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The Effect of Driving Restrictions on Air Quality in Mexico City
Abstract
In 1989, the government of Mexico City introduced a program, Hoy No Circula, that bans most drivers from using their vehicles one weekday per week on the basis of the last digit of the vehicle's license plate. This article measures the effect of the driving restrictions on air quality using high-frequency measures from monitoring stations. Across pollutants and specifications there is no evidence that the restrictions have improved air quality. Evidence from additional sources indicates that the restrictions led to an increase in the total number of vehicles in circulation as well as a change in composition toward high-emissions vehicles. (c) 2008 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved..
... The purpose of this study is to identify the effect of Seoul's LEZ on air quality and to uncover the underlying mechanism by building on several relevant studies in the literature. Davis [13] analyzed the effect of the alternate no-driving policy in Mexico City with ordinary least squares (OLS) and regression discontinuity in time (RDiT) but found no evidence of improving air quality. Percoco [14] showed the limited effect of congestion traffic fees in London LEZ with RDiT, while Li et al. [15] demonstrated the effect of fuel standard changes in China with both Difference-in-Difference (DD) and RDiT methods. ...
... This study employs regression discontinuity in time (RDiT) as an empirical analysis tool, instead of the commonly used Difference-in-Difference (DD) approach, to measure the effectiveness of an air quality policy. In a related context, Davis [13] used RDiT to estimate the impact of Mexico City's Hoy No Cirrcula, a Weekly Car Free Day system, on air quality. Davis [13] cited two reasons for choosing the RDiT: (i) its capability to address endogeneity from unobserved factors through Ordinary Least Squares (OLS); and (ii) the applicability of RDiT in scenarios without a reasonable counterfactual. ...
... In a related context, Davis [13] used RDiT to estimate the impact of Mexico City's Hoy No Cirrcula, a Weekly Car Free Day system, on air quality. Davis [13] cited two reasons for choosing the RDiT: (i) its capability to address endogeneity from unobserved factors through Ordinary Least Squares (OLS); and (ii) the applicability of RDiT in scenarios without a reasonable counterfactual. For instance, comparing Mexico City to any other city could potentially address time-varying omitted variables. ...
This study investigates the effect of the low emission zone (LEZ), designed to restrict old diesel vehicles, on air quality in Seoul, Republic of Korea, using the regression discontinuity in time (RDiT) approach. While previous studies have examined LEZ impacts using traditional econometric models such as time series and panel data approaches, our research uniquely integrates high-frequency daily weather data to better control for confounding environmental variables and captures time-of-day effects on pollutant concentrations. Our findings reveal that the LEZ policy effectively reduced NO2 and SO2 concentrations by 4.7% and 11.6%, respectively. Notably, during daytime hours, when traffic is heaviest, NO2, SO2, and PM10 concentrations decreased by 7.1%, 14.8%, and 13.6%, respectively. These results suggest that the observed improvements can be attributed not only to reduced diesel vehicle registrations but also to significant declines in overall traffic volume.
... Our coefficient of interest, 1 , estimates the reduced form effect of the introduction of the massive public transport fare discounts on air quality, measuring the local estimation of the treatment effect around the date of implementation. Our empirical approach, which is in line with that used by Davis (2008) and Chen and Whalley (2012), offers clear advantages when the evaluated policy affects all observed subjects simultaneously (i.e., all the monitoring stations of the 23 Spanish cities considered in our sample), leaving no appropriate counterfactual available. 16 16 As discussed in Section 2, our empirical strategy is a convenient complement to check the validity of the counterfactuals used by those papers adopting a difference-in-differences approach to measure the impact of transit discounts on air quality, as pollution spillovers carry over long distances and can affect the control groups. ...
... This can be considered a limitation of our study in assessing the ability of the PTD policy to improve air quality through a reduction in road traffic. Indeed, CO is the pollutant most linked to car usage (Chen and Whalley, 2012;Davis, 2008;Gallego et al., 2013). fixed effects to assess the average difference in ridership values before and after the implementation of the policy. ...
... In recent years, the effectiveness of driving restriction policies (DRPs) in improving air pollution and alleviating traffic congestion has become a focal point of scholarly debate [16,17]. Unfortunately, the research is inconclusive. ...
... DRPs are not unique to China. Mexico also implemented a DRP to improve air quality; however, Davis found this DRP ineffective in improving air quality [16]. However, Carrillo et al. found that a DRP in Ecuador significantly reduced carbon monoxide (CO) emissions [23]. ...
Automotive exhaust emissions contribute significantly to air pollution in developing countries. However, the effectiveness of driving restriction policies (DRPs) is unclear, and most research on China emphasizes Beijing. This study used Chengdu, a typical large city in China, to examine the impact of a DRP on air quality. To alleviate potential endogeneity threats, we employed a regression discontinuity design to verify the policy’s effect. The results show that the DRP significantly reduced air pollution levels, effectively improving air quality in restricted areas. The heterogeneity analysis found that (1) the DRP effectively reduced pollution in newly added and original areas, while the air quality in adjacent areas deteriorated; and (2) the DRP significantly improved air quality during peak travel periods but had no significant impact in other periods. Our results indicate that the DRP is an effective tool for urban environmental governance but presents potential negative aspects. Therefore, restricted areas and periods should be carefully considered when designing similar policies. This study provides significant insights into the governance of automotive exhaust emissions pollution for large cities in developing countries.
... Studies on the effectiveness of LPR in reducing congestion or air pollution have also produced mixed results . While some show proofs of air pollution reduction under LPR based on regression analysis (Liu and Kong, 2021;Zhang et al., 2017;Viard and Fu, 2015), others find that LPR has little, sometimes even adverse, effect on pollution mitigation, partly caused by rescheduled trips, increased private car ownership, and non-compliance (Davis, 2008;Davis, 2017;Guerra and Reyes, 2022;Xiao et al., 2019). The impact of LPR on modal shift (e.g. to mass transit, taxis or cycling) has been studied in Rao et al. (2017), Yang et al. (2018) and Kalman (2021). ...
... Some studies show that driving restrictions towards private car use are effective in diverting demand to mass transit (Rao et al., 2017), taxis/ride-hailing (Yang et al., 2018;Lin et al., 2022) or cycling (Kalman, 2021). However, policies like LPR achieve far less than expected in certain cases (Guerra and Reyes, 2022), as travelers tend to circumvent such a restriction by rescheduling their trips (Gu et al., 2017) or purchasing additional vehicles (Davis, 2008). Certain drivers even disregard the restrictions, especially during peak hours Wang et al., 2014). ...
