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Computer Assisted Language Learning
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Attitudes of Jordanian university students towards using online chat discourse
with native speakers of English for improving their language proficiency
Safi M. Mahfouz a; Fathi M. Ihmeideh b
a Faculty of Educational Sciences, UNRWA University, Jordan b Queen Rania Faculty for Childhood,
Hashemite University, Jordan
Online Publication Date: 01 July 2009
To cite this Article Mahfouz, Safi M. and Ihmeideh, Fathi M.(2009)'Attitudes of Jordanian university students towards using online chat
discourse with native speakers of English for improving their language proficiency',Computer Assisted Language Learning,22:3,207
— 227
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/09588220902920151
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09588220902920151
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Attitudes of Jordanian university students towards using online chat
discourse with native speakers of English for improving their language
proficiency
Safi M. Mahfouz
a
and Fathi M. Ihmeideh
b
*
a
Faculty of Educational Sciences, UNRWA University, Jordan;
b
Queen Rania Faculty for
Childhood, Hashemite University, Jordan
This study aims to investigate Jordanian university students’ attitudes towards
using video and text chat discourse with anonymous native speakers of English to
improve their English proficiency. To achieve this aim, a questionnaire was
designed. The study sample consisted of 320 university students enrolled in two
Jordanian universities. Results revealed that students’ attitudes towards using
video and text chat with English native speakers for improving their English
language skills were higher concerning speaking skills, followed by listening skills,
reading skills and finally writing skills. Furthermore, results indicated that there
were statistically significant differences amongst students, which are attributed to
their gender, the faculty they are enrolled in, the chat messenger mode they use
most frequently and their seniority of study at university. In light of the
aforementioned results, the researchers proposed a number of pedagogical
recommendations.
Keywords: online chat; native speakers of English; synchronous computer-
mediated-communication; language proficiency
Introduction
Jordanian university students whose major field of specialization is not English do
not usually have the opportunity to speak with native speakers of English, either on
or off campus. Such students do not practice using the language in lecture halls
merely because English is not the language of instruction in most specializations,
with the exception of some scientific areas such as medicine, engineering and
mathematics. Instant messaging (IM) and video chat (VC) provide English foreign
language (EFL) learners with a round-the-clock venue for real daily life
communication and authentic interaction with native speakers of English. Using
this technology means that the foreign language learning environment is no longer
limited to the classroom environment and study hours. The learning environment
and even its content have become that of the learner’s choice and preference. During
the internet chat session, the language learner can talk about any topic with the
native speaker of English and can even choose the accent he or she wants to learn.
*Corresponding author. Email: fathi@hu.edu.jo
Computer Assisted Language Learning
Vol. 22, No. 3, July 2009, 207–227
ISSN 0958-8221 print/ISSN 1744-3210 online
Ó2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09588220902920151
http://www.informaworld.com
Downloaded By: [Ihmeideh, Fathi M.] At: 09:57 18 June 2009
This attitudinal study investigated Jordanian university students’ attitudes
towards using synchronous interactions with English native speakers (ENS) for
improving their English proficiency. Instant messaging (IM), audio chat and video
chat are three modes of synchronous computer-mediated-communication (SCMC).
Instant messaging involves the exchange of online text messages between two chatters
or more. In the audio chat, both speakers speak to each other using a microphone
and earphones. Video chat involves using a webcam, a microphone and earphones
throughout the chat session. However, the general term online chat discourse covers all
modes of synchronous interactions. Each mode of SCMC has its benefits and
drawbacks.Although videochat improves students’ oral and aural skills simply because
it makes use of a webcam, a microphone and headphones, this mode of communication
does not improve students’ writing and reading skills. In contrast, text-based chatting
improves EFL learners’ writing skills, but does not improve their oral and aural skills
substantially. Therefore, it is recommended that all modes of SCMC be used
simultaneously in all native speaker–non-native speaker (NS–NNS) chat sessions.
If e-mail is viewed as ‘‘the mother of all internet applications’’ (Warschauer,
Shetzer, & Meloni, 2000, p. 3), IM and video chat can be seen as an alternative to
face-to-face conversation. Such new technologies have proven to be effective
pedagogical tools for foreign language learners. Several studies have considered the
potential of using online text-based chatting as a bridge to face-to-face conversation
and as a means of negotiation of meaning involving foreign language learners
(Darhower, 2002; Fukai, 2004; Pellettieri, 2000; Tudini, 2002, 2003c).
Previous studies have reported on the miscellaneous advantages of SCMC for
language learning: it may facilitate interactive competence due to the many types of
discourse initiation (Chun, 1994; Fukai, 2004; Tudini, 2002); give foreign and second
language learners a greater role in managing the discourse (Chun, 1994); promote the
nonnative speakers’ self-monitoring which leads to frequent repair of errors
(Pellettieri, 2000); improve EFL students’ oral inter-language and pragmatic
competence (Xiao & Yang, 2004) and create a new exciting and thrilling learning
environment through collaborative videoconferencing (Bonham, Bonham, Surin,
Nakano, & Seifert, 2003). In addition, both the implicit and explicit feedback that
learners receive from their native key pals may help them incorporate target forms
into their chat and thus improve their language both lexically and grammatically
(Edasawa & Kabata, 2007; Pellettieri, 2000). Finally, the interactional modifications
that take place in chat sessions strongly resemble those that take place in ordinary
face-to-face conversation (Sotillo, 2000; Tudini, 2003c).
