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Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
113 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
ISMJ
International SportMed Journal
Original research article
Effects of endurance and strength acute exercise on night
sleep quality
1
*Dr
Eliana Roveda, MD,
2
Dr Chiara Sciolla, PhD,
1
Dr Angela Montaruli,
PhD,
1
Dr Giovanna Calogiuri, PhD,
2
Professor Alberto Angeli, MD,
1
Professor Franca Carandente, MD
1
Department of Sport, Nutrition and Health Sciences, University of Milan, Malan, Italy
2
Internal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Turin,
Italy
*Corresponding author. Address at the end of text.
Abstract
Background: Physical activity is one of the lifestyle-related factors that is decisive for the
quality of sleep and for immune system stimulation. Research question: The purpose of this
research is to evaluate the effect of high-intensity endurance and strength exercises, carried out
in the morning, on the quality of nighttime sleep. Methods: Fifteen healthy, trained, males were
assessed at rest and during endurance and strength exercises. Preliminarily, at least one week
before testing began, maximal oxygen uptake (VO
2
max) and maximal upper limb strength
(maximal weight load, WLmax) were assessed. During each test session continuous monitoring
by means of an actigraph for the rest-activity measurement was collected. Results: A single
session of strength or endurance exercise positively influenced the parameters related to sleep
patterns. The positive effects were particularly evident during the night immediately following the
exercise. Both exercise typologies positively influenced the parameters, indicative of the total
amount of sleep (assumed sleep and sleep latency). The quality of sleep, evaluated by means
of number of sleep bouts, number of immobile phases, and the number of minutes immobile
respectively, was also clearly improved during the first night for both types of physical activity.
Sleep efficiency was significantly higher during the first and second nights respectively but only
following endurance exercise. None of the parameters of sleep have highlighted statistically
significant differences between the strength and the endurance sessions. Conclusions: This
study shows that morning physical activity has an effect on nighttime rest, making it easier to fall
asleep, lengthening the real time of sleep, and improving overall sleep quality.
Keywords:
physical activity, endurance, strength, actigraphy, sleep
*Dr Eliana Roveda, MD
Dr Roveda is an Assistant Professor in Internal Medicine in the Department of Sport, Nutrition
and Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy. She obtained her medical degree from the
University of Milan, and is qualified to teach surgery. She received a Fellowship from the
Fondazione Hoechst Marion Roussel.Her main research interests are in chronobiology, didactic
activity related to Sports Medicine, First Aid and traumatology all of which she teaches for the
degree programme in Sports Sciences at the University of Milan, Italy.
Dr Chiara Sciolla, PhD
Dr Sciolla works in Internal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University
of Turin, Italy. Her initial degree was in Biology, and her main research interests are biomedical
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
114 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
analysis and cell cultures. She is upported by Progetto Lagrange-Fondazione CRT and
Antidoping Center Alessandro Bertinaria, University Hospital San Luigi, Orbassano, Turin, Italy.
Email: chiarasciolla@libero.it
Dr Angela Montaruli, PhD
Dr Montaruli is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Sport, Nutrition and Health
Sciences, University of Milan, Italy. Her PhD was in Morphological Sciences. Her post-doctoral
research was undertaken at the Institute of Human Anatomy (University of Milan). Dr Montaruli
is also interested in chronobioliogy, but teaches Human Applied Anatomy and Morphology for
the degree programme in Sports Sciences at the University of Milan, Italy.
Email: angela.montaruli@unimi.it
Dr Giovanna Calogiuri, PhD
Dr Calogiuri is a member of the Department of Sport, Nutrition and Health Sciences, University
of Milan, Italy. He has a PhD in Physical Activity and Sport. His main research interests are
Sport Sciences and chronobiology, particularly with regard to adaptation to the absence of light
(Arctic Circle) and synchronizing the effects of physical exercise.
Email: giovanna.calogiuri@unimi.it
Professor Alberto Angeli, MD, PhD
Professor Angeli is a member of the Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University
of Turin, Italy. He obtained his degree in Medicine from the University of Turin, and a PhD in
Endocrinology and Metabolism from the University of Rome. He is Professor Emeritus in
Internal Medicine at the University of Turin. He is a member of the Ethical Committee, University
Hospital San Luigi and Piedmont Region, Italy; President of the Academy of Medicine of Turin,
and has been the Principal Investigator of many research projects granted by several public and
private institutions. He has published widely.
Email: angeli@sluigi.unito.it
Professor Franca Carandente, MD
Professor Carandente is a member of the Department of Sport, Nutrition and Health Sciences,
University of Milan, Italy. After obtaining his degree in Medicine and Surgery, he specialised in
Clinical Allergology and Immunology. He is a Professor of Internal Medicine, and has lectured in
chronobiology in the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, on chronobiology for specialisation
schools at the university. He is a Member of the European Society for Chronobiology, and was
Editor-in-Chief of the journal Chronobiologia from 1976–1994. He is the nominated expert in
chronobiology for the Italian Ministry of Health. He has published widely.
