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Cognitive-Adaptation Training for Improving Performance and Stress Management of Air Force Pilots
Abstract and Figures
This study investigated the effects of cognitive-adaptation training on flight performance and stress management in a sample of pilot cadets who were undergoing a basic flying program (N = 21). The aim of the training was to enhance the participants' awareness of the cognitive processes that they used in a given situation, and to strengthen reflective processes. Cadets were assigned to a training group or to a control group. In-flight performance, stress-management mode, anxiety, and mood were measured. A significant pre- to posttraining improvement in in-flight performance was observed for the lowest ranked cadets in the training group. Anxiety and mood scores did not differ significantly between the training and control groups. However, trained cadets reported changing their stress-management mode. On the whole, these results indicate that cognitive-adaptation training of the type used in this study can enhance both cognitive and emotional adaptation skills.
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... The only military study to measure performance reported no significant difference in improvement in flight score after cognitive-adaptation training (Fornette et al., 2012). A police debriefing resulted in no differences in performance relative to usual processes (Carlier, Voerman, and Gersons, 2000), whereas imagery training increased police performance after a simulated event relative to usual training (Arnetz et al., 2009). ...
... Table 4.1 summarizes the findings. Biggs et al., 2016;Carlier, Voerman, and Gersons, 2000;Castro et al., 2012;Deahl et al., 1994;Foran et al., 2013;Fornette et al., 2012;Greenberg et al., 2010;Hourani et al., 2018;Ilnicki et al., 2012;Jones et al., 2012;Mulligan et al., 2012;Pinna et al., 2017;Roy, Highland, and Costanzo, 2015;Shipherd, Salters-Pedneault, and Fordiani, 2016;Sipos et al., 2012;Sipos et al., 2014;Stetz et al., 2009;Twardzicki and Jones, 2017;Young, 2012;Zimmermann et al., 2015) Publication bias Mixed results for physiological outcomes in 2 studies; 1 study reported no effect on coping skills; 1 study reported reduced risk of (PCL > 40) at 24 months but no effect on SMD in PCL score ...
... Help-seeking stigma 2 RCTs (Mulligan et al., 2012;); 4 cohort comparisons (Russell et al., 2014;Twardzicki and Jones, 2017;Watson and Andrews, 2018;Gould, Greenberg, and Hetherton, 2007) Not applicable Meta-regression was not possible Insufficient Return to duty 8 case studies with no comparator (Holsenbeck, 1992;Hassan et al., 2010;Hoyt et al., 2015;Hung, 2008 Biggs et al., 2016;Carlier, Voerman, and Gersons, 2000;Castro et al., 2012;Deahl et al., 1994;Foran et al., 2013;Fornette et al., 2012;Greenberg et al., 2010;Hourani et al., 2018;Ilnicki et al., 2012;Mulligan et al., 2012;Pinna et al., 2017;Roy, Highland, and Costanzo, 2015;Shipherd, Salters-Pedneault, and Fordiani, 2016;Sipos et al., 2012;Sipos et al., 2014;Stetz et al., 2009;Twardzicki and Jones, 2017;Young, 2012;Zimmermann et al., 2015); 18 case studies in 19 articles (Bryan and Morrow, 2011;Bush, Ouellette, and Kinn, 2014;Carr et al., 2013;Gahm et al., 2009;Garber and Zamorski, 2012;Griffith and West, 2013;Hourani et al., 2017;Jarrett, 2013;Jones et al., 2011;Burdett et al., 2011;Judkins and Bradley, 2017; (Wesemann et al., 2016;Tuckey and Scott, 2014;Wilson et al., 2001;Cacioppo et al., 2015); 4 cohort comparisons (Larsson, Michel, and Lundin, 2000;Deahl et al., 1994;Gould, Greenberg, and Hetherton, 2007) Indirect Biggs, 2016;Carlier, Voerman, and Gersons, 2000;Castro et al., 2012;Deahl et al., 1994;Foran et al., 2013;Fornette et al., 2012;Greenberg et al., 2010;Hourani et al., 2018;Ilnicki et al., 2012;Mulligan et al., 2012;Pinna et al., 2017;Roy, Highland, and Costanzo, 2015;Shipherd, Salters-Pedneault, and Fordiani, 2016;Sipos et al., 2012;Sipos et al., 2014;Stetz et al., 2009;Twardzicki and Jones, 2017;Young, 2012;Zimmermann et al., 2015); 18 case studies in 19 articles (Bryan and Morrow, 2011;Bush, Ouellette, and Kinn, 2014;Carr et al., 2013;Gahm et al., 2009;Garber and Zamorski, 2012;Griffith and West, 2013;Hourani et al., 2017;Jarrett, 2013;Jones et al., 2011;Burdett et al., 2011;Judkins and Bradley, 2017; Overall, meta-analyses found that COSC programs had no significant difference in effect on sleep, alcohol misuse, anxiety, depression, PTSD symptoms (usually measured by PCL score), or help-seeking stigma compared with active interventions, such as a single, standard stressmanagement class. Meta-analyses also found no significant effect on alcohol misuse, depression, PTSD symptoms, PTSD case rate, stress level, or help-seeking stigma compared with no intervention. ...