Most SCMC attitudinal studies have been generally positive. Students reported
that synchronous interactions improved their four language skills of speaking,
writing, reading and listening (Al-Jamhoor, 2005; Bulut & AbuSeileek, 2007);
increased their self-confidence in learning a foreign language and enhanced their
learning autonomy (Akbulut, 2008; Al-Jamhoor, 2005); increased their motivation
to improve their language proficiency and facilitated the process of foreign language
learning for students with diverse learning styles and different personality types
(Aacken, 1999; Beauvois & Eledge, 1996); helped them learn the language in a stress-
free, informal, exciting and enjoyable environment (Holmes, 1998; Stevens, 1991);
fostered their sense of community; improved their computer literacy and developed
their reflective learning (Altenaiji, 2005); alleviated their communication anxiety;
(Zhou, 2007); reduced their second language writing apprehension and improved
their writing skills significantly (Al-Ahmad, 2003); helped them express their ideas
208 S.M. Mahfouz and F.M. Ihmeideh
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freely and think creatively while composing their ideas online (Warschauer, 1996);
and increased their total immersion in the target language (Hampel & Hauck, 2004).
Problem statement and research questions
Despite the fact that recent research on foreign language learning has reported on
the benefits of interactional competence resulting from negotiation of meaning in
face-to-face conversation settings, both EFL learners and even their instructors
rarely have the opportunity to use the target language interactively with native
speakers of the target language (Fukai, 2004; Pellettieri, 2000; Sotillo, 2000; Tudini,
2002). Studying English in Jordan is no exception to this situation. Therefore, it
becomes clear that speaking English in authentic real-life situations with native
speakers of English is quite essential for Jordanian students. Instant messaging,
audio chat and video chat with native speakers of English can certainly compensate
for Jordanian students’ inability to communicate with such interlocutors in real life.
This research strives to fill the gap in the literature on the pedagogical uses of
online chat with native speakers of English. The study was designed to elicit answers
to the following questions:
(1) What are Hashemite University and Faculty of Educational Sciences (FES)
students’ attitudes towards using online chat with native speakers of English
to improve their English language?
(2) Are there statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes
towards using online chat with native speakers of English to improve their
language proficiency that are attributed to the variables of gender, faculty,
messenger mode, and seniority of study at university?
Significance of the study
Very few studies have addressed university students’ attitudes towards using online
chat with native speakers of English for improving their oral and written language
proficiency. Several previous studies have reported on the influence that SCMC has on
improving foreign learners’ language proficiency because it increases second language
learners’ interactive participation in using the target language and gives them the
opportunity of receiving the input and producing the output in the target language
(Fukai, 2004; Tudini, 2002). In the context of the Arab world, attitudinal studies
toward SCMC use are quite rare (exceptions are Bataineh & Baniabdelrahman, 2006,
and Baniabdelrahman, Bataineh & Bataineh, 2007) and none of them has investigated
Jordanian students’ attitudes toward video chat and text chat with native speakers of
English. In addition, most of the studies cited in the literature on the subject have
investigated online chat interactions that take place between language learners,
whereas very few studies have explored interactions that take place between English
native speakers and learners (Iwasaki & Oliver, 2003). Although there are some
exceptions (e.g. Davies, Shield & Weininger, 1998), even those studies that have
investigated online chat or electronic dialogue between native speakers and learners
usually take place under the direct supervision of the language instructor and are
limited to classroom settings (Fukai, 2004; Pellettieri, 2000; Smith, 2003).
This attitudinal study provides an assessment of Jordanian university students’
attitudes towards using online video and text chat with native speakers of English for
Computer Assisted Language Learning 209
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improving their English proficiency. The abundance of studies investigating the
effect of online chat with native speakers of English on Japanese, German, French
and Italian learners of English, the scarcity of attitudinal studies investigating its
effect on Arab learners of English, and the limited availability of CALL attitudinal
studies in the Jordanian context make this study a rare contribution to the existing
literature on SCMC. Previous research on online chat with native speakers is based
on group chats (Fukai, 2004) or dyads in which the native interactants were familiar
to the learner (Iwasaki & Oliver, 2003; Tudini, 2002) or audio conferencing systems
in a distance education setting (Hampel, 2002; Hampel & Hauck, 2004; Hauck &
Haezewindt, 1999). Unlike previous studies, this study is based only on chatting with
native speakers who have no interest in intentionally using the language for the
purposes of teaching. Such scarcity of data is surprising, as SCMC is widely used
worldwide and there is evidence that foreign language learners unconsciously imitate
native speakers’ electronic discourse (Darhower, 2002; Tudini, 2003a).
Theoretical framework and literature review
In the twenty-first century, in which cyberculture and internet-aided distance
education have become prominent, EFL learners have been empowered to learn
collaboratively and chat with native speakers of English using multimodal and multi-
dimensional networks. Nonnative-native synchronous chat is multimodal in nature,
since chatters sometimes use different modes of communication at the same time to
convey their ideas on line. This feature of online discourse reflects Kress’s idea of
multimodality, which stipulates that it is no longer possible to understand language
without understanding the effects of all modes of communication that are copresent
in any text (Kress, 2000). It is worth noting that segregation of the web-based modes
of discourse has been quashed and that multimodality has been stressed by several
studies (Hampel, 2002; Kress, 2003). This means that in a multimodal online
learning environment, the language learner can choose which communication mode
he or she prefers to use while chatting with the native speaker of English, whether it
is video chat, text chat or both simultaneously. The learner might even chat with
different native interlocutors concurrently using different modes of synchronous
interactions. Multimodal synchronous interactions are vital in online discourse since
they cater for students’ learning styles and personality types. In multimodal learning
environments, learners exert more control over the learning situation, and the
multimodal synchronous interactions allow learners to combine text chat, audio chat
and even graphics, thus working collectively at a distance in a multimodal and multi-
dimensional learning environment (Hampel, 2002).
