyle of the Lengyel population, which is a fairly new strand in the settlement archaeology of the Lengyel culture in Hungary and beyond. This and the sheer size of the site make Alsónyék exceptionally significant.
Altogether 216 radiocarbon results are presented for the Lengyel phase. For the purpose of analysis subsites 5603, 11 and 10B have been modelled separately. The modelled estimates are precise enough that it is possible to estimate robustly the timing of activity across the site. The modelling suggests that burial activity in subsite 5603 probably began in 4790–4740 cal BC (68% probability) and that it began at a similar time, 4795–4745 cal BC (68% probability), in subsite 11. An intensive period of burial began slightly later, in 4715–4690 cal BC (68% probability), on subsite 10B. At this time settlement was established across a wide area, in subsite 11 from 4745–4690 cal BC (68% probability), on subsite 5603 from 4745–4665 cal BC (68% probability), and on subsite 10B from 4720–4700 cal BC (68% probability).
After a brief episode of intense occupation, lasting at most a few decades, settlement and then burial ended on the northernmost subsite 10B, in the 4700s or 4690s cal BC (68% probability) and 4695–4670 cal BC (68% probability) respectively. Settlement also ended before burial on subsite 11, but endured for much longer. The settlement here ended in 4670–4620 cal BC (37% probability) or 4610–4565 cal BC (31% probability) and burial in 4585–4515 cal BC (68% probability). Both settlement and burial endured longest on subsite 5603, although here the end of burial preceded the end of settlement by well over a century. Burial ended here in 4515–4465 cal BC (68% probability), and settlement ended in 4345–4245 cal BC (68% probability).
Objectives:
Written sources have provided information about the rise of Merovingian power and their territorial conquests after the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, but the extent to which altered power relations in the newly annexed territories reshaped regional and local communities is poorly understood. The early medieval cemetery of Dirmstein, located in the Upper Rhine Valley, is one of the rare sites bearing archeological evidence of simultaneous use by an indigenous community and newcomers from outside the Merovingian core area, and it offers the opportunity to investigate residential mobility at the former Roman Rhine frontier during the Merovingian period.
Materials and methods:
We conducted strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotope analyses on human tooth enamel recovered from 25 sixth century inhumations at the Dirmstein cemetery to establish the presence of newcomers to the Upper Rhine region.
Results:
The low δ(13) C values exhibited by the Dirmstein individuals revealed ingestion of a C3 terrestrial based diet, with no detectable contribution of C4 plants, which indicates the absence of individuals from regions where a C4 -based diet was common. Human (87) Sr/(86) Sr values well outside the the local range of bioavailable strontium, in combination with low δ(18) O values, suggest a notable presence of newcomers from more eastern or high altitude regions.
Conclusions:
The isotopic evidence indicates that residential mobility was important and new settlers, most likely from outside the Merovingian core area, contributed to the settlement of the northern Upper Rhine Valley during the sixth century AD.