Military personnel, police officers, firefighters, and other first responders must prepare for and respond to life-threatening crises on a daily basis. This lifestyle places stress on personnel, and particularly so on military personnel who may be isolated from support systems and other resources. The authors conducted a systematic review of studies of interventions designed to prevent, identify, and manage acute occupational stress among military, law enforcement, and first responders. The body of evidence consisted of 38 controlled trials, 35 cohort comparisons, and 42 case studies with no comparison group, reported in 136 publications. Interventions consisted of resilience training, stress inoculation with biofeedback, mindfulness, psychological first aid, front-line mental health centers, two- to seven-day restoration programs, debriefing (including critical incident stress debriefing), third-location decompression, postdeployment mental health screening, reintegration programs, and family-centered programs. Study limitations (risk of bias), directness, consistency, precision, and publication bias were considered in rating the quality of evidence for each outcome area. Overall, interventions had positive effects on return to duty, absenteeism, and distress. However, there was no significant impact on symptoms of psychological disorders such as PTSD, depression, and anxiety. Because of study limitations, inconsistency of results, indirectness, and possible publication bias, there was insufficient evidence to form conclusions about the effects of most specific intervention types, components, settings, or specific populations.
... The only military study to measure performance reported no significant difference in improvement in flight score after cognitive-adaptation training (Fornette et al., 2012). A police debriefing resulted in no differences in performance relative to usual processes (Carlier, Voerman, and Gersons, 2000), whereas imagery training increased police performance after a simulated event relative to usual training (Arnetz et al., 2009). ...
... Table 4.1 summarizes the findings. Biggs et al., 2016;Carlier, Voerman, and Gersons, 2000;Castro et al., 2012;Deahl et al., 1994;Foran et al., 2013;Fornette et al., 2012;Greenberg et al., 2010;Hourani et al., 2018;Ilnicki et al., 2012;Jones et al., 2012;Mulligan et al., 2012;Pinna et al., 2017;Roy, Highland, and Costanzo, 2015;Shipherd, Salters-Pedneault, and Fordiani, 2016;Sipos et al., 2012;Sipos et al., 2014;Stetz et al., 2009;Twardzicki and Jones, 2017;Young, 2012;Zimmermann et al., 2015) Publication bias Mixed results for physiological outcomes in 2 studies; 1 study reported no effect on coping skills; 1 study reported reduced risk of (PCL > 40) at 24 months but no effect on SMD in PCL score ...