In general, most attitudinal studies have suggested that students have positive
attitudes toward synchronous interactions in CALL-based learning environments.
The following attitudinal studies yielded positive results for CALL: Beauvois and
Eledge’s (1996) study of the attitudes of learners with introvert and extrovert
personality types toward foreign language learning in CALL classrooms; Holmes’
(1998) survey of freshman students’ attitudes toward the effectiveness of a university-
level English CALL course on improving their English language proficiency; Klassen
and Milton’s (1999) investigation of university students’ attitudes toward the
effectiveness of a multimedia-based English language learning program; Aacken’s
(1999) study of CALL for Kanji; Bulut and AbuSeileek’s (2007) investigation of
Saudi students’ attitudes toward learning the four language skills in a CALL-based
210 S.M. Mahfouz and F.M. Ihmeideh
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learning environment; Koroghlanian and Brinkerhoff’s (2008) survey of students’
attitudes toward internet-aided instruction; and finally Akbulut’s (2008) evaluation
of the attitudes of freshman EFL students toward CALL.
In most native–nonnative chat attitudinal studies, foreign language learners
reported that online chat improved their language proficiency; helped them increase
their vocabulary repertoire; exposed them to a variety of functional language
discourse (Lee, 2004); increased their total immersion in the target language;
enhanced their oral skills (Hampel & Hauck, 2004; Rossade, Heins & Hampel, 2005);
and gave them the chance to communicate immediately with real language
informants from their own age group (Coverdale-Jones, 2000).
In the context of the Arab world, attitudinal studies toward SCMC use are still
very few. For instance, Al-Jamhoor’s (2005) study revealed that students’ attitudes
towards the online synchronous interactions were positive as they reported that their
intercultural interaction with the American native speakers online significantly
improved their writing skills. Altenaiji’s (2005) study, which surveyed students’
attitudes toward the online learning community, concluded that the medium fostered
their sense of community, improved their computer literacy and enhanced their
reflective learning. Other studies have suggested that students’ attitudes toward
SCMC were generally positive, mainly in improving their four language skills
(Almekhlafi, 2005, 2006; Bulut & AbuSeileek, 2007). In contrast, AbuSeileek’s (2007)
study revealed that students’ attitudes towards the cooperative computer-mediated
technique improved their aural and oral skills significantly.
Most previous research on online chat has been carried out with learners chatting
under the direct supervision of their instructors and is limited to the classroom
environment. Moreover, previous research on native–nonnative speakers’ chat is
very scant and is still restricted to group chats (Darhower, 2007; Fukai, 2004; Lee,
2004; Tudini 2002). Learners of EFL do need to communicate with native speakers
of English who can act as accurate informants of the language with their correct
pronunciation, varied writing styles and accurate grammatical competence.
However, since it is not possible for learners to see and talk to native speakers of
English in their country, it becomes quite necessary for them to chat with such
communication partners in English chat rooms. In this context, Hanna and de Nooy
(2003) pointed out that language learners should use the appropriate strategies that
help them communicate with anonymous, random speakers of the target language
such as politeness and apologizing for their linguistic inadequacies.
Previous studies have suggested that the different modes of SCMC can solve this
problem, as they provide distant foreign language learners with an optimal authentic
language context (Fukai, 2004; Ko
¨tter, Shield & Stevens, 1999; Tudini, 2002;
Warschauer, 1997). SCMC – in its multiple modes primarily instant messaging –
resembles face-to-face conversation in nearly all aspects. Sotillo (2000) states that the
discourse functions of SCMC are ‘‘similar to the types of interactional modifications
found in face-to-face conversations that are deemed necessary for second language
acquisition’’ (p. 82).
By and large, previous studies have indicated that SCMC may positively affect
foreign language learners in three ways. First, it may equalize learner participation;
second, it may increase learner output and productivity; and third, it may enhance
learner interaction (AbuSeileek, 2007; Ortega, 1997). Text-based chat has been
reported to facilitate and enhance the learners’ interactive competence, increase their
use of the target language in the electronic mode, develop their grammatical
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competence and generally improve their oral fluency (Oliva & Pollastrini, 1995;
Tudini, 2003b). For instance, Pellettieri (2000) correlated SCMC with the
development of grammatical competence and stressed the fact that negotiation of
meaning emerges in written chat as it does in verbal chat. It was also reported that it
provides EFL learners with ample opportunities for negotiation of meaning and
offers them an optimal environment for second language acquisition (Tudini, 2002).
Other studies have revealed that SCMC may help build the learner’s oral fluency by
facilitating the automatization of lexical and grammatical competency at the
formulator level (Blake, 2006). It may also substantially improve learners’ linguistic
performance and metalinguistic abilities through tandem exchanges (Ko
¨tter, 2003);
foster students’ social behavior and strengthen their interpersonal relationships
(Darhower, 2007); and empower EFL learners to convert the chat room milieu into a
social chat community conducive to foreign language practice, thus enhancing their
learning autonomy (Darhower, 2002; Warschauer, 1996). Synchronous text-based
chat was also found to enhance learners’ writing abilities (O’Connor, 2005) and
facilitate their learning of certain skills associated with electronic literacy, namely
discourse management and technological skills (Simpson, 2005).