Transport policies targeting emission reduction and air quality improvement typically discourage private car use and promote shifts to mass transit (bus, metro). However, possible increase of travelers' exposure while adapting to those policies have often been overlooked, which is addressed in this work via a case study of Heavy Pollution Episodes (HPEs) in Chengdu, China, using city-scale traffic camera and transit ridership data. By investigating traffic fluctuation and modal shift under prolonged license plate rationing for private cars and free or discounted fare for mass transit, we show that the reduction of small car traffic was marginal (up to 2.3% in 24-hour periods), which, environmental benefits wise, is negligible according to air quality modelling. Meanwhile, over 3.23% of car users switched to mass transit during Orange-level alerts, with a higher degree (by 19%~39%) of exposure to PM2.5. Our findings highlight the importance of exposure-centric decision making during HPEs.
... Although the Covid-19 lockdown led to a reduction in emissions, the effect was of short duration, and the pollution patterns returned rapidly to the pre-pandemic levels. Proper handling of the air pollution problems in Mexico City should involve tight controls (Goddard, 1997), such as more extract norms for vehicle mobility (Davis, 2008), reduction of fossil fuel utilization and a huge increase in the number and efficiency of the public transport system. In this line, Bel and Holst (2018) found statistical evidence that Mexico City's bus rapid transport (BRT) network leads to reducing emissions of CO, NOX, and PM10. ...
In the recent two decades, the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA) has been plagued by high concentrations of air pollutants, risking the health integrity of its inhabitants. Although some policies have been undertaken, they have been insufficient to deplete high air pollutants. Environmental contingencies are commonly imposed when the ozone concentration overpasses a certain threshold, which is well above the recommended maximum by the WHO. This work used a causal version of a generalized Morlet wavelet to characterize the dynamics of daily ozone concentration in the MCMA. The results indicated that the formation of dangerous ozone concentration levels is a consequence of accumulation and incomplete dissipation effects acting over a wide range of time scales. Ozone contingencies occurred when the wavelet coefficient power is increasing, which was linked to an inti-persistence behavior. It was proposed that the wavelet methodology could be used as a further tool for signaling the potential formation of adverse ozone pollution scenarios.
... We use a local linear regression discontinuity design similar in principle to several recent studies (e.g., Davis, 2008;Auffhammer and Kellogg, 2011;Chen and Whalley, 2012;Anderson, 2014;Bento et al., 2014) by modeling the dependent variable as a function of the policy and a flexible function of time. The flexible function of time is crucial for identification, as it controls for potential endogeneity from time as the running variable (Imbens and Lemieux, 2008). ...
... The difference-indifference technique cannot be applied in the case of distinctive cities such as Lanzhou. Just as Mexico City is a very special city in Mexico (26), Lanzhou is also a very unusual city in China. It is impossible to find a city in China that mirrors or resembles Lanzhou because of its unique location, terrain, industries, and other factors. ...
Introduction
This study investigates the effectiveness of government environmental audits in mitigating air pollution. Specifically, it focuses on a pilot project conducted in Lanzhou City by the former Ministry of Environmental Protection. The research employs a regression discontinuity design to empirically assess the impact of these audits on air quality.
Methods
The study utilizes a regression discontinuity design to evaluate the impact of the government environmental audits. The primary outcome variable is the Air Quality Index (AQI). The analysis includes extensive robustness checks, such as sensitivity testing for optimal bandwidths of key pollutants, adjusting for precipitation levels, and conducting various robustness tests to ensure the reliability of the results.
Results
The findings reveal a significant decline in the AQI following the implementation of the environmental audits. The AQI decreased from 31 to 25 during and after the audit period. Additionally, the study observed a notable increase in precipitation levels, suggesting potential environmental improvements. Robustness tests further confirm the reliability of the regression results.
Discussion
The research outcomes demonstrate the effectiveness of government environmental audits in reducing air pollution. By supervising local governments in the implementation of environmental protection policies, these audits contribute to improved air quality. The findings highlight the importance of targeted interventions and policy enforcement in addressing environmental challenges.
... Instead of relying on price effects to control both gasoline use and emissions, direct government intervention to cut emissions can have unexpected outcomes: for example, vehicle emissions did not fall after the adoption of vehicle driving bans in Mexico City [43]. Finally, justice theory sheds light on consumer preferences for larger cars thereby increasing fuel use. ...
The car market in Mexico has undergone substantial change over the last twenty years, as sales have increased dramatically and as policy measures have been introduced to improve fuel economy so that decarbonization targets can be achieved. The argument presented in this paper is that overall fuel economy is driven by vehicle sales and the fuel economy standards imposed. In addition, this picture is complicated by the purchasing preferences of buyers, and this might reduce the effectiveness of the policy measures introduced. A case study approach allows analysis of the shifts in transport policy (2003–2020) to be undertaken by linking the fuel consumption of cars (L/100 km) to the purchasing patterns of consumers, and from this estimate the levels of CO2 emissions. From the empirical analysis, it is found that, although there have been fuel economy gains every year, this is countered by (a) increasing sales of SUVs, and (b) a car market that is increasingly being dominated by larger cars. The current fuel standards are not sufficient to control the continued growth in fuel consumption, and levels of carbon emissions are continuing to increase. In conclusion, tighter emissions standards are needed, together with stronger governance structures and a range of further policy measures to improve car efficiencies and limit growth of the use of larger vehicles.
... Other works also explore the role of urban traffic restrictions and their relationship with pollution levels. Using data on air pollution for Mexico, Davis (2008) measures the effect of variation in driving rules on the air quality of Mexico City before and after the driving restriction program, Hoy No Circula (HNC), implemented in 1989. Through a Regression Discontinuity Design, the author finds no evidence that driving restrictions effectively improved air quality. ...
In this paper, we analyze two quasi-experiments to assess how urban traffic restrictions and social distancing norms affect pollution levels in the municipality São Paulo, one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. First, using hourly air pollution levels measured in thirty-three monitoring stations in the state of São Paulo, we exploit exogenous variation in quarantine rules following the COVID-19 outbreak to estimate how social distancing norms affected pollution levels across different municipalities. We find an average decrease of 22.4% in air pollution after the first days of the capital's quarantine announcement, with heterogeneous effects across pollutants, driven by decreases in the vehicle fleet and urban mobility. Second, we compare this effect with another quasi-experiment that explores exogenous suspensions of traffic restriction rules between 2000-2018 in the municipality of São Paulo. We also document increases in pollution levels when more cars are allowed in the streets, with an average increase of 16.7% in air pollution. Finally, we use our estimates to show that a reduction of 4.7 times the estimated ATT in the quarantine period is necessary to reach the capital's long-term air quality goals.