Email: franca.carandente@unimi.it
Introduction
The quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of nocturnal sleep are
important markers of quality of life that can
positively or negatively affect individual
psycho-physical abilities
1
. Physical activity
is one of the lifestyle-related factors that is
crucial for the quality of sleep
2,3
. In recent
years, the relationship between sleep and
physical activity has been the subject of
numerous studies. Most of these studies
show that regular physical exercise
produces beneficial effects on nocturnal
sleep, to the point that it is recommended
for patients with sleep disorders
4,5
.
In particular, in a comparative meta-
analysis study on the effect that physical
exercise can have on objective parameters
for sleep quality, it was found that physical
activity can increase total sleep time and
other parameters related to improving sleep
quality, even though it did not induce
significant modifications in terms of sleep
latency and night waking
6
. Of particular
relevance in the evaluation of the effect of
exercise on sleep, is the time of day at
which exercise is undertaken. In fact, the
period between performing the physical
activity and the start of nocturnal sleep is a
relevant variable for determining the
beneficial as opposed to the negative
effects on the quality of sleep
6,7,8
.
It is well-known that physical activity affects
the body’s homeostasis by determining the
biological effects that are the result of the
interaction between the central nervous
system, endocrine system and immune
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
115 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
system
9
respectively. The synchronising
effect of physical activity is manifested by
its ability to influence the biological rhythm
of a variable, and moving the acrophase of
the rhythm in relation to the time of the day
when the physical activity was undertaken.
It has also been shown that physical activity
done at different times of the day can re-
synchronise the body’s rest-activity
circadian rhythm. Studies that have
evaluated physical activity in relation to
circadian rhythms suggest that exercise can
produce a shift in the circadian temporal
structure. In particular, physical activity
done regularly in the evening produces a
shift in the phase of the rhythm of body
temperature, heart rate and activity level
with respect to the same activity carried out
in the morning
8,10,11
. For this reason,
evening exercise may have a negative
effect on the beginning of nocturnal sleep.
Important factors to consider are also
related to the intrinsic characteristics of the
type of physical activity practised
12,13,14,15
.
In particular, the effects on sleep may be
different for resistance-type exercise. The
intensity of physical activity carried out in
terms of maximal oxygen consumption
(VO
2
max) for aerobic exercise, or of
maximum load for strength exercise, could
also be a determining factor for the quality
of sleep
16
.
It has been found that physical activities are
not always able to determine changes in
nocturnal sleep; particularly as in some
studies it has been highlighted that these
activities have a positive effect on sleep
12
,
while in other studies
17
there was no effect
on sleep. Another determining factor was
the total duration of the physical activity; in
fact, it has been shown that modification of
nocturnal sleep may be observed only for
physical activities that last for more than
one hour
6
.
The purpose of the present research was to
use actigraph monitoring
18,19,20
to evaluate
the effect of high-intensity endurance and
strength exercises, both performed in the
morning, on the quality of nighttime sleep.
Methods
Study population and design
Fifteen males (age: median 29, range 20-36
years; Body Mass Index (BMI 24.6, 20.7-
34.3 kg/m
2
) with an average level of training
(for fitness/recreation) were recruited.
They all participated in the study voluntarily,
and gave their written informed consent.
The protocol for the study was approved by
the Institutional Review Board of the
university.
All the participants were physically active,
training regularly (2-3 times a week) in
gyms or attending fitness programmes.
Preliminarily, at least one week before
testing, maximal oxygen uptake (VO
2
max)
and maximal upper limb strength (maximal
weight load, WLmax) were assessed. To
determine VO
2
max, the subjects underwent
an incremental sub-maximal ergobike test,
during which the oxygen uptake was
measured by automatic metabolimeter
(FitMate-Pro, Cosmed, Rome, Italy). The
WL was directly calculated by an
incremental single-lifting test on the
horizontal bench (3min rest between
repetitions).
All of the participants were studied in three
different testing sessions (baseline,
endurance and strength) undertaken two
weeks apart. The exercise sessions,
endurance and strength, were performed in
random order. The participants preliminarily
completed a questionnaire covering their
dietary habits, drug consumption, and use
of alcohol and/or cigarettes. During the
tests, the subjects did not modify their
dietary habits and they also maintained
regular sleep habits as verified for all the
subjects by actigraph analysis.