Methodology
This study investigated university students’ attitudes towards using the three modes
of synchronous interactions with native speakers of English: instant messaging,
audio chat and video chat for improving their language proficiency. The study was
conducted over one semester (from February to June 2007) at the Hashemite
University and the FES-UNRWA University. A quantitative approach using a
survey questionnaire was used to investigate students’ attitudes at the end of the
semester. The questionnaire, as a research method, has several advantages, such as:
(a) it permits a wide coverage at minimum expense in terms of both money and
effort;
(b) its reliability can be higher in comparison to other methods of data
collection;
(c) anonymity for the respondents; and
(d) its results could be generalized to a large population.
The standard questions used in this approach gave the researcher categories of
response that were reasonably easy to interpret. In addition, the survey questionnaire
was an appropriate way of gathering information from a large number of people and
within a short period of time.
However, the questionnaire also has some limitations, such as:
(a) probing is impossible;
(b) the long time needed for drafting;
(c) the pilot questionnaire takes time to develop; and
(d) the questionnaire provides descriptive information rather than explanations
(Black, 1999).
The researchers found the questionnaire quite reliable for collecting the data at
low costs in terms of time and effort and helpful for generalizing the findings
gathered from the sample to the whole population. In addition, the questionnaire
212 S.M. Mahfouz and F.M. Ihmeideh
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enabled the researcher to investigate statistically the differences among the variables.
For instance, in the present study, a number of variables were tested, such as gender,
faculty, seniority of study at university, and the chat messenger mode. Consequently,
it will be easy, using the questionnaire data, to manipulate the main variables to
general statistics, such as frequencies, mean, standard deviation, etc (Black, 1999).
Participants
The study sample included 320 university students enrolled in two Jordanian
universities: the Hashemite University, a public university located in Zarqa
governorate, and the Faculty of Educational Sciences (FES), a private faculty of
education run by UNRWA-Jordan. The subjects are of different specializations but
none of them is an English major. Table 1 below shows the distribution of the study
sample in accordance with the required variables.
Regarding the distribution of gender in both universities, Table 2 below shows
that the number of male students in both universities vastly outweighs the number of
females. This is because male students normally chat with ENS more than females.
In addition, when the questionnaire was distributed amongst the sample, only those
respondents, mostly males, who chat with English native speakers were selected. This
explains why most of the respondents were males.
Regarding the distribution of gender across faculties, Table 3 below shows that
the number of male students in the scientific faculties (175) is more than the number
of female students (39), while the number of female students in social sciences
faculties (55) is more than the number of male students (51).
Research instrument
A questionnaire designed by the researchers for the purpose of conducting the study
was circulated among all the subjects of the study enrolled in the two Jordanian
Table 1. The distribution of the sample by the study variables.
Variable Frequency and percentage of total (320)
Gender 226 males (70.6%), 94 females (29.4%).
Faculty 136 scientific faculties (42.5%), 184 social science faculties
(57.5%).
Seniority of study at university 105 freshman* (32.8%), 36 junior (43.4%), 139 sophomore
(43.4), 40 senior (12.5%)
Chat messenger mode 143 instant messaging (44.7%), 177 video chat (55.3%)
Notes: *Freshman: first year students; junior: second year students; sophomore: third year students;
senior: fourth year students.
Table 2. The distribution of gender in both universities.
University Male Female Total
Hashemite University 120 53 173
UNRWA University 106 41 147
Total 226 94 320
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universities to elicit their attitudes towards using online chat discourse with ENS for
improving their language proficiency. The filled-in questionnaires were collected and
statistically analyzed.
The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first part asked about personal
information such as gender, seniority of study at university, the faculty in which
students were enrolled, and the chat mode they preferred to use. The second part of
the questionnaire contained 34 questions on students’ attitudes towards using chat
discourse. All items were answered on a five-point Likert scale, with five indicating
‘‘Strongly agree’’ and one indicating ‘‘Strongly disagree.’’ (see Appendix). The
questionnaire was administered only among respondents who reported that they
frequently chat with native speakers of English.
The questionnaire was based on a pilot exploratory study. A small pilot study
conducted on a number of randomly selected participants (N ¼50) was designed as
an initial stage for designing the questionnaire to obtain first-hand knowledge of the
participants’ perceptions of online chat with native speakers of English (Oppenheim,
2000). The pilot study consisted of a set of open-ended questions designed to elicit
the participants’ responses such as how often they chat and what benefits they gain
from chatting with native speakers of English. It is worth mentioning that the
participants’ responses to the open-ended questions showed that there was a
consensus among them as with regards to the importance of online chat for
improving their language proficiency. The participants were asked to respond to the
questionnaire and to express their views, opinions and reactions. The time in which
the participants were involved in responding to the questionnaire was tested as well.
Oppenheim (2000) stated: ‘‘questionnaires have to be composed, and tried out,
improved, and then tried out again, often several times over; until we are certain that
they can do the job for which they are needed’’. (p. 47). Findings of the pilot study
suggested that some items had to be changed. Consequently, some of the necessary
modifications were made before the actual study started. Thus, the final drafts of the
instruments were produced, typed and made ready to be distributed to the selected
actual sample.
Validity and reliability of the instrument
The validity of the items of the questionnaire was ensured by interviewing some
students about their attitudes towards online chat with native speakers of English.
Furthermore, the questionnaire was piloted among seven judges who taught English
and instructional technology at Jordanian private and public universities. Finally,
eight questions out of the 34 questions were reverse-coded to help ensure that
students were not merely answering the questions randomly. The role of the judges
to whom the questionnaire was sent out was to confirm whether the content of the
questionnaire was precise, appropriately worded and adequate to elicit the required
Table 3. The distribution of gender across faculties.