... Help-seeking stigma 2 RCTs (Mulligan et al., 2012;); 4 cohort comparisons (Russell et al., 2014;Twardzicki and Jones, 2017;Watson and Andrews, 2018;Gould, Greenberg, and Hetherton, 2007) Not applicable Meta-regression was not possible Insufficient Return to duty 8 case studies with no comparator (Holsenbeck, 1992;Hassan et al., 2010;Hoyt et al., 2015;Hung, 2008 Biggs et al., 2016;Carlier, Voerman, and Gersons, 2000;Castro et al., 2012;Deahl et al., 1994;Foran et al., 2013;Fornette et al., 2012;Greenberg et al., 2010;Hourani et al., 2018;Ilnicki et al., 2012;Mulligan et al., 2012;Pinna et al., 2017;Roy, Highland, and Costanzo, 2015;Shipherd, Salters-Pedneault, and Fordiani, 2016;Sipos et al., 2012;Sipos et al., 2014;Stetz et al., 2009;Twardzicki and Jones, 2017;Young, 2012;Zimmermann et al., 2015); 18 case studies in 19 articles (Bryan and Morrow, 2011;Bush, Ouellette, and Kinn, 2014;Carr et al., 2013;Gahm et al., 2009;Garber and Zamorski, 2012;Griffith and West, 2013;Hourani et al., 2017;Jarrett, 2013;Jones et al., 2011;Burdett et al., 2011;Judkins and Bradley, 2017; (Wesemann et al., 2016;Tuckey and Scott, 2014;Wilson et al., 2001;Cacioppo et al., 2015); 4 cohort comparisons (Larsson, Michel, and Lundin, 2000;Deahl et al., 1994;Gould, Greenberg, and Hetherton, 2007) Indirect Biggs, 2016;Carlier, Voerman, and Gersons, 2000;Castro et al., 2012;Deahl et al., 1994;Foran et al., 2013;Fornette et al., 2012;Greenberg et al., 2010;Hourani et al., 2018;Ilnicki et al., 2012;Mulligan et al., 2012;Pinna et al., 2017;Roy, Highland, and Costanzo, 2015;Shipherd, Salters-Pedneault, and Fordiani, 2016;Sipos et al., 2012;Sipos et al., 2014;Stetz et al., 2009;Twardzicki and Jones, 2017;Young, 2012;Zimmermann et al., 2015); 18 case studies in 19 articles (Bryan and Morrow, 2011;Bush, Ouellette, and Kinn, 2014;Carr et al., 2013;Gahm et al., 2009;Garber and Zamorski, 2012;Griffith and West, 2013;Hourani et al., 2017;Jarrett, 2013;Jones et al., 2011;Burdett et al., 2011;Judkins and Bradley, 2017; Overall, meta-analyses found that COSC programs had no significant difference in effect on sleep, alcohol misuse, anxiety, depression, PTSD symptoms (usually measured by PCL score), or help-seeking stigma compared with active interventions, such as a single, standard stressmanagement class. Meta-analyses also found no significant effect on alcohol misuse, depression, PTSD symptoms, PTSD case rate, stress level, or help-seeking stigma compared with no intervention. ...
Military personnel, police officers, firefighters, and other first responders must prepare for and respond to life-threatening crises on a daily basis. This lifestyle places stress on personnel, and particularly so on military personnel who may be isolated from support systems and other resources. The authors conducted a systematic review of studies of interventions designed to prevent, identify, and manage acute occupational stress among military, law enforcement, and first responders. The body of evidence consisted of 38 controlled trials, 35 cohort comparisons, and 42 case studies with no comparison group, reported in 136 publications. Interventions consisted of resilience training, stress inoculation with biofeedback, mindfulness, psychological first aid, front-line mental health centers, two- to seven-day restoration programs, debriefing (including critical incident stress debriefing), third-location decompression, postdeployment mental health screening, reintegration programs, and family-centered programs. Study limitations (risk of bias), directness, consistency, precision, and publication bias were considered in rating the quality of evidence for each outcome area. Overall, interventions had positive effects on return to duty, absenteeism, and distress. However, there was no significant impact on symptoms of psychological disorders such as PTSD, depression, and anxiety. Because of study limitations, inconsistency of results, indirectness, and possible publication bias, there was insufficient evidence to form conclusions about the effects of most specific intervention types, components, settings, or specific populations.
... Like BOOTSTRAP, Resistance to Interrogation Training 25 resulted in greater use of coping strategies. Improvements in stress management skills occurred in the Cognitive Adaptation Skills programme, 26 while aspects of social cognition (how people process, store and apply information about other people and social situations) and feelings of loneliness both improved in the Building Social Resilience programme. 27 Further positive self-efficacy and stress control effects were reported for biofeedback and arousal control during stressful training 20 although biofeedback and cognitive training did not produce significant main effects in the Pyne et al, 23 app-based deployment study. ...
Introduction
Predeployment stress management/mental health training is routinely delivered in an effort to mitigate potential adverse psychological effects. Little is known about the effectiveness of such interventions.
Methods
A systematic literature review explored research outcomes related to this subject, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses reporting guidelines. An electronic database search using key terms identified studies published between January 2007 and March 2019. Comprehensive inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied and study quality was appraised by two reviewers using 12 criteria adapted from the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist. Papers were excluded if they were allocated CASP scores ≤10 out of 24.
Results
2003 references were identified; 15 papers fulfilled inclusion criteria and quality threshold requirements. Included studies were randomised controlled trial design (n=8), quasi-experimental (n=5), case report (n=1) and cross-sectional (n=1). Duration of follow-up assessment varied from immediately postintervention to 24 months. The included studies were heterogeneous so clear recommendations relating to predeployment training for military personnel could not be made. Although somewhat disparate, predeployment interventions shared the aim of promoting prior to, during and after deployment health and well-being. Social benefits such as improved cohesion and improved stress management skills were identified in some studies, although substantial mental health and well-being benefits were not found.