Baseline session
After a two-week break from their usual
physical activities, all the subjects were
called to the laboratory on the same day
and were subjected to rest-activity
monitoring by actigraph (Actiwatch,
Cambridge Neurotecnology, Cambridge,
UK) non-stop for 48-hours (Epoch length
0,5min).
Endurance session
The endurance session started at 10h00
and was structured as follows:
- aerobic exercise on the ergobike:
10min warm-up at 40% of VO
2
max;
30min workout at 80% of VO
2
max;
10min cool-down cycling at 50W;
- continuous monitoring by actigraph
for 48-hours non-stop, starting
immediately after the endurance
session (Epoch length 0.5min).
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
116 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Strength session
The strength session started at 10h00 and
was structured as follows:
- strength exercise on the horizontal
bench press: 10min warm-up + three
sessions of specific warm-ups (weight-
free, 20% and 40% of WLmax) + 4
maximal series (3-6reps to exhaustion)
lifting the 80% of WLmax, 3min within
the session;
- continuous monitoring by actigraph for
48-hours non-stop, starting
immediately after the strength session
(Epoch length 0.5min).
Moreover, they kept a daily diary on
activities carried out during monitoring:
bedtime, wake-up time and mealtimes.
Actigraphy
Activity analysis. In order to be sure that
the subjects were not engaging in
supplementary physical activities other than
what was called for by the research
protocol, an analysis of the level of activity
(Actiwatch Activity Analysis Software,
Cambridge Neurotechnology, Cambridge,
UK) maintained in the periods between the
end of the training sessions and the
beginning of their nighttime sleep (activity
level day 1) and during the daytime hours of
the following day of the same session
(activity level day 2), were carried out.
Sleep analysis. The Actiwatch Sleep
Analysis Software made it possible to
calculate sleep-specific parameters from
the activity-rest data. Analysis started with
the onset of nocturnal rest (bedtime) and
ended with the onset of daytime activity
(wake time). Exact bedtimes and waking
times were set for each subject using
information from the rest-activity patterns
and the diary. The following derived sleep
parameters were considered:
- Sleep Start. The start of sleep
derived automatically using the
Sleepwatch algorithm (expressed in
hours and minutes).
- Sleep End. The end of sleep derived
automatically using the Sleepwatch
algorithm (expressed in hours and
minutes).
- Assumed Sleep. The calculated
difference in hours and minutes
between the Sleep End and Sleep
Start times.
- Actual Sleep Time. The Assumed
Sleep time minus the Sleepwatch
algorithm determined Awake Time
(time spent awake during the whole
of the Assumed Sleep period).
- Sleep Efficiency. The percentage of
time in bed actually spent sleeping.
- Sleep Latency. The period between
bedtime and Sleep Start.
- Number of Sleep Bouts. The number
of sleep episodes during the period
between Sleep Start and Sleep End.
- Number of Immobile Phases. The
number of epochs without movement
during the period between Sleep
Start and Sleep End.
- Number of Minutes Immobile. The
total time spent without recording any
movement within the period of Sleep
Start and Sleep End.
- Movement and Fragmentation Index
(MFI). The addition of the Movement
Index (percentage time spent
moving) and the Fragmentation
Index (percentage of immobile
phases of one minute). MFI is as an
index of restlessness.
The baseline parameters of sleep represent
the average of the two nights of monitoring,
while for the two training sessions, the data
were processed separately for the first
(Night 1) and second night (Night 2) after
training.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using
Statistica 6.0 (Statsoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA).
Data are expressed as mean ± SE. Sleep
and Activity analysis was performed using
Actiwatch Analysis Software. The
differences in the sleep and activity
parameters between the three experimental
sessions (baseline, endurance and
strength) were examined using the
Student’s t-test. The value chosen for
statistical significance was p<.05.
Results
Activity analysis
The comparison of levels of activity (activity
counts) recorded after the strength
sessions (Activity Level day 1 and Activity
Level day 2) compared to basal conditions
does not show significant differences, while
after the endurance session there is a
significant reduction in the average level of
activity on the first day after training
(Activity Counts ± SE: Day1: 208±19 vs.
Baseline: 258±27).
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
117 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Sleep analysis
Table 1 shows the parameters obtained
from the Sleep Analysis. The results are
expressed as group averages for each
session.
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
118 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Table 1: Sleep parameters
PARAMETERS
BASAL
(±SD)
STRENGTH
night 1
p
vs.
basal
STRENGTH
night 2
p
vs.
basal
p
S1 vs. S2
ENDURANCE
night 1
p
vs.
basal
ENDURANCE
night 2
p
vs
basal
p
E1 vs E2
Assumed
Sleep
(hours)
6,62
(±1,05)
7,03
(±1,92)
<.05
6,28
(±2,30)
n.s.