Faculty Male Female Total
Scientific faculties 175 39 214
Social sciences faculties 51 55 106
Total 226 94 320
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responses from the respondents. In particular, the judges were requested to provide
information on the relevance of each item to the main section in the questionnaire,
the language clarity of every item, select any items to be added or removed, and
provide any additional comments or corrections. The judges’ suggestions were taken
into account in designing the final draft of the questionnaire. As a result, some items
that received the judges’ consent level of 80% were added, others were excluded and
others were reworded or refined. For instance, it was suggested that American
English should be included in a number of items along with British English (see items
1 and 10). A number of items were added to include improvement of the four
language skills (see items 8, 15 and 18) and items including issues unrelated to the
Jordanian context were removed.
To test and retest the questionnaire’s reliability and to examine whether the same
responses were obtained, participants were required to fill in the questionnaire twice
within a two-week interval. To estimate the reliability of the questionnaire, internal
consistency measures were computed using the Cronbach Alpha method for each
domain and for the total domains. Accordingly, the reliability coefficient rating for
the four domains and the total was satisfactory for the purpose of this study (see
Table 4).
Administration of the questionnaire
The researchers obtained permission from the Jordanian Ministry of Higher
Education and Scientific Research to administer the questionnaire among the study
participants. Having obtained permission, the researchers met students in both
universities. Students were acquainted with the aim of the study and were
encouraged to respond truthfully to all the items in the questionnaire. Ethical
considerations were taken into account while carrying out the research. First,
confidentiality and anonymity were ensured. Students were informed that the
questionnaires were part of academic research and were assured that their responses
will be treated in strict confidentiality and information identifying their identities will
not be divulged under any circumstances. This was important because assuring the
participants that their responses would be treated with the strictest confidentiality
would make them express their real attitudes as openly, freely and frankly as
possible. Second, anonymity was also taken into account, as no information
identifying the respondents would be disclosed. Thus, the researchers did not ask
students about their actual names. Third, the respondents’ privacy was taken into
account from three different perspectives: the sensitivity of information taken from
the participants, the settings being observed and dissemination of information
Table 4. Results of the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for the various domains in the
questionnaire.
Domain Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient No. of items
Listening skills 0.94 10
Speaking skills 0.92 11
Reading skills 0.92 6
Writing skills 0.94 7
Total 0.93 34
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(Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000). It is worth mentioning that it is not necessary
in Jordan to obtain signed waiver forms from all participants in the research.
Moreover, although the researchers obtained permission from the concerned
ministry and the two universities involved in the study to carry out the research,
they also informed participants that it was their choice to fill in the questionnaire or
not.
Data analysis
The questionnaire data were analyzed using the statistics software SPSS. The mean
Likert score on each item of the questionnaire was calculated and compared to a
hypothesized mean of 3, which represents a neutral score to determine which
questions engendered positive or negative responses at a greater than chance level.
The researchers also calculated the mean score for all participants on all items to
check whether they showed overall positive or negative attitudes towards using
online chat with native speakers of English. A t-test for the independent sample was
administered to explore any statistically significant differences between students’
attitudes towards using online chat that were attributed to their gender, faculty, and
the chat mode used. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
determine any statistically significant differences that could be attributed to their
seniority of study at university.
Findings and discussion
The purpose of the study was to investigate Jordanian students’ attitudes towards
using the different modes of online chat discourse with anonymous native speakers
of English in chat rooms for the purpose of improving their English proficiency.
Research question one addressed students’ attitudes towards using online chat with
native English speakers. In order to answer this research question, means and
standard deviations for students’ attitudes were used to determine the common
aspects of their attitudes towards the four language skills as shown in Table 5. The
table shows that students’ attitudes towards using online chat with English native
speakers for improving their English language skills demonstrated a higher level of
interest in speaking skills, which had the highest mean score (4.46) with a standard
deviation of 0.91. This was followed by listening skills, which had the second-highest
mean score (3.21) with a standard deviation of 1.00. As with regard to improving
reading and writing skills, the data indicated that the mean score on reading skills
was 1.82 with a standard deviation of 1.15, which had the third rank, while the mean
score on writing skills was 1.77 with a standard deviation of 1.12, which had the
fourth rank.
Table 5. Means, standard deviations and ranks of students’ attitudes towards using online
chat with ENS for improving their language proficiency.
Domain Mean Standard deviation Rank
Listening skills 3.21 1.00 2
Speaking skills 3.46 0.91 1
Reading skills 2.67 0.76 4
Writing skills 2.93 0.76 3
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Analysis of students’ perceptions revealed that they generally believed that video
chat with native speakers of English improved their oral and aural skills more than
the other two remaining skills (reading and writing). This could be attributed to
students’ preference for using video chat rather than using text-based instant
messaging and to their overuse of the webcam, the microphone and the earphones
when chatting with native speakers of English rather than keyboarding. This result is
not surprising, as video chat using the webcam, the microphone and the earphones
may be perceived by this group of informants as useful and convenient mainly
because it is easier to handle, does not require any typing speed, and above all, it may
seem to them to be much more interesting than instant messaging. Live video chat
enables the learner of English to see and hear his native interlocutor while chatting
with him or her. In addition, it is speaking and listening skills more than any other
skill that students seek to improve when chatting with native speakers of English,
whereas they pay little attention to improving their reading and writing skills during
the native chat sessions. This result supports the findings of previous research,
namely Bulut and AbuSeileek’s (2007) study, which suggested that students’
attitudes toward using CALL for improving their listening were stronger than their
attitudes towards the other language skills. This result is also similar to the findings
of Fukai’s (2004) study, which found that the American students’ oral interactions
improved significantly as a result of frequently chatting with the native speakers of
Japanese. It also corroborates the findings of Hampel and Hauck’s (2004) study,
which indicated that students reacted positively toward the online audiographic
tutorials and reported that they enhanced their oral skills.