... However, this point is often omitted in many policy designs and practices at this stage. Davis (2008) pointed out in the study of motor vehicle restriction that the travel demand of citizens after the restriction has not shifted to low-emission transportation modes, such as subways, buses, and light rails. It was noted by Jiao et al. (2021) that in order to foster green and low-carbon development in urban transportation, it is necessary to guide residents to travel in ways that minimize their impact on the environment. ...
Total factor productivity in the green economy is a major step forward in fostering robust growth in the economy. Urban green total factor productivity (GTFP) may be increased and carbon emissions decreased through the low-carbon transformation of the transportation sector. To analyze how the pilot policy of low-carbon transportation system construction affects urban GTFP, this study builds a DID model and a spatial Durbin model using panel data from 282 Chinese cities between 2006 and 2021. The findings show that low-carbon transportation systems boost urban GTFP. In addition, the mechanism test shows that low-carbon transportation development increases urban GTFP by optimizing urban industrial structure, expediting economic agglomeration, and encouraging technological innovation. Lastly, the geographical correlation test shows that GTFP is geographically associated and that spatial spillover reduces the impact of low-carbon transportation growth on GTFP. The findings affirm the need to vigorously promote low-carbon transportation systems to aid in the achievement of the carbon neutrality target.
... R T it it * is an interaction term. To capture the non-linearity of housing price trend, we add the quadratic and cubic forms of the running variables and the interaction terms, suggested by the existing literature (Davis, 2008;Imbens & Lemieux, 2008). X i captures property attributes, such as building age, number of rooms, interior decoration level, 1 and so forth. ...
... To determine how motor vehicle limits policies affect air quality, numerous studies have been carried out (Huang et al., 2017;Xie et al., 2017;Zhang et al., 2017;Chen et al., 2020;Chen et al., 2021;Alvarez and Smith 2021;Rodriguez-Rey et al., 2022). Most of these studies evaluated the effectiveness of restriction measures by comparing and analyzing the concentration of air pollutants before and after the restriction based on roadside observation (Titos et al., 2015), regression modeling (Davis 2008;Chen et al., 2020;Li et al., 2021;Yi et al., 2021), and air quality model Feng et al., 2021). For example, Troncoso et al. (2012) developed a multiple linear regression model to analyze the impact of motor vehicle restrictions on air quality in Santiago, Chile by using the observations of air pollutants and meteorological variables such as temperature and wind speed. ...
One of the significant sources of urban air particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) has been found to be vehicle exhaust emission. Vehicle restriction measures have been taken to alleviate particulate matter pollution in the world. Here, we quantified the impact of vehicle restriction measures on the PM2.5 concentrations using the Weather Research and Forecasting model with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) in Kaifeng, China. This study set up three different scenarios to simulate the spatiotemporal changes of PM2.5 concentrations in four seasons in 2020. They were no emission reduction (S0), the restriction of two tailing license plate numbers (S1), and the restriction of odd–even tailing numbers of license plates (S2), respectively. In general, the odd–even license plate restriction policy has proven to be more effective than restricting two specific license plate numbers. In scenario S1, the range of PM2.5 concentrations reduction in Kaifeng City was between 0.2% and 1.28%. In scenario S2, the range of PM2.5 concentrations reduction was between 0.98% and 14.42%. The results showed that the effectiveness of vehicle restriction measures varies from season to season, and the effect in summer and winter is better than that in spring and autumn. We suggest that it may be difficult to reduce the PM2.5 concentrations to a great extent if simply reducing the traffic exhaust emissions through motor vehicle restrictions, on the contrary, would lead to the increase of O3 concentration, bringing some other effects. This study can serve as a foundation for the rational development of motor vehicle control strategies and help advance the ongoing improvement of air quality.
... • In the review by Burns et al. (2020), Davis (2008) observed a significant increase in NOx and NO2 concentrations after even-odd license plate restrictions, which was likely due to the confounding of meteorological factors during the evaluation period. ...
... However, the NDD increased the vehicle fleet, since many car owners purchased another vehicle, which most of the times were older and with different technology than the first car. Previous studies suggest that this behavioral response might have diminished the efficacy of the NDD program to improve air quality [8][9][10]. In Mexico, the NDD classifies vehicles based on model year and technology and assigns a tag according to the plate ending number. ...
This study addresses the pressing issue of urban air pollution impact, emphasizing the need for emissions control to ensure environmental equity. Focused on the Toluca Valley Metropolitan Area (TVMA), this research employs air quality modeling to examine ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide concentrations during three different periods in 2019. It quantitatively assesses the performance of a state-of-the-art air quality model while evaluating the efficacy of a No-Driving day mitigation measure program, similar to the one which is currently implemented in Mexico City. Using an updated national emissions inventory for 2016, this study highlights the model capability of representing ozone formation and shows that reducing mobile emissions of key pollutants contributes to lowering downwind surface ozone levels, albeit with a minimal local impact. The insights and tools from this work hold potential value for decision-making in the broader Megalopolis context, aligning with global efforts to comprehend and mitigate urban air pollution impacts.
... However, our study shows that public participation in role-playing exercises could help policymakers design more effective and fair plans of action. Often, urban environmental management plans fail when they connect regulations to the attitudes and behaviors they are attempting to guide (Davis, 2008;McKenzie-Mohr, 2011;Espluga et al., 2016). These games allow for collective reflection on how to prioritize, what to invest resources in, and what strategies are the best to protect the most vulnerable populations. ...
The design of air pollution control policies is a complex decision-making process. Public participation can enhance the legitimacy and effectiveness of environmental urban regulations but does not always occur naturally. This article presents the experience of the use of role-playing in six mid-sized cities in southern Chile to evaluate how residents affected by high concentrations of fine particulate matter perceive the problem and debate possible solutions. For this, the participants were asked to assume the role of advisors. On that premise, they had to prioritize between a series of mitigation measures and reach a consensus with other advisors. The results show the potential of role-playing games, on the one hand, to promote critical thinking and argument skills among the general public and, on the other, to help policymakers in the design of more operative and fair plans of action.