63 Mitteldeutschland im 5. und 6. Jahrhundert. Was ist und ab wann gibt es archäologisch betrachtet typisch Thüringisches? Eine kritische Bestandsaufnahme JAN BEMMANN Um die archäologische Erforschung der Thüringer ist es nicht zum Besten bestellt. 1 Die Interpretation der Quellen verharrt auf einem Stand aus den 70er Jahren; dies bezeugen sowohl der Eintrag in dem Reallexikon der Ger-manischen Altertumskunde 2 als auch der Beitrag zu den Thüringern im Ka-taloghandbuch "Merowinger ohne Grenzen" 3 , um nur die beiden jüngsten Überblicksartikel aus fachkundiger Feder zu nennen. Als Ausgangsbasis stehen nur zwei fehlerhafte und z. T. bedingt durch die Unzugänglichkeit des Fundgutes unvollständige Quelleneditionen für Mitteldeutschland aus den Jahren 1970 und 1976 zur Verfügung, die heutigen Anforderungen nicht genügen. 4 Zu kurz ist vieles beschrieben, wie z. B. die Perlen, zu wenig Beachtung finden der Grabbau und die Vorlage von Befundplänen, zu knapp ist die Quellenkritik ausgefallen, zu mangelhaft sind viele Abbildun-gen. Neuere Materialvorlagen gibt es nur in geringer Zahl 5 , die kultur-geschichtliche Auswertung geht auf die 1954 abgeschlossene Dissertation von B. Schmidt zurück und ist seitdem variiert, aber nie grundlegend über-prüft oder korrigiert worden. 6 Aufgrund der besonderen personellen und institutionellen Situation war es bis 1989/90 und auch noch viele Jahre spä-ter nicht möglich, dass jüngere Kollegen diese Epoche in Mitteldeutschland anhand der Originalquellen studieren durften. Erst in den letzten Jahren 1 Überarbeiteter und mit Anmerkungen versehener Vortrag gehalten am 20. Oktober 2006 auf der Tagung "Die Frühzeit der Thüringer" an der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena und am 20. Juni 2007 in der Ermitage in St. Petersburg auf der Tagung "Epocha Merovin-gov – Europa bez Granic".
The aurochs was a type of wild cattle not extinct in Europe until the mid-second millennium BC- so they must have co-existed for centuries with the domestic cattle which were to supplant it. Here the authors use stable isotope analysis to show what form that co-existence took: the domestic cattle grazing on the pasture, and the aurochs lurking in the forests and wet places.
This paper reports on the results from stable isotope analysis of faunal bone collagen from a number of Iron Age and later sites on the island of South Uist, in the Western Isles, Scotland. This preliminary investigation into the isotopic signatures of the fauna is part of a larger project to model the interaction between humans, animals, and the broader environment in the Western Isles. The results demonstrate that the island fauna data fall within the range of expected results for the UK, with the terrestrial herbivorous diets of cattle and sheep confirmed. The isotopic composition for pigs suggests that some of these animals had an omnivorous diet, whilst a single red deer value might be suggestive of the consumption of marine foods, such as by grazing on seaweed. However, further analysis is needed in order to verify this anomalous isotopic ratio.
Residential changes of people during the Migration Period are crucial for archaeological research. Within an extensive study of the migration of the Langobards, strontium isotope analysis was carried out on tooth enamel taken from 48 burials from the Thuringian cemeteries of Rathewitz and Obermöllern (Burgenlandkreis, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany), which date to the late 5th–mid 6th century. Modern vegetation and water samples provided detailed information about the isotopic composition of the biologically available strontium of geological units in the area. Although the rich furnishing of the burials provides evidence for contacts with many different regions, only one individual (7.1 %) in Rathewitz and three (12.5 %) in Obermöllern are isotopically nonlocal to the sites. These individuals were buried among the locals and their graves were similarly equipped. In contrast, many nonlocal grave goods were found with isotopically local individuals, often in combination with local items or pieces indicating several different source areas. This suggests the existence of strong interregional ties among the members of the local elites. The cemeteries cannot overall be associated with newly arriving groups; rather, they resulted from a change of funeral customs of the indigenous population from cremation to inhumations or small-scale changes of the burial places. They reflect individual residential changes rather than large-scale movements of groups.
Bone chemistry paleodietary studies are emerging as important research areas in archaeology, biological anthropology, and paleontology. With appropriate controls, the inorganic and organic chemical composition of bones and teeth can provide information about past diet and habitat use. Chemical signatures are used to address individual dietary variability in early hominid fossils, paleontological remains, and more recent human and faunal populations.
The preservation of biogenic isotopic signals (13C, 15N) in fossil bones and teeth is critical in order to interpret paleodiets. Some patterns of variation of these biogenic isotopic signals are characteristic of modern mammals, and their recognition in fossil samples provides a clue for the preservation of biogenic paleodietary signals.