Conclusions
Evidence for the effectiveness of predeployment psychological interventions is scant. Every attempt should be made to use methods and measures to facilitate comparisons across studies, to attempt a longer follow-up timescale and to clarify key trainer characteristics.
... The U.S. Army has also implemented the Mindfulness-based Mental Fitness program, with positive results. 9 Large corporations are investing ...
Following the 2015 Germanwings crash, aviation agencies around the world have drawn up new policies relating to management and monitoring of the mental health of pilots. The Mind Craft Project is a literature review that provides an overview of current practices in mindfulness meditation programs in the aviation industry and propose new mind-body programs for pilots for implementation. Mental health is an important issue for the aviation industry as it directly impacts on the wellbeing of pilots. Moreover, a pilot’s mental health can directly affect the safety of passengers and needs to be treated as a public safety issue.
This literature review has demonstrated that the implementation of a mindfulness training program could be a feasible and acceptable method for implementation in a commercial aviation environment to help ease stress, increase concentration and assist in mental health risk management. A few potential limitations to mindfulness interventions were uncovered such as the effectiveness of mindfulness for suicidal tendencies, and cultural behaviors in regards to mental health issues in the aviation industry. However, further research needed as there has been little research conducted on mind-body programs for commercial airline pilots. Recommendations were provided for a follow-up long term study.
Introduction: Being mindful and mindfulness-training have been associated with improved attention control and stress-reduction in the normal population. However, little is known about the effects of such training in high performance cohorts. Aim: The main aim of this thesis was to explore the feasibility and effects of mindfulness-training (MT) in elite cohorts operating in dynamic and taxing environments. We sought to highlight aspects related to feasibility, stress-reduction and the inhibition aspect of executive functions. The studies: This thesis comprises four studies (N = 107). The first study examined the feasibility of MT in a high-performance cohort. The study involved pre to post changes and long-term effects of 12 months of MT in a male high-performance combat aircraft cohort (n = 21), using self-report measures of mindfulness, mental skills and anxiety, followed by post-intervention interviews, and two-year follow-up. In the second study we investigated whether a computerised go/no-go test could be a reliable measure of changes in responseinhibition during whole body vibration in elite orienteering-runners (n = 19). In the third study we sought to determine if a 4-month MT intervention had a measurable impact on stress and inhibitory functioning in military aviation personnel (n = 40) during a period of prolonged high-workloads. This was a controlled study comprising two military helicopter units during their deployment-periods. Personnel in one squadron (n = 25) received MT, while personnel in the other squadron (n = 15) acted as wait-list controls. We used the same go/no-go test as in study 2 to test response inhibition, and also included a test of inhibition of stimulus-driven attentional capture. Stress-reduction was measured using saliva cortisol and self-reported mental demand on the go/no-go test. In the fourth study we investigated the association between different facets of mindfulness and inhibitory control in professional soccer players (n = 42), not yet exposed to MT, using the same computerised tests as in study 3.
To investigate the demand of psychological data collection in military pilots, questionnaire investigation was implemented and included demographic data and rank of psychological indicators. Four kinds of psychological indicators, such as personality trait, cognitive ability, emotional state, motivation, were ranked among 1–4 in four different application scenarios. The demands of psychological data collection were different among different application scenarios. Personality trait was the most important indicators in psychological selection and psychological appraisal. Emotion state was the most important indicators in mental training and mental health service. Cognitive ability was played an important role in all the four application scenarios. These results suggest that psychological data collection should be specific for the particular application scenarios and then the collected data would maximize its reference value.