... However, lockdowns' impact on crime can vary throughout time and the 15 For a discussion of when the running variable is time, see Lee and Lemieux (2010) and Hausman and Rapson (2018). For other studies using time as running variable, see Davis (2008), Anderson (2014), and Doleac and Sanders (2015). 16 The honest inference approach by Koles� ar and Rothe (2018); Armstrong and Koles� ar (2020) bounds the second derivative of the true f function around the date of the imposition of the lockdown (i.e., for dates before and after) for a nonparametric regression function: crime it ¼ f ðdate it Þþu it . ...
This article studies the dynamic impact of a temporary policy restricting social encounters due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on criminal activity in Bihar, India. Using a regression discontinuity design in time and criminal case—level and arrest data, I document an immediate drop in crime of over 35% due to the lockdown. Analysis over a longer timespan shows asymmetric dynamics by crime type. The lockdown was more effective in preventing personal crimes such as murders but was less effective in preventing property crimes, which increased beyond pre-lockdown levels once the lockdown was lifted. The increase in property crimes seems to be driven by temporal crime displacement from “former offenders” and not by “new offenders.” These asymmetric dynamics across crime types provide new insights into criminals’ intertemporal decisions (JEL K14, K42).
This paper examines the impact of the 2014 Italian divorce law on help-seeking behavior of domestic violence victims and femicides. The paper finds that contrary to expectations, the reform, which aimed to reduce the cost of divorce while requiring mutual consent, led to a decrease in help-seeking behavior among intimate partner violence survivors and an increase in femicides perpetrated by husbands. These findings suggest that while reducing the cost of divorce may empower individuals to leave abusive relationships, the requirement for mutual consent may inadvertently escalate violence as husbands seek to assert control and prevent separation. The study underscores the importance of considering the unintended consequences of divorce legislation and prioritizing the safety of intimate partner violence survivors in family policy interventions.
In recent years, haze pollution in China has garnered significant attention from both the government and the public, with vehicle emissions being identified as a key source of pollution. This study analyzes the impact of the tail number restriction policy (TNRP) on air quality using daily data from Lanzhou, China, in 2020, by employing the regression discontinuity in time (RDiT) method. The results show that the TNRP significantly reduced the air quality index (AQI) and concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, NO2, and CO, indicating a positive effect on air quality, though this is not a long-term standalone solution. Unlike previous policies, the current TNRP restricts traffic during peak hours, yielding consistent effects. This study recommends continuing the restriction policy and developing a comprehensive environmental governance system to promote new energy vehicles and enhance public transportation infrastructure.
We estimate an equilibrium sorting model of housing location and commuting mode choice with endogenous traffic congestion to evaluate urban transportation policies. Leveraging fine-scale data from travel diaries and housing transactions identifying residents' home and work locations, we recover rich preference heterogeneity over both travel mode and residential location decisions. While different policies produce the same congestion reduction, their impacts on social welfare differ drastically. In addition, sorting undermines the congestion reduction under driving restrictions and subway expansion but strengthens it under congestion pricing. The combination of congestion pricing and subway expansion delivers the greatest congestion relief and efficiency gains. (JEL H76, O18, P25, R23, R31, R41, R48)
This article examines the film Hoy no circula (A day without a car) co-directed by Rafael Montero and Víctor Ugalde in 1993. The experiences of motorized mobility in Mexico City in general, and particularly the impact on drivers of the implementation of the Hoy no circula Program, a measure that, in order to reduce pollution, limited the circulation of automobiles in the Mexican capital, is investigated. With the help of the cinema, it's propounded that the car use constitutes an everyday practice that sheds light on the uses and effects that the space produces in the inhabitant.
Air pollution caused by high transport-related emissions is already a serious problem, whereas user heterogeneity results in most of the existing emission reduction instruments cannot being applied in practice, despite reducing social inequity. In this paper, we propose an emission trading scheme (ETS) based on a dual-market mechanism in a multimode network with heterogeneous users in value of time (VOT), in order to primarily achieve the objective of emission reduction while taking equity promotion into account. Specifically, emission permits are issued in the primary market and travelers trade permits freely in the secondary market by bearing transaction cost which are assumed to be asymmetrically split between buyers and sellers. The High-Occupancy-Vehicle-based cyclic carbon emission permit (HOV-based CCEP) scheme is applied in the ETS as permit charges to better achieve the objectives. Unlike the previous studies of charging scheme, the compensatory permit rates in our model could be charged from private car (PC) passengers, waived for customized bus (CB) passengers and subsidized for public transit (PT) passengers. The market trading processes considering transaction cost and travel choice behaviors are formulated as a variational inequality problem (VIP). The multimode equilibrium solution of which is obtained by developing a relaxation algorithm with a multi-round iteration strategy. Finally, we conduct numerical experiments based on Braess and Sioux Falls networks to demonstrate the merits of the proposed model and reveal the results that highlight the importance of ETS and multiple public transport modes in the heterogeneous system for emission reduction and equity promotion.
Exposure to airborne pollution has substantial adverse health consequences. Governments around the world have paid attention to this problem and started to take action to mitigate its harmful effects. In this paper, we investigate how a change in the consumption tax structure affects car emissions by exploiting exogenous variation from a natural experiment that took place in China. Our results show that this tax policy, which doubled the imposition paid on cars with large engines, reduced the emissions of all the pollutants studied, with the most significant decrease of 11% noted in Particulate Matter and Carbon Monoxide. These results have strong policy implications. By showing the effectiveness of this policy, we uncover the possible benefits of replicating it in different contexts. Further, by using information from COPERT, a totally new approach to evaluate tax and environmental policies, we propose new tools for policymakers to generate rich and detailed data that can be used in different contexts to evaluate policies where data from the population of automobiles is needed.
This paper tests for potential cross-border substitution in casino gambling between Illinois and Missouri due to the launch of sports betting in Illinois. Using casino-level gambling revenue and admissions data, difference-in-differences, event study analysis, and regression discontinuity design, our findings suggest that the launch of sports betting increased casino revenues and admissions in the Illinois casinos and decreased revenue and admissions in Missouri casinos close to the border of Illinois and Missouri. Thus, Missouri not only lost potential sports betting tax revenue but also tax revenue from casino gambling revenue and admissions resulting from cross-border substitution between Missouri and Illinois after the launch of sports betting. The size of the lost casino and foregone sports betting tax revenues suggests Missouri and other states in similar circumstances are likely to experience continued fiscal pressure to legalize sports betting despite possible moral objections or an intent to minimize social costs through prohibition.