In C3 plant food webs, the δ13C values of collagen are slightly enriched in carnivores (~−20‰) relative to herbivores (~−21‰). In carbonate hydroxylapatite, the δ13C values are higher in herbivores (~−1l‰) than in carnivores (~−14‰). Thus, the spacing values between collagen and carbonate hydroxylapatite are different in herbivores (~−+8–9‰) and carnivores (~−+4–5‰). The δ15N values in collagen show a large enrichment (−+4‰) at each trophic step. Moreover, there is an enrichment between dentine and bone collagen in species with definite tooth growth, such as carnivores and cervids, but not in species with continuous tooth growth, such as horses. This is probably due to the effect of suckling milk in the young individual, when part of the dentine is formed.
These isotopic differences between tissues within individuals between species and trophic levels can be used to check the preservation of the isotopic signatures in Pleistocene samples of cold temperate and arctic environments. Examples are presented using samples from Western Europe (France, United Kingdom), Siberia and Alaska.
�In this work we will discuss the suitability of carbon isotope analysis in plants for the assessment of environmental changes and their effects on crops and natural systems. For C�3� species, carbon isotope composition (�13�C) of plant tissues constitutes an integrated record of the miscellaneous climatic and physiological factors that affect carbon assimilation and/or stomatal conductance. Here we present a literature review on the relationship between different environmental parameters and �13�C in both herbaceous plants and trees, including some examples and case studies. We will also consider the applicability of some of these relationships in palaeoecological studies, as well as for the assessment of climate change dynamics and its implications. Major advantages and limitations of this technique are further discussed.
�
‘They dream of the acorned swill of the world, the rooting for pigfruit…’ Dylan Thomas, Under Milk Wood.
Carbon and nitrogen isotopes show a marked change in the diet of British pigs between the Neolithic and the Iron Age. The authors neatly deduce that this was due to the loss of the Neolithic wildwood where pigs were wont to root for fungus amongst the rotting trees.
The isotopic ratios of common light elements often provide useful information about past geologic, environmental, or biologic history. Bender’s (1968) clear identification of two distinct isotopic values for carbon from C3 and C4 plant organic matter led to the experiments which showed that animal δ13C values were closely related to dietary values (DeNiro and Epstein 1978a; Tieszen et al. 1983). Results from field applications (DeNiro and Epstein 1978b; Vogel 1978; Tieszen et al. 1979; Tieszen and Imbamba 1980) established the usefulness of these tracers and soon led to numerous archaeological studies. C and N, both present in bone collagen, have been most useful to suggest marine versus terrestrial dependence, to establish maize utilization or dependence on legumes, and to identify relative trophic-level positions or carnivory versus herbivory. Recently, attention has been focused on the use of bioapatite CO3 (Lee-Thorp et al. 1989a, 1989b; Lee-Thorp and van der Merwe 1991) as a supplement to collagen, especially in bones older than 10000 years, and as an adjunct to collagen for estimates of carnivory. The 180 signal in bioapatite also has the potential to provide information on the water status of the individual or the environment. Sulfur isotopes δ
34
S), when present in sufficient quantities, as in hair or skin, are also useful and in some cases can distinguish clearly between marine and terrestrial dietary sources (Krouse and Herbert 1988).