In addressing question two of the study, a t-test for the independent sample was
administered to explore any statistically significant differences between students’
attitudes towards using online chat with native speakers of English that were
attributed to their gender, faculty, and the chat mode they frequently used. A one-
way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine any statistically
significant differences that can be attributed to their year of study at university.
On the whole, subjects of the study reported that chatting with native speakers of
English in chat rooms helped them improve their language proficiency and improve
their four language skills. Also, they reported that they did not feel stressed or
embarrassed when chatting with native speakers of English.
Gender
As shown in Table 6, the outcomes of the t-test indicated that there were statistically
significant differences between students’ attitudes towards online chat with native
speakers of English that were attributed to their gender. These differences were
noticed with regards to both listening skills and speaking skills in favor of the males,
while there were statistically significant differences in the writing skills domain in
favor of the females. The males’ preference for speaking could be due to the fact that
there are more males than females in scientific faculties where they are required to
make oral presentations for their projects. In contrast, the females’ preference for
writing may be because there are more females than males in social sciences faculties
where students are normally involved in more writing activities than their
counterparts in the scientific faculties. This result is dissimilar to the findings of
Akbulut’s (2008) study, which suggested that gender had no effects on students’
attitudes toward CALL. This result is also inconsistent with the findings of
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Baniabdelrahman’s et al. (2007) work, which investigated Jordanian EFL students’
perceptions of their use of the internet for both general purposes including chat and
EFL learning purposes and revealed that gender did not significantly affect the
students’ use of the internet.
However, the results revealed that there were no statistically significant
differences in the reading domain that can be attributed to the chatters’ gender.
This could be attributed to the fact that Jordanian female chatters prefer IM to video
chat while chatting with native speakers of English since they are, in some way or
another, conservative and more likely to be reserved about chatting with foreigners.
Refraining from chatting with foreigners via the webcam and microphone denies
such female chatters the chance to improve their oral and aural skills. However, their
frequent keyboarding while chatting with ENS improves their writing skills
remarkably. In fact, both male and female chatters should take personal safety
and privacy into account when chatting with strangers they encounter in chat rooms.
For example, reserved females could chat only with female counterparts.
As a further contrast, Jordanian male chatters preferred to use the video chat
mode to using IM. Using the webcam, microphone and earphones allowed them to
see their native interlocutors while chatting with them. Analysis of the perceptions of
the Jordanian male chatters involved in the study revealed that they believed that
their frequent video chat with native speakers of English helps them improve their
oral and aural skills much more than their writing skills.
Faculty
Participants in this study were divided into two categories according to the faculty
they are enrolled in. Scientific faculties including faculties of engineering, medicine,
science and nursing, and faculties of social sciences including faculties of business
administration, education and arts. Table 7 shows that there were statistically
significant differences between students’ attitudes towards using online chat with
native speakers of English that are attributed to the faculty in which students are
enrolled. These differences were noticed in the speaking skill domain in favour of
students from scientific faculties and in the writing skill domain in favour of students
from social sciences faculties. However, there were no statistically significant
differences in listening and reading skills. This could be due to the fact that English is
the language of instruction in scientific faculties, whereas Arabic is the language of
Table 6. Differences between male and female students’ attitudes towards using online chat
with ENS.
Dependent variable Gender No. Mean Standard deviation tP
Listening skills M 226 3.32 0.980 3.131 0.002*
F 94 2.94 1.013
Speaking skills M 226 3.69 0.858 7.552 0.000*
F 94 2.91 0.799
Reading skills M 226 2.62 0.931 71.697
F 94 2.81 0.953
Writing skills M 226 2.86 0.766 318 0.013*
F 94 3.10 0.726
Note: *The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
218 S.M. Mahfouz and F.M. Ihmeideh
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instruction in nearly all faculties of the social sciences except for the faculty of arts,
which includes the English department. This could also be attributed, as mentioned
earlier, to the fact that there are more female than male students in the social sciences
faculties where students are involved in more writing activities. There are more male
than female students in the scientific faculties where students are normally requested
to present their projects orally (see Table 3).
Chat mode frequently used
Students were divided into two categories according to the chat mode they frequently
used when chatting with native speakers of English: instant messaging (IM), audio
chat or video chat (VC). As shown in Table 8 there were statistically significant
differences between students’ attitudes towards using online chat with native
speakers of English that are attributed to the chat mode they frequently use. These
differences were noticed in the listening skill domain in favour of the VC mode and in
the writing skill domain in favour of the IM mode. However, there were no
statistically significant differences in the speaking and reading domains. It is
apparent that video chat improves students’ oral competence simply because it
makes use of a webcam, microphone and headphones. However, IM improves
students’ writing skill because the language learner spends all the chat time
keyboarding. This finding, however, is dissimilar to the findings of other studies such
Table 7. Differences between the attitudes of scientific faculties students (Sc.) and social
science faculties students (So.) towards using online chat with ENS.