Developing country megacities suffer from severe road traffic congestion, yet the level of congestion is not a direct measure of equilibrium inefficiency. I study the peak‐hour traffic congestion equilibrium in Bangalore. To measure travel preferences, I use a model of departure time choice to design a field experiment with congestion pricing policies and implement it using precise GPS data. Commuter responses in the experiment reveal moderate schedule inflexibility and a high value of time. I then show that in Bangalore, traffic density has a moderate and linear impact on travel delay. My policy simulations with endogenous congestion indicate that optimal congestion charges would lead to a small reduction in travel times, and small commuter welfare gains. This result is driven primarily by the shape of the congestion externality. Overall, these results suggest limited commuter welfare benefits from peak‐spreading traffic policies in cities like Bangalore.
Amidst escalating environmental concerns, regional cooperation has emerged as a potent strategy for environmental preservation. Yet, the potency of such cooperation in curbing air pollution remains largely unexplored and nebulous. Drawing upon a decade-long (2010–2019) new data from the dynamic Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA), this study seeks to fill these knowledge gaps. Our findings underscore the transformative potential of regional cooperation in mitigating air pollution. By catalyzing technological advancements, fostering structural shifts in businesses, and reshaping land-use patterns, regional cooperation paves the way for a cleaner, healthier environment. A deeper dive into the heterogeneity reveals that "top to bottom" city agreements within regional cooperation frameworks significantly enhance air quality. While institutional and economic collaborations prove instrumental in reducing air pollution, social cooperation appears to have a lesser impact. Research findings indicate that the future will necessitate strengthening formal, institutionalized regional cooperation to address potential challenges posed by environmental pollution.
This review discusses the role of road transport policies in achieving the European Union's ambitious zero-emission target for the transportation sector by 2050 and provides an overview of the empirical literature that studies the effectiveness of urban transport policies. The analysis is divided into two parts. First, we study policies that are relevant in the transitional phase from internal combustion engine vehicles to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), then we discuss policies that will remain relevant as we switch entirely to BEVs. In the best-case scenario, the transition can be driven by fuel taxes, but in case fuel taxes are not feasible or acceptable, a combination of penalties for buying polluting vehicles and subsidies for scrappage of such vehicles might be the best compromise. In the long run, road space will be increasingly at a premium, and to ensure its efficient use, increasingly sophisticated road-pricing policies will be needed.
The introduction of the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed rail (Launch) and the Wenzhou bullet-train collision (Crash) in China provided a unique occasion to study the effect of competition on price dispersion. Results show that price dispersion increased by about 48% after the Launch, as airlines offered greater discounts to price-elastic consumers than to price-inelastic consumers. By contrast, price dispersion decreased by about 55% after the Crash, as airlines raised prices more for price-elastic consumers than for price-inelastic consumers.
Progress in urban climatology over the two decades since the first publication of the International Journal of Climatology is reviewed. It is emphasized that urban climatology during this period has benefited from conceptual advances made in microclimatology and boundary-layer climatology in general. The role of scale, heterogeneity, dynamic source areas for turbulent fluxes and the complexity introduced by the roughness sublayer over the tall, rigid roughness elements of cities is described. The diversity of urban heat islands, depending on the medium sensed and the sensing technique, is explained. The review focuses on two areas within urban climatology. First, it assesses advances in the study of selected urban climatic processes relating to urban atmospheric turbulence (including surface roughness) and exchange processes for energy and water, at scales of consideration ranging from individual facets of the urban environment, through streets and city blocks to neighbourhoods. Second, it explores the literature on the urban temperature field. The state of knowledge about urban heat islands around 1980 is described and work since then is assessed in terms of similarities to and contrasts with that situation. Finally, the main advances are summarized and recommendations for urban climate work in the future are made. Copyright © 2003 Royal Meteorological Society.
En este trabajo se discute la problemática de la contaminación del aire en tres megaciudades de América Latina (Ciudad de México, São Paulo y Santiago); en particular se revisan los programas de control de la contaminación atmosférica que han puesto en marcha los gobiernos de esas ciudades y la evolución de los niveles de contaminantes durante el periodo 1988-1995 en Santiago de Chile y São Paulo, y hasta 1997 en la Ciudad de México, con el objeto de evaluar el impacto de esos programas. En las tres megaciudades se observó un descenso en las concentraciones de PTS, PM10, SO2, NO2, CO y O3 durante el periodo mencionado, aunque la mayoría de los contaminantes siguen rebasando la norma de calidad del aire. Cabe destacar que el mayor impacto de los programas ha sido sobre los niveles de SO2. Se recomienda el desarrollo de políticas de transporte sostenible; en ese sentido, en la Conferencia Europea de Ministros del Transporte la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico (OCDE) propuso distintas estrategias. Por otra parte, la participación ciudadana es importante al tomar decisiones relacionadas con las políticas de transporte.
The authors review the economic principles that should guide the efficient choice of targeted policies for environmental protection. They recommend policy instruments along three dimensions: (1) whether they use economic incentives; (2) whether they target environmental damage directly; and (3) whether they specify prices, quantities, or technologies. This distinction is helpful in guiding policy choices because many discussions in the economics literature on environmental policies mistakenly claim advantages for incentive-based instruments by showing, for instance, that direct policies of this sort are less costly than indirect non-incentive measures. After analyzing efficient responses to the air pollution problem, the authors come up with somewhat surprising results. For three of the cities (Ankara, Los Angeles, and Mexico City), the efficient instruments selected by this (admittedly limited) exercise are similar: indirect incentive-based policies. Only Cubatao differs in that direct non-incentive regulations are the efficient policy choice. But choosing indirect policy instruments is not without its problems. This category is the broadest one. For instance, while there is only a single direct incentive-based price instrument (emissions taxes), several indirect incentive-based price policies exist including taxes on inputs and on complementary and substitute products. Indirect policies also cannot simultaneously target the incentives to reduce waste generation, production efficiency, and reduce output to reduce pollution. A combination of indirect policies will then be required to control pollution. But if the regulatory costs of controlling additional variables are high they may outweigh the cost of monitoring and enforcing a single direct policy. Finally, indirect regulations may be accompanied by perverse incentives, such as new source bias or reduced marginal costs of polluting. Efforts to offset these perverse incentives by regulating additional variables may be subject to second-best problems: two regulations with opposite results can be costlier than no regulation at all. The main lesson the authors draw from the cases examined: Once decisions are made - whether to concentrate industry, to rely on private vehicles for transportation, to subsidize a particular energy source, or to use a certain environmental policy - they acquire a certain performance. Capital is invested and workers are trained under the prevailing laws, and these are costly to change. Los Angeles cannot reverse its emphasis on the automobile; Brazil cannot easily move its industrial center away from Cubatao; Mexico cannot quickly reduce the concentration in its capital city; and Turkey's development would suffer if energy subsidies were removed abruptly. For this reason, it is important to design policy with an eye toward longer-run concerns. It makes sense, for example, for cities such as Ankara to begin to enact policies to prevent mobile source pollution from worsening over the next decades. The authors also point out the dangers of ignoring intermedia substitution of pollutants. In places such as Cubatao, where air quality has been cleaned up, the improvement may have come at the expense of water quality or the accumulation of hazardous wastes.