The use of stable carbon isotopes for diet reconstruction is predicated on the assumption that you are what you eat. In other words, the carbon isotopic composition of animal tissues is assumed to be a direct and constant function of the diet. Is this assumption valid? Precise dietary reconstruction requires as accurate knowledge of the isotopic composition of locally available dietary resources, as well as an adequate understanding of the effects of nutrition, environment, and physiology on the diet-tissue function (van der Merwe 1982, 1989; Chisholm 1989; Norr 1990; Matson and Chisholm 1991; Tieszen 1991; Ambrose 1992). There is a systematic but poorly defined difference between the isotopic composition of the consumer tissues and that of the diet (an enrichment factor, expressed as Δ diet-tissue). Given the isotopic composition of a specific tissue, that of the diet or of other tissues may be calculated if the Δ diet-tissue difference factors are known. The dietary proportions of isotopically distinct food resources (e.g., C3 vs C4, or C3 vs marine) have thus been calculated from the δ
13C value of bone collagen (Δ13Cd-co) and bone apatite carbonate (Δ13Cd-ca). Deviations from actual or assumed average δ
13C values for dietary endmembers, and incorrect values for diet-to-tissue isotopic relationships, will lead to errors in the estimation of consumption of specific classes of resources. Experiments and observations designed to determine the diet-to-collagen stable isotope functions (Δ13Cd-co) however, have provided widely different values.
Red deer (Cervus elaphus) is a flexible species that survived the significant climatic and environmental change toward warming temperature and forested landscape of the Late-glacial to early Holocene transition (ca. 17–6 ka cal BP). To investigate the conditions of ethological adaptation of red deer at that time, isotopic analysis of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur in collagen (δ13Ccoll, δ15Ncoll, δ34Scoll) and of oxygen in phosphate (δ18Op) were performed on red deer from archaeological sites of the French Jura and the western Alps. Fifty out of eighty two samples benefited from direct AMS radiocarbon dating, which confirmed the few number of red deer record during the cold Younger Dryas oscillation (ca. 12.8–11.6 ka cal BP) in Western Europe. The French Jura red deer showed a significant decrease in their δ13Ccoll values and increase in their δ15Ncoll values in the early Holocene compared to the Late-glacial, which is most likely due to the change in environment from open areas with low pedogenic activity to warm dense forests with increasing soil maturity. In contrast, the stable δ13Ccoll and δ15Ncoll values over time in the western Alps were thought to indicate a change to higher altitude for the red deer habitat in this mountainous region. A decrease of the δ18Op values between the Late-glacial and the early Holocene was observed in the western Alps red deer, in contrast to the expected increase with rising temperature which was indeed confirmed for the French Jura red deer. The multi-isotope results pointed to open areas home range at higher altitude for the Alps red deer in the Holocene compared to the previous period. The similarity of the δ34Scoll patterns with those of the δ15Ncoll suggested the primarily influence of soil activity on the 34S abundances recorded by red deer in a purely terrestrial context. Red deer of the French Jura on one hand and of the western Alps on the other hand showed different adaptive response to the global warming of the early Holocene, with an ethological change in the first case and a change in home range in the second case.
The prey choice of extinct cave lions Panthera spelaea was determined using bone collagen isotopic signatures in the Belgian Ardennes and the Swabian Jura between 40,000 and 25,000 years ago as well as in the Late-glacial of the northwestern Alp foreland and of the Paris Basin. More than 370 specimens of large carnivorous and herbivorous mammals from 25 sites coeval with cave lion were analyzed. The isotopic results point to an individualistic prey choice for cave lions, with some individuals more oriented on reindeer and others on young cave bears. The isotopic signatures and therefore dietary choice of cave lions did not overlap with those of cave hyenas, indicating competitive exclusion between the large predators. The most recent western European cave lions seem to have been consuming mainly reindeer until the local extirpation of this prey species, which coincides chronologically with their own extinction. This restricted prey choice may be involved in the extinction of this large predator in Western Europe.
Archaeological fish bones reveal increases in marine fish utilisation in Northern and Western Europe beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries AD. We use stable isotope signatures from 300 archaeological cod (Gadus morhua) bones to determine whether this sea fishing revolution resulted from increased local fishing or the introduction of preserved fish transported from distant waters such as Arctic Norway, Iceland and/or the Northern Isles of Scotland (Orkney and Shetland). Results from 12 settlements in England and Flanders (Belgium) indicate that catches were initially local. Between the 9th and 12th centuries most bones represented fish from the southern North Sea. Conversely, by the 13th to 14th centuries demand was increasingly met through long distance transport – signalling the onset of the globalisation of commercial fisheries and suggesting that cities such as London quickly outgrew the capacity of local fish supplies.