Les situations inconnues, i.e. jamais rencontrées ni anticipées, peuvent survenir lors de missions aérospatiales, comme dans le cas de la mission Apollo 13. Ainsi, l’équipage du premier vol habité vers Mars traitera probablement des situations inconnues (Orasanu, 2005) dans cet environnement potentiellement contraint, volatil et extrême tout en étant isolé de l’aide du centre de contrôle sol du fait des délais de communication. Or, un équipage ne peut pas être entrainé à traiter toutes les situations et a fortiori les situations inconnues (Noe, Dachner, Saxton et Keeton, 2011). Le présent travail de recherche est donc centré sur l’amélioration de la performance opérationnelle collective face à une situation inconnue en vol spatial habité vers Mars.La littérature étudiée (McLennan, Holgate, Omodei et Wearing, 2006 ; Noe et al., 2011) indique qu’une équipe partageant des expériences augmente sa compétence. En revanche, soit cette littérature est centrée sur une activité précise, soit elle ne discrimine pas les différents types d’expérience. De plus, la préparation d’une équipe pour réagir à une situation inconnue n’est pas abordée dans cette littérature. Potentiellement influencée par le partage d’expériences au niveau collectif, la métacognition est un levier reconnu d’augmentation de la performance en résolution de problèmes. La métacognition est définie comme la cognition sur la cognition (Flavell, 1979) et est modélisée en différentes étapes de raisonnement lors de résolutions de problèmes. Néanmoins, il n’est pas établi de lien entre d’une part le suivi de ces étapes ou leur mélange entre elles (i.e. la netteté métacognitive) et d’autre part l’amélioration de la performance opérationnelle collective en résolution de problème.Pour répondre à ces problématiques, un protocole spécifique (LETUCA) a été conduit durant vingt mois. Trois équipes stables ont été mises à l’épreuve de douze problèmes conçus pour ce travail ou adaptés de la littérature. La première a partagé un maximum d’expériences, la deuxième était constituée d’équipiers vivant les mêmes expériences, mais majoritairement séparément. La troisième n’a pas vécu d’expérience particulière. Ces trois équipes sont caractérisées selon les qualités des expériences vécues relativement à un entrainement fictif à l’inconnu. Ces qualités sont déterminées par des professionnels pouvant faire face collectivement à des situations inconnues.Les résultats obtenus soutiennent l’existence d’un lien entre le partage d’expériences diversifiées et de qualité et la performance opérationnelle collective en résolution de problèmes inconnus. L’étude de la métacognition permet de préciser ce lien : aucune relation n’est établie entre la performance et le suivi ou non du modèle de métacognition retenu. En revanche, un lien est confirmé entre les hautes valeurs de netteté métacognitive et l’augmentation de la performance opérationnelle. Finalement, l’ensemble des résultats permet de construire un modèle métacognitif collectif empirique en résolution de problème.
This review summarizes the current meta-analysis literature on treatment outcomes of CBT for a wide range of psychiatric disorders. A search of the literature resulted in a total of 16 methodologically rigorous meta-analyses. Our review focuses on effect sizes that contrast outcomes for CBT with outcomes for various control groups for each disorder, which provides an overview of the effectiveness of cognitive therapy as quantified by meta-analysis. Large effect sizes were found for CBT for unipolar depression, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder with or without agoraphobia, social phobia, posttraumatic stress disorder, and childhood depressive and anxiety disorders. Effect sizes for CBT of marital distress, anger, childhood somatic disorders, and chronic pain were in the moderate range. CBT was somewhat superior to antidepressants in the treatment of adult depression. CBT was equally effective as behavior therapy in the treatment of adult depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Large uncontrolled effect sizes were found for bulimia nervosa and schizophrenia. The 16 meta-analyses we reviewed support the efficacy of CBT for many disorders. While limitations of the meta-analytic approach need to be considered in interpreting the results of this review, our findings are consistent with other review methodologies that also provide support for the efficacy CBT.
This is an important book. It addresses the question: Are human beings systematically irrational? They would be so if they were "hard-wired" to reason badly on certain types of tasks. Even if they could discover on reflection that the reasoning was bad, the unreflective tendency to reason badly would be a systematic irrationality. According to Stanovich, psychologists have shown that "people assess probabilities incorrectly, they display confirmation bias, they test hypotheses inefficiently, they violate the axioms of utility theory, they do not properly calibrate degrees of belief, they overproject their own opinions onto others, they allow prior knowledge to become implicated in deductive reasoning, they systematically underweight information about nonoccurrence when evaluat-ing covariation, and they display numerous other information-processing bi-ases." (1-2) Such cognitive psychologists as Nisbett and Ross (1980) and Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky (1982) interpret this apparently dismal typical performance as evidence of hard-wired "heuristics and biases" (whose pres-ence can be given an evolutionary explanation) which are sometimes irra-tional. Critics have proposed four alternative explanations. (1) Are the deficiencies just unsystematic performance errors of basically competent subjects due to such temporary psychological malfunctions as in-attention or memory lapses? Stanovich and West (1998a) administered to the same subjects four types of reasoning tests: syllogistic reasoning, selection, statistical reasoning, argument evaluation. They assumed that, ifmistakes were random performance errors, there would no significant correlation between scores on the different types of tests. In fact, they found modest but statisti-cally very significant correlations (at the .001 level) between all pairs of scores except those on statistical reasoning and argument evaluation. Hence, they concluded, not all mistakes on such reasoning tasks are random performance errors.