Dependent variable Faculty No. Mean Standard deviation tP
Listening skills Sc. 136 3.18 1.11 7.386 0.700
So. 184 3.23 0.91
Speaking skills Sc. 136 3.75 0.87 4.961 0.000*
So. 184 3.25 0.88
Reading skills Sc. 136 2.58 0.96 71.524 0.129
So. 184 2.74 0.92
Writing skills Sc. 136 2.70 0.83 318 0.000*
So. 184 3.10 0.65
Notes: *The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Table 8. Differences between students’ attitudes towards the chat modes (instant messaging,
audio chat or video chat) they prefer when chatting with ENS.
Dependent variable Chat messenger mode No. Mean
Standard
deviation tP
Listening skills Instant messaging 143 3.12 1.09 76.376 0.000*
audio & video chat 177 3.28 0.91
Speaking skills Instant messaging 143 3.12 0.96 71.450 0.148
audio & video chat 177 3.74 0.76
Reading skills Instant messaging 143 2.80 1.00 2.216 0.027
audio & video chat 177 2.57 0.87
Writing skills Instant messaging 143 3.08 0.81 3.113 0.002*
audio & video chat 177 2.82 0.69
Notes: *The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Computer Assisted Language Learning 219
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as Blake’s (2006) study, which found that text-based chatting plays a crucial role in
building the learner’s oral fluency.
Seniority of study at university
Students in this study were classified into four categories according to their seniority
of study at university (freshman, junior, sophomore and senior). The one-way
ANOVA was utilized to examine the differences among students’ attitudes towards
using online chat with native speakers of English with respect to their study year at
university (see Table 9).
Results indicated that there were statistically significant differences that were
attributed to students’ seniority of study at university in all the language skills except
for listening skills. With regards to speaking skills, the f-value was 3.701 at the
significant level of 0.012, and this was significant at a50.05. To determine which
groups were different from the others, the Schefe post-hoc test was administered.
Based on this test (see Table 10), the results showed that there was a statistically
significant difference between freshman students and senior students in favour of the
latter. With respect to the reading skill domain, the f-value was 9.999 at the
significant level of 0.000, and this was significant at a50.05. Results of the Scheffe
comparison test revealed that the differences were statistically significant between
freshman, junior and sophomore students on the one hand and senior students on
the other hand in favour of senior students.
Regarding writing skills, the f-value was 11.202 at the significant level of 0.000 and
this was significant at a50.05. Results of the Scheffe comparison test (see Table 10)
indicated that there were statistically significant differences between freshman and
junior students on the one hand and senior students on the other, in favour of senior
students. This could be due to the fact that senior students may be more computer-
literate than freshman, junior and sophomore students, and thus they use chat
messengers more than the other groups either on-campus in the university internet
laboratory or off-campus – or even at home during their leisure time. This result
confirms the findings of Akbulut’s (2008) study, which indicated that university senior
Table 9. Differences among freshman, junior, sophomore and senior students’ attitudes
towards using online chat with ENS for improving their language proficiency.
Dependent variables Source of variances
Sum of
squares df Mean square Fp
Listening skills Between groups 3.313 3 3.638 1.330 0.265
Within groups 262.414 316 0.983
Total 265.727 319
Speaking skills Between groups 10.914 3 1.104 3.701 0.012*
Within groups 310.619 316 0.830
Total 321.532 319
Reading skills Between groups 24.490 3 8.163 9.999 0.000*
Within groups 257.999 316 0.816
Total 282.489 319
Writing skills Between groups 17.767 3 5.922 11.202 0.000*
Within groups 167.065 316 0.529
Total 184.832 319
Notes: *Significant at the p5.05 level.
220 S.M. Mahfouz and F.M. Ihmeideh
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students had more positive attitudes toward learning English in a CALL-supported
environment than their freshman counterparts. This result also supports the findings
of Koroghlanian and Brinkerhoff’s (2008) study, which revealed that older university
students have more positive attitudes toward internet-aided instruction than younger
students at the same university. This result also lends support to the findings of
Bataineh and Baniabdelrahman’s (2006) study, which investigated Jordanian EFL
students’ perceptions of their computer literacy and reported a significant effect for
year of study on students’ perceptions of their computer literacy.
Conclusions and recommendations
The primary objective of the present study was to investigate Jordanian university
students’ attitudes towards using online text-based chat, audio chat and video chat
with anonymous native speakers of English for the purpose of improving their
language proficiency. Results of the study have shown that students’ attitudes
towards using online chat with native speakers of English were stronger with respect
to improving their speaking and listening skills respectively. The data analysis has
revealed that male students have more positive and stronger attitudes towards
improving their listening and speaking skills than female students, who have stronger
attitudes towards improving their writing skills.
In addition, the findings of the study have shown that scientific faculties’ students
had stronger attitudes towards improving their speaking skills than their counter-
parts in faculties in the social sciences, whereas students from the social sciences
faculties were more interested in improving their writing skills than students in
scientific faculties. The outcome revealed that students who frequently preferred to
use instant messaging rather than audio or video chat had stronger and more
positive attitudes towards using texting to improve their writing skills. The findings
also indicated that those students who preferred video chat to online messaging had
stronger attitudes towards using online video chat with native speakers of English
for the purpose of improving their oral fluency and listening skills. Finally, the
results showed that senior university students have demonstrated a higher level of
interest in using online chat for improving their language proficiency than freshman,
junior and sophomore students.
Opportunities for future research are numerous. Further research is needed to
investigate the effect of using synchronous online interactions with native speakers of
English so as to improve independent Arab EFL learners’ language proficiency outside
Table 10. Scheffe test for the differences among freshman, junior, sophomore and senior
students’ attitudes towards using online chat with ENS for improving their language
proficiency.