This 55 pages document has been included in the box of supplemental material distributed in class. Summary The Mexico City Metropolitan Area (Zona Metropolitana del Valle de Mexico (ZMVM)) has witnessed high levels of air pollution in past few decades. Recent efforts to curb emissions have been reasonably successful, and 1999 had the lowest overall level of air pollution during the last decade. With the exception of lead and sulfur dioxide (SO2), however, pollution levels are still far above current air quality standards. Further efforts to reduce polluting emissions are being developed by the Comision Ambiental Metropolitana (CAM) under the Third Air Quality Program 2000–2010. The second project under this program aims to substantially improve air quality in terms of reduced concentrations of particulates (PM10), ozone, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) by 2010. These Air Quality Plans are based on the Clean Air Initiative for Latin America, which was established by the World Bank to improve the health of the population and to reduce the number of environment-related alerts in the metropolitan area. This study presents
Recent studies have reported associations between particulate air pollution and daily mortality rates. Population-based, cross-sectional studies of metropolitan areas in the United States have also found associations between particulate air pollution and annual mortality rates, but these studies have been criticized, in part because they did not directly control for cigarette smoking and other health risks.
In this prospective cohort study, we estimated the effects of air pollution on mortality, while controlling for individual risk factors. Survival analysis, including Cox proportional-hazards regression modeling, was conducted with data from a 14-to-16-year mortality follow-up of 8111 adults in six U.S. cities.
Mortality rates were most strongly associated with cigarette smoking. After adjusting for smoking and other risk factors, we observed statistically significant and robust associations between air pollution and mortality. The adjusted mortality-rate ratio for the most polluted of the cities as compared with the least polluted was 1.26 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.08 to 1.47). Air pollution was positively associated with death from lung cancer and cardiopulmonary disease but not with death from other causes considered together. Mortality was most strongly associated with air pollution with fine particulates, including sulfates.
Although the effects of other, unmeasured risk factors cannot be excluded with certainty, these results suggest that fine-particulate air pollution, or a more complex pollution mixture associated with fine particulate matter, contributes to excess mortality in certain U.S. cities.
A ban restricting each car from driving on a specified weekday is found to have increased total driving in Mexico City. Because
of the ban, cars effectively represent “driving permits,” and some households have bought an additional car and increased
their driving. Greater use of old cars, congestion effects, and increased weekend driving may also have contributed to the
disappointing results. The ban has high welfare costs and does not deliver the intended benefits of reduced driving—quite
the contrary.
The experience provides an interesting lesson in applied welfare economics. Theory indicates that this is a costly way of
reducing traffic and pollution. But the finding that the strategy is counterproductive could be made only with applied quantitative
analysis.
Many large cities in the world have serious ground level ozone problems, largely the product of vehicular emissions and thus the argued unsustainability of current urban growth patterns is frequently blamed on unrestricted private vehicle use. This article reviews Mexico City's experience with vehicle use restrictions as an emissions control program and develops the conditions for optimal quantitative restrictions on vehicle use and for complementary abatement technologies. The stochastic nature of air pollution outcomes is modelled explicitly in both the static and dynamic formulations of the control problem, in which for the first time in the literature the use of tradeable vehicle use permits is proposed as a cost-effective complement to technological abatement for mobile emissions control. This control regime gives the authorities a broader and more flexible set of instruments with which to deal more effectively with vehicle emissions, and with seasonal and stochastic variation of air quality outcomes. The market in tradeable vehicle use permits would be very competitive with low transactions costs. This control policy would have very favorable impacts on air quality, vehicle congestion and on urban form and development. Given the general political resistance to environmental taxes, this program could constitute a workable and politically palatable set of policies for controlling greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 1997
This paper considers the modeling of road congestion subject to peak-load demand. The standard model contains ambiguities and is poorly specified. These problems can be eliminated by working with a structural model that explicitly treats the congestion technology and drivers' behavioral decisions. The paper provides a detailed analysis of a particular structural model--William Vickrey' s model of bottleneck congestion in the morning rush-hour auto commute extended to treat elastic (i.e., price-sensitive) demand--and examin es some economic implications of the structural approach. Copyright 1993 by American Economic Association.
This paper assesses whether responses to information about risk impact estimates of the relationship between ozone and asthma in Southern California. Using a regression discontinuity design, I find smog alerts significantly reduce daily attendance at two major outdoor facilities. Using daily time-series regression models that include year-month and small area fixed effects, I find estimates of the effect of ozone for children and the elderly that include information are significantly larger than estimates that do not. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that individuals take substantial action to reduce exposure to risk; estimates ignoring these actions are severely biased.
Air pollution in the Valley of Mexico results from the interaction of a rapidly growing urban population with a problematic geographical setting. Use of fossil fuels in an elevated, tropical, mountain-rimmed basin generates pollution levels that exceeed recommended standards. Control strategies include driving bans, expansion of public transportation, use of alternative fuels, factory closures, and industrial relocations. These strategies generally do not consider geographical variables. -Authors
There are constraints on pricing congestible facilities. First, if heterogeneous users are observationally indistinguishable, then congestion charges must be anonymous. Second, the time variation of congestion charges may be constrained. Do these constraints undermine the feasibility of marginal cost pricing, and hence the applicability of the first-best theory of congestible facilities? For an important class of congestible facilities, we show that if heterogeneous users behave identically when using the facility and if the time variation of congestion charges is unconstrained, then marginal cost pricing is feasible with anonymous congestion charges. If, however, the time variation of congestion charges is constrained, optimal pricing with anonymous congestion charges entails Ramsey pricing.