Two studies of experienced operators in a process-control plant aimed to improve diagnosis of unusual multiple faults through training. A process-tracing methodology analyzed operators' concurrent verbalizations and actions during simulated fault scenarios. In Study 1, training increased awareness of multiple faults and provided a heuristic for switching to a representation that included multiple-fault hypotheses. Training had no effect on diagnostic accuracy, although fewer incorrect single-fault hypotheses were regenerated. In Study 2, operators practiced identifying the inconsistencies between a single-fault hypothesis and fault symptoms and modifying this hypothesis into a consistent multiple-fault hypothesis. Training improved diagnostic accuracy because of improved hypothesis modification processes.
This book explores the idea that we have two minds - one being automatic, unconscious, and fast, the other controlled, conscious, and slow. In recent years, there has been great interest in so-called dual-process theories of reasoning and rationality. According to such theories, there are two distinct systems underlying human reasoning: an evolutionarily old system that is associative, automatic, unconscious, parallel, and fast; and a more recent, distinctively human system which is rule-based, controlled, conscious, serial, and slow. Within the former, processes are held to be innate and to use heuristics that evolved to solve specific adaptive problems. In the latter, processes are taken to be learned, flexible, and responsive to rational norms. Despite the attention these theories are attracting, there is still poor communication between dual-process theorists themselves, and the substantial bodies of work on dual processes in cognitive psychology and social psychology remain isolated from each other. The book brings together researchers on dual processes to summarize the latest research, highlight key issues, present different perspectives, explore implications, and provide a stimulus to further work. It includes new ideas about the human mind both by contemporary philosophers interested in broad theoretical questions about mental architecture, and by psychologists specializing in traditionally distinct and isolated fields.
- Presents an interdisciplinary exploration of dual-process theories, drawing together work from cognitive and social psychology, as well as philosophy - Written and edited by leading figures from across the cognitive sciences - Encourages a dialogue between psychologists and philosophers about dual process theories that has hitherto been missing - A state-of-the-art review of a hot topic in the cognitive sciences This book explores the idea that we have two minds - automatic, unconscious, and fast, the other controlled, conscious, and slow. In recent years there has been great interest in so-called dual-process theories of reasoning and rationality. According to such theories, there are two distinct systems underlying human reasoning - an evolutionarily old system that is associative, automatic, unconscious, parallel, and fast, and a more recent, distinctively human system that is rule-based, controlled, conscious, serial, and slow. Within the former, processes the former, processes are held to be innate and to use heuristics that evolved to solve specific adaptive problems. In the latter, processes are taken to be learned, flexible, and responsive to rational norms. Despite the attention these theories are attracting, there is still poor communication between dual-process theorists themselves, and the substantial bodies of work on dual processes in cognitive psychology and social psychology remain isolated from each other. This book brings together leading researchers on dual processes to summarize the state-of-the-art, highlight key issues, present different perspectives, explore implications, and provide a stimulus to further work. It includes new ideas about the human mind both by contemporary philosophers interested in broad theoretical questions about mental architecture and by psychologists specialising in traditionally distinct and isolated fields. For all those in the cognitive sciences, this is a book that will advance dual-process theorizing, promote interdisciplinary communication, and encourage further applications of dual-process approaches.
In the present paper we describe a model of neurovisceral integration in which a set of neural structures involved in cognitive, affective, and autonomic regulation are related to heart rate variability (HRV) and cognitive performance. We will provide pharmacological and neuroimaging data in support of the neural structures linking the central nervous system to HRV. Next, we will review a number of studies from our group using military cadets showing that individual differences in HRV are related to performance on tasks associated with executive function and prefrontal cortical activity. In the first study, individual differences in resting HRV we related to performance on executive and non-executive function tasks. The results showed that greater HRV was associated with better performance on executive function tasks. In the second study we add a stressor (shock avoidance) to the previous paradigm and show that those with greater HRV were more stress tolerant. Specifically, those with greater HRV were not adversely affected by the added stressor. In the last experiment, HRV was manipulated by physical detraining. Again, those that maintained their HRV at the post-test showed better performance on executive function tasks. We propose that these findings have important implications for the development of biomarkers related to performance in modern warfighters.