Archived wheat grain and straw samples from the unfertilised plot of the Broadbalk Continuous Wheat Experiment at Rothamsted, England, were used to investigate the trends in stable C isotope ratios since 1845. Grain δ13C was higher than straw δ13C. Both grain and straw δ13C have decreased by approximately 2.5–2.8‰ over the last 153 years, and since the 1960s the decrease has been more rapid than the decrease of the δ13C of atmospheric CO2. The C isotope discrimination (Δ), and hence the ratio of CO2 concentration in leaf intercellular space to that in the ambient air (c
i/c
a), remained relatively stable or decreased slightly between 1845 and the mid-1960s, then increased considerably. The period with increasing Δ and c
i/c
a corresponds to the introduction of the modern short-straw cultivars of wheat. When grown on the unfertilised plot in the same seasons, a modern wheat cultivar had slightly higher Δ values than an old cultivar. The c
i derived from both grain and straw Δ have increased by 33–37% over the last 153 years, with the increase being more rapid after than before the mid-1960s. However, there was no clear trend in the yields of straw and grain, primarily because of the limitations of N and other nutrients, and also because of large year-to-year variations.
Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios from C-14 dated bones of early Atlantic aurochs (Bos primigenius Bojanus) and late Atlantic first domestic cattle (Bos taurus Linnaeus) in eastern Denmark and southern Sweden are significantly different and provide information on the origin and feeding strategies of the two species. Radiocarbon dates generally divide the bone material of aurochs and domestic cattle in three groups: aurochs older than 4000 cal yr BC, an older group of domestic cattle around 4000 cal yr BC, and a younger, less well-defined group of domestic cattle starting at around 3500 cal yr BC. The older domestic cattle are represented mainly by fragmentary bones left over from meals, and deposited in lakes at the vicinity of the settlement areas. Bones of the younger domestic cattle group occur both as settlement debris and as single articulated skeletons in bogs, commonly in association with different types of clay pots. The latter type of finds suggests that sacrifice of domestic cattle began at this time. The dating of the early domestic cattle further indicates that they were contemporaneous with or slightly younger than the elm decline, which occurred shortly after 4000 cal yr BC on the Danish island of Sjaelland. Our results indicate a sudden rapid introduction of domestic cattle into Denmark, heralding the introduction of agriculture and there is no evidence for leaf foddering or domestication of aurochs. A combination of several natural events may have created the necessary open land, providing the grazing areas for the imported cattle.
Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios from 14C dated bones of early Atlantic aurochs (Bos primigenius Bojanus) and late Atlantic first domestic cattle (Bos taurus Linnaeus) in eastern Denmark and southern Sweden are significantly different and provide information on the origin and feeding strategies of the two species.Radiocarbon dates generally divide the bone material of aurochs and domestic cattle in three groups: aurochs older than 4000 cal yr BP, an older group of domestic cattle around 4000 cal yr BP, and a younger, less well-defined group of domestic cattle starting at around 3500 cal yr BP. The older domestic cattle are represented mainly by fragmentary bones left over from meals, and deposited in lakes at the vicinity of the settlement areas. Bones of the younger domestic cattle group occur both as settlement debris and as single articulated skeletons in bogs, commonly in association with different types of clay pots. The latter type of finds suggests that sacrifice of domestic cattle began at this time. The dating of the early domestic cattle further indicates that they were contemporaneous with or slightly younger than the elm decline, which occurred shortly after 4000 cal yr BC on the Danish island of Sjælland. Our results indicate a sudden rapid introduction of domestic cattle into Denmark, heralding the introduction of agriculture and there is no evidence for leaf foddering or domestication of aurochs. A combination of several natural events may have created the necessary open land, providing the grazing areas for the imported cattle.