The University of Denver remote sensor for automobile exhaust was set up for nine days at five locations in the Mexico City area. A total of 31,838 valid readings for CO and HC emissions were obtained. The emissions distribution was unlike any other we have observed in North America or Europe, in that the emissions for both CO and HC were vastly greater than seen elsewhere. The readings are discussed in terms of the fraction of CO and HC which would be measured by a tailpipe probe, and in terms of grams emitted per gallon of gasoline. The median CO emission was 3.8 percent, with half of the CO emissions coming from the 24 percent of the fleet with over 6.6 percent CO in the exhaust. The median HC emission was 1,100 parts per million measured as propane equivalent, while half the emissions come from twelve percent of the fleet with more than 4,000 ppm propane equivalent in the exhaust.
Ozone and particulates are two of the most important atmospheric pollutants in terms of human health. Elevated ozone was first associated with smog events in cities with heavy automobile traffic, especially Los Angeles. Elevated ozone and particulates also occur in multiday events over regions 2000. km or more in extent, including both urban and rural areas. These occur in densely populated industrialized regions of the United States, Europe, the Mediterranean, and (more recently) China. Ozone and particulates both have serious effects on human health, cause damage to agricultural crops, and affect climate. Formation of ozone and particulates involves chemical production from organics and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight and warm temperatures. The process is significantly impacted by biogenic emission of organics, primarily from trees. In recent years, pollution controls have been partially successful in reducing ozone and particulate levels in the United States and Europe. This chapter describes the formation process for ozone and particulates, their relation to organics, nitrogen oxides, biogenic emissions, atmospheric dynamics and global cycles, impacts on health, agriculture, and climate.
In this book, Professors Baumol and Oates provide a rigorous and comprehensive analysis of the economic theory of environmental policy. They present a formal, theoretical treatment of those factors influencing the quality of life. By covering both the theory of externalities and its application to environmental policy, the authors have retained the basic structure and organization of the first edition, which has become a standard reference in the field. In this edition, however, they have updated their analysis to incorporate recent research in environmental economics.
The Mexico City Air Quality Research Initiative was a 3-yr international collaborative project to develop or adapt a set of air quality management decision analysis tools for Mexico City and make them available to Mexican policy makers. The project comprised three tasks: modeling and simulation, characterization and measurement, and strategic evaluation. A prognostic, mesoscale meteorological model was adapted to the region of Mexico City and linked to a 3-D airshed model. These were extensively tested against data from the air quality monitoring network and from three intensive field campaigns. The interaction between policy and science was promoted through the development of a formal multiattribute decision analysis model to evaluate alternative control strategies. The project benefited by having researchers from both nations working side by side as peers, by having both nations investing resources and having an interest in the success of the project, and by having an objective, not of advocacy, but of the application of science to problem solving.
The present paper describes the climatology of the near surface urban heat island of Mexico City, using hourly data from two recently installed automatic stations at a rural and an urban site. The results show that the nocturnal heat island was more frequent (75% of the time for the period examined) than daytime cases (25%). The maximum nocturnal heat island intensity, 7.8°C was observed in a dry month (February) characterized by calm clear nights. Although less frequent, the daytime heat islands did occur and may have been caused by differences in evaporative cooling from wet surface during the wet season. Midday heat islands had a frequency of 13% and an intensity of 3–5°C during the wet season. The afternoon/evening heat islands had an intensity of 4–5°C. They occurred during both dry and wet season with a frequency of 12% of the time in a year. The average urban/rural thermal contrasts are positive throughout the year varying from 5°C at day break in the middle of the dry season to 1–3°C around noon during the wet months.
Information from the Mandatory Inspection and Maintenance (I/M) Program carried out in October 1996 and the first semester of 1998 provides a useful emission database for Mexico City. Carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) exhaust emission levels were measured for at least a million private and public transportation vehicles. Analysis of this database leads us to conclude that this information can be used to test anti-pollutant policies, and is useful as a performance quality index for vehicle manufacturers. Some of the results of this analysis include: the finding of a typical exhaust emission distribution curve for each vehicle manufacturer, with differences for each brand and model for the same manufacturer, the fact that not all new vehicles pass the I/M test; and public transportation vehicles in Mexico City have almost useless catalytic converters.
Scitation is the online home of leading journals and conference proceedings from AIP Publishing and AIP Member Societies
World Development Indicators, the World Bank's respected statistical publication presents the most current and accurate information on global development on both a national level and aggregated globally. This information allows readers to monitor the progress made toward meeting the goals endorsed by the United Nations and its member countries, the World Bank, and a host of partner organizations in September 2001 in their Millennium Development Goals. The print edition of World Development Indicators 2005 allows you to consult over 80 tables and over 800 indicators for 152 economies and 14 country groups, as well as basic indicators for a further 55 economies. There are key indicators for the latest year available, important regional data, and income group analysis. The report contains six thematic presentations of analytical commentary covering: World View, People, Environment, Economy, States and Markets, and Global Links.
It is common practice to use sensible rules of thumb for cleaning data. Measurement error is often the justification for removing (trimming) or recoding (winsorizing) observations where the dependent variable has values that lie outside a specified range. We consider a general measurement error process that nests many plausible models. Analytic results demonstrate that winsorizing and trimming are solutions for a narrow class of error processes. Indeed such procedures can induce or exacerbate bias. Monte Carlo simulations and empirical results demonstrate the fragility of cleaning. Even on root mean square error criteria, we cannot find generalizable justifications for these procedures.
We examine the impact of air pollution on infant death in California over the 1990s. Our work offers several innovations: first, most previous studies examine populations subject to far greater levels of pollution. Second, many studies examine a single pollutant in isolation. We examine three "criteria" pollutants in a common framework. Third, we use rich individual-level data and pollution measured at the weekly level. Our most novel finding is a significant effect of CO on infant mortality: we find that reductions in carbon monoxide over the 1990s saved approximately 1000 infant lives in California. © 2005 MIT Press
The 1981–1982 recession induced substantial variation across sites in air pollution reductions. This is used to estimate the
impact of total suspended particulates (TSPs) on infant mortality. We find that a 1-percent reduction in TSPs results in a
0.35 percent decline in the infant mortality rate at the county level, implying that 2500 fewer infants died from 1980–1982
than would have in the absence of the TSPs reductions. Most of these effects are driven by fewer deaths occurring within one
month of birth, suggesting that fetal exposure is a potential pathophysiologic mechanism. The analysis also reveals nonlinear
effects of TSPs pollution and greater sensitivity of black infant mortality at the county level. Importantly, the estimates
are stable across a variety of specifications.