Dependent variables
Seniority of study
at university Mean differences P
Listening skill Senior Freshman 7.60726* .013
Reading skill Senior Freshman 7.72222 .000
Senior Junior 7.84815 .001
Senior Sophomore 7.87146 .000
Writing skill Senior Freshman .51863 .000
Senior Junior .44176 .015
Note: *The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Computer Assisted Language Learning 221
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the foreign language classroom. Additional research is also needed to investigate the
possibility of establishing native–nonnative chatlines between Arab universities and
universities situated incountries where English is spoken as a first language. Conducting
similar attitudinal studies on online chat between Arab learners of English and learners
of English of other nationalities is also recommended.
Further research is also required to assess whether the effects of online video chat
with native speakers of English on Arab learners’ English proficiency are temporary
or durable and whether female learners who prefer to use instant messaging will be
able to improve their oral fluency through the transfer of their linguistic output from
the chat log to the spoken word.
Notes on contributors
Dr. Safi Mahfouz is an assistant professor of modern English literature at Faculty of
Educational Sciences, UNRWA University, Jordan. His research interests include modern
drama, world literature, synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated communication
and teaching English as a foreign language.
Dr Fathi Ihmeideh received his doctoral degree in early childhood literacy from the University
of Huddersfield, England in 2006. Previously he worked as an assistant dean of Queen Rania
Faculty for Childhood in Hashemite University, Jordan. At present Dr. Fathi is the head of
the Childhood Education Department. His research interests are in early literacy development,
early childhood technology, and ICT.
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Appendix
Questionnaire on university students’ attitudes towards using online chat discourse with native
speakers of English for improving their language proficiency
Part I: Personal Information
1- Gender: Male Female
2- Faculty: Social Sciences Scientific
3- Seniority of study at university: Freshman Junior Sophomore Senior
4- How often do you chat with native speakers of English?
always often sometimes rarely never
5- Messenger frequently used:
Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger Others (Mention. .........)
6- Messenger mode frequently used:
Video Chat Instant Messaging Both modes
Part II:
Indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with the following items by ticking the
appropriate choice
No. Items SA A U D SD
1 Video chat helps me recognize the pronunciation
differences between American English and
British English
2 Abbreviations used in online messaging like pls,
asl, thanx and u should be regarded as
acceptable new writing forms
3 The chat messenger jargon is an acceptable
modern form of written English with all its
abbreviations, absence of punctuation marks,
inaccurate capitalization and telegraphic
sentences
4 The best way to pick up proper English from
English chatroomsis to speak only to educated
native speakers of English
5 Chatting with uneducated native speakers does
not help me improve my language because
they do not speak standard English
6 Video chat with native speakers increases my
language output
7 I feel at ease when chatting with native speakers
online, but I feel embarrassed when I speak to
people face-to-face
(continued)
Computer Assisted Language Learning 225
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No. Items SA A U D SD
8 Audio chat with native speakers improves my
pronunciation
9 Chatting in English makes me tensed up and a
little bit embarrassed because I always make
grammatical mistakes
10 Instant messaging helps me recognize the
spelling differences between American English
and British English
11 Audio chat improves my listening skills more
than face-to-face conversations
12 Synchronous instant messaging through
keyboarding improves my writing skills more
than e-mail
13 Video chat improves my language fluency and
accuracy
14 Chatting with male and female speakers helps
me recognize the differences between the
language of both sexes in terms of pitch and
intonation
15 Instant messaging improves my skill in using
punctuation marks properly
16 Watching English movies and sitcoms improves
my language proficiency more than online
chat with native speakers of English
17 Instant messaging increases my typing speed
18 Instant messaging should be regarded as a new
pedagogical instructional technology because
it helps improve students’ writing skills
19 Instant messaging increases my English
vocabulary repertoire
20 Chatting with English interlocutors from
different countries where English is spoken as
a first language acquaints me with a variety of
English accents
21 Chatting should not be blocked in Jordanian
universities, but should rather be used for
pedagogical purposes
22 Learners should not imitate the language of
some English chatters who use inappropriate
capitalization, abbreviations, incorrect
grammar and colloquial expressions and
phrases
23 Instant messaging exchange with uneducated
native speakers of English helps me learn
English in real-life situations
24 Instant messaging improves my reading
comprehension
25 Chatting with both educated and uneducated
English native speakers helps me learn a
variety of accents and dialects
26 Instant messaging increases my reading speed
27 Instant messaging and video chat with common
native speakers of English helps me learn
colloquial English
(continued)
Part II. (Continued).
226 S.M. Mahfouz and F.M. Ihmeideh
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No. Items SA A U D SD
28 Video chat with the native speaker makes the
chat more personal thus helps me learn the
language better
29 Audio chat improves my fluency more than
instant messaging
30 Instant messaging exchange with common
British and American people helps me learn
idiomatic expressions and phrases rarely
found in English textbooks
31 Students should always ask their English chat
partners to correct their grammatical and
pronunciation mistakes
32 Audio chat improves my ability to recognize
sound stress and word stress
33 Instant messaging improves my English writing
skills
34 Chatting with people from different countries
where English is spoken as first language
acquaints me with the cultures of these
countries
*Participants indicate their level of agreement with each item using a five-point Likert-type scale
comprising the categories ‘‘SA ¼strongly agree’’, ‘‘A ¼agree’’, ‘‘U-undecided’’, ‘‘D ¼disagree’’ and
‘‘SD ¼strongly disagree’’.
Part II. (Continued).
Computer Assisted Language Learning 227
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