The quality of bone collagen extracts is central to the14C dating and isotope palaeodietary analysis of bone. The intactness and purity of the extracted gelatin (“collagen”) is strongly dependent on the extent of diagenetic degradation, contamination and the type of extraction method. Possible chemical, elemental and isotopic parameters for the assessment of “collagen” quality are discussed. The most important distinction that can be made is the one between contaminated bone (mostly from temperate zones), and bone low in collagen content (mostly from arid and tropical zones). The latter shows more variability in all quality parameters than the former. The natural level of contamination is mostly so low that stable isotopic measurements are not impaired, although14C measurements can be. It is concluded that there is no unequivocal way to detect natural levels of contamination with the discussed parameters, although their use can identify many cases. In low “collagen” bone, the parameters can identify the great majority of problematic samples: although deviations in these parameters do not necessarily mean isotopic alterations, the increased background found in these samples makes most samples unusable.
Isotopic measurements were performed on bone collagen of teleostean fish from three European lakes (Lake Geneva, Lake Constance and Lake Aiguebelette) and from Lake Baikal (Russia) in order to investigate the isotopic variability of freshwater fish and its consequences for the reconstruction of prehistoric human diet in Eurasia. δ13C and δ15N values of the same species (Coregonus lavaretus) sampled in all lakes, as well as those of different species from the same lake, emphasize the isotopic variability within and between lakes. Since freshwater resources have variable isotopic compositions which partially overlap with other potential food resources, it may be misleading to infer the use of freshwater resources in human diet directly from the isotopic composition preserved in consumer remains. Checking the compositions of archaeological remains from each site, or when this is not possible an investigation of the isotopic compositions of recent species from local environments, is recommended. Nevertheless, isotopic study could be a useful approach to trace exchanges of fish or population migrations.
This paper explores the impact of animal manure application on the δ15N values of a broad range of crops (cereals and pulses), under a range of manuring levels/regimes and at a series of locations extending from northwest Europe to the eastern Mediterranean. We included both agricultural field experiments and areas where ‘traditional’ farming is practised. Our aim is to ground-truth interpretation of δ15N values in archaeobotanical crop remains as evidence of past growing conditions and husbandry practices. The results confirm the potentially radical impact of manuring on δ15N values in cereals, depending on manuring level, but indicate only a slight effect on pulses, which can fix atmospheric nitrogen. The expected geographical trend towards greater δ15N with increasing climatic aridity is not apparent, probably because the growing conditions for crops are ‘buffered’ through crop management. Each of these observations has fundamental implications for archaeobotanical interpretation of δ15N values as evidence of land use practices and (together with analysis of bone collagen/tooth enamel in potential consumers) palaeodiet.
Recent archaeological studies of human diet have used stable nitrogen isotope ratios (δ15N) from human bone collagen to infer the relative importance of terrestrial plant and animal foods. This approach is based on widely observed enrichment of δ15N up the food chain, plants having distinctly lower values than the herbivores that consume them. Studies of early farming diets in Britain, Denmark and Germany have tended to detect relatively high δ15N values (e.g. c. +9‰), interpreted as evidence of a diet largely based on animal products, though archaeobotanical evidence for crop cultivation (e.g. carbonised cereal grain and chaff) is widespread. This paper investigates the impact of manuring on δ15N values in modern cereals, and of charring on these cereal values. The results from two long-term experiments demonstrate that manuring significantly raises δ15N in cereal grain and chaff. Depending on manuring levels and frequency, it appears that human diets with a major component of such grain would conventionally be interpreted as indicating a largely animal-based diet or a mixed plant/animal diet. Moreover, preliminary analyses of experimentally charred grain and chaff from manured and unmanured conditions are promising for the extraction of reliable ancient δ15N values from archaeobotanical cereal remains. The wider implications of these results, and the need for further work, are discussed.