Significant associations have been reported between particles with a 50% cut-off aerodynamic diameter of 10 mm (PM10) and ozone ambient concentrations, and daily number of deaths from respiratory causes. The aim of the present study was to assess such associations among elderly (> or =65 yrs) residents of Mexico City. Ambient air pollution data were provided by the Metropolitan Monitoring Network. During the study period, the average daily PM10 ranged 23.4-175.3 microg x m(-3), and ozone 1 h daily maximums ranged 39.4-216.7 ppb. Information was compiled on the primary and underlying causes of death. The analyses were conducted separately according to place of death (within or out of a hospital unit) using time-series methodology. The total number of deaths from all respiratory causes and mortality for chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) were significantly related to PM10 over different lags: an increase of 10 microg x m(-3) was related to a 2.9% (95% (CI): 0.9-4.9%) increase and to a 4.1% (95% CI: 1.3%-6.9%) increase with a 3-day lag when death occurred out of medical units, respectively. For deaths occurring in medical units, a longer lag and smaller risk estimate was observed. An interactive effect between PM10 and ozone was detected. This study confirms that there is an important impact of PM10 on respiratory morbidity among elderly subjects. It also indicates that accounting for primary and underlying causes of death, and considering place of death may reduce misclassification and provide more accurate estimates of the adverse impact of PM10 on mortality.
Receptors for the Fc portion of IgG (FcγRs) are essential mediators of the inflammatory effect of immune complexes and cytotoxic antibodies. This function is critical for effective clearance of pathogens, but it can also result in the development of a variety of autoimmune disorders brought about by IgG autoantibodies, such as autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AHA), idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura (ITP), and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Additionally, Fc receptor engagement plays a central role in the therapeutic use of cytotoxic antibodies for the treatment of infectious and neoplastic diseases. These important functions of IgG Fc receptors in triggering protective or autoimmune inflammatory responses have been revealed largely through the characterization of mice deficient in FcγRs (Ravetch and Bolland, 2001). To date, three classes of receptors for IgG have been identified in the mouse: FcγRI, FcγRIIB, and FcγRIII. These classes can themselves be placed into two groups: the activating receptors FcγRI and FcγRIII, characterized by their association with an ITAM-containing signaling component that initiates a kinase activation cascade, and the inhibitory receptor FcγRIIB, characterized by the presence of an ITIM sequence that recruits inhibitory phosphatases that limit effective signaling. FcR of the activating class bind IgG either with relatively high affinity (10⁸–10⁹ M⁻¹) in the case of FcγRI or with such low affinity that they can only bind aggregated immunoglobulin, as is the case with FcγRIII. Because of FcγRI’s high affinity for IgG, its binding sites are most likely always occupied with serum monomeric IgG. This, and the fact that expression of FcγRI is low in nonactivated cells, has made its physiological role in triggering inflammatory responses somewhat less clear than that of FcγRIII.
This paper describes a simple method of calculating a heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation consistent covariance matrix that is positive semi-definite by construction. It also establishes consistency of the estimated covariance matrix under fairly general conditions.
Ž. THE REGRESSION DISCONTINUITY RD data design is a quasi-experimental design with the defining characteristic that the probability of receiving treatment changes discontinuously as a function of one or more underlying variables. This data design arises frequently in economic and other applications but is only infrequently exploited as a source of identifying information in evaluating effects of a treatment. In the first application and discussion of the RD method, Thistlethwaite and Campbell Ž. 1960 study the effect of student scholarships on career aspirations, using the fact that awards are only made if a test score exceeds a threshold. More recently, Van der Klaauw Ž. 1997 estimates the effect of financial aid offers on students’ decisions to attend a particular college, taking into account administrative rules that set the aid amount partly on the basis of a discontinuous function of the students’ grade point average and SAT Ž. score. Angrist and Lavy 1999 estimate the effect of class size on student test scores, taking advantage of a rule stipulating that another classroom be added when the average Ž. class size exceeds a threshold level. Finally, Black 1999 uses an RD approach to estimate parents’ willingness to pay for higher quality schools by comparing housing prices near geographic school attendance boundaries. Regression discontinuity methods have potentially broad applicability in economic research, because geographic boundaries or rules governing programs often create discontinuities in the treatment assignment mechanism that can be exploited under the method. Although there have been several discussions and applications of RD methods in the literature, important questions still remain concerning sources of identification and ways of estimating treatment effects under minimal parametric restrictions. Here, we show that identifying conditions invoked in previous applications of RD methods are often overly strong and that treatment effects can be nonparametrically identified under an RD design by a weak functional form restriction. The restriction is unusual in that it requires imposing continuity assumptions in order to take advantage of the known discontinuity in the treatment assignment mechanism. We also propose a way of nonparametrically estimating treatment effects and offer an interpretation of the Wald estimator as an RD estimator.
Iatrogenic Specification Error: Cleaning Data Can Exacerbate Measurement Error Bias
- Bollinger
- Christopher
- Chandra
Bollinger, Christopher, and Amitabh Chandra. 2005. “Iatrogenic Specification Error: Cleaning Data Can Exacerbate Measurement Error Bias.” J. Labor Econ. 23 (2): 235–57
Congestion Theory and Transport Investment
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Does Air Quality Matter? Evidence from the Housing Market
———. 2005. " Does Air Quality Matter? Evidence from the Housing Market. "
J.P.E. 113 (2): 376–424.
Secretaría del Medio Ambiente Actualización del programa Hoy No Circula
- Gobierno Del
- Distrito Federal
Gobierno del Distrito Federal. Secretaría del Medio Ambiente. 2004a. Actualización del programa Hoy No Circula. Mexico City: Secretaría del Medio Ambiente.
Environmental Protection Agency) Latest Findings on National Air Quality: 2002 Status and Trends
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2003. " Latest Findings on National Air Quality: 2002 Status and Trends. " EPA 454/K-03-001. Washington,
DC: U.S. EPA.