<.05
7,32
(±1,31)
<.05
6,30
(±1,37)
n.s. <.05
Actual Sleep
Time
(hours)
5,35
(±1,05)
5,78
(±1,43)
<.05
5,23
(±1,95)
n.s.
n.s.
6,02
(±1,2)
<.05
5,25
(±1,23)
n.s.
<.05
Sleep
Efficiency
(%)
74,42
(±9,15)
78,21
(±9,40)
n.s.
74,57
(±20,96)
n.s.
n.s.
81,15
(±5,67)
<.05
81,73
(±8,53)
<.05 n.s.
Sleep Latency
(hours)
0,27
(±0,25)
0,11
(±0,15)
<.05
0,15
(±0,31)
n.s.
n.s.
0,11
(±0,2)
n.s.
0,08
(±0,08)
<.05 n.s.
Sleep Bouts
(numbers)
33,08
(±9,94)
37,56
(±13,43)
<.05
34,92
(±16,8)
n.s.
n.s.
41,86
(±10)
<.05
36,5
(±14,08)
n.s.
n.s.
Immobile
Phases
(numbers)
46,58
(±12,92)
55,49
(±19,74)
<.05
50,5
(±23,7)
n.s.
n.s.
59,5
(±17)
<.05
52,92
(±21,4)
n.s.
n.s.
Minutes
Immobile
(numbers)
329,77
(±69,12)
364,44
(±90,96)
<.05
329,88
(±125)
n.s.
n.s.
381,25
(±75)
<.05
337,88
(±76,8)
n.s.
<.05
Movement &
Fragmentation
Index
39,59
(±11,58)
39,73
(±9,04)
n.s.
41,48
(±14,6)
n.s.
n.s.
38,00
(±13)
n.s.
33,68
(±18)
n.s.
n.s.
Values for each experimental session, Basal, Strength (S) and Endurance (E), are mean ± SD (n= 15).
The p values were calculated with the Student’s t-test.
S1: strength session, first night
S2: strength session, second night
E1: endurance session, first night
E2: endurance session, second night
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
119 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Assumed Sleep is significantly higher on
the first night after both the strength and
endurance (p=.027, and p=.017) sessions
compared to the baseline figures. On the
second night, the Assumed Sleep is
significantly lower after both strength and
endurance (p=.028, and p=.009) training
sessions compared to the first night (Table
1; Figure 1a).
Figure 1: Assumed Sleep and Actual Sleep Time
Mean values for Assumed Sleep (a) and Actual Sleep Time (b) in the strength and endurance
exercises, with respect to the basal condition (white) and to the first (grey) and second (black)
night after exercise. The bars represent the statistically significant differences (p<.05, using the
Student’s t-test).
Actual Sleep Time is also significantly
higher on the first night after both the
strength and endurance training sessions
(p=.027, and p=.007). The parameters
decrease significantly (p=.009) on the
second night compared with the first night,
only for the endurance session (Table 1;
Figure 1b).
Compared with the baseline condition,
Sleep Efficiency was not statistically
significant on the first and the second nights
after strength training, while after
endurance training, the values of this
parameter were significantly higher during
the first and second nights respectively
(p=.017, and p=.026) (Table 1; Figure 2a).
Sleep Latency was lower on the first night
of the strength session than the baseline
values (p=.019), while in the endurance
session, this parameter was significantly
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
120 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
lower (p=.018) on the second night (Table 1; Figure 2b).
Figure 2: Sleep efficiency and sleep latency
Mean values for Sleep Efficiency (a) and Sleep Latency (b) in the strength and endurance
exercises, with respect to the basal condition (white) and to the first (grey) and second (black)
night after exercise. The bars represent the statistically significant differences (p<.05, using the
Student’s t-test).
Number of Sleep Bouts and Number of
Immobile Phases increased significantly
only on the first night compared with the
baseline condition: strength session
(p=.038, and p=.026) and endurance
session respectively (p=.017, and p=.02)
(Table 1; Figures 3a, 3b).
Number of Minutes Immobile also shows a
significant increase in both training
sessions on the first night (p=.015, and
p=.001), while on the second night the
values are superimposed on the baseline
conditions (Table 1; Figure 3c).
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
121 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Figure 3: Number of sleep bouts, immobile phases and minutes immobile
Mean values for Number of Sleep Bouts (a), Number of Immobile Phases (b) and Number of
Minutes Immobile (c), in strength and endurance sessions, with regard to the basal condition
(white) and to the first (grey) and second (black) night after exercise. The bars represent the
statistically significant differences (p<.05, by the Student’s t-test).
No statistically significant differences were
found for the Movement and Fragmentation
Index, comparing the three test situations
(Table 1).
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
122 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
The values for all parameters of the sleep
analysis showed no statistically significant
differences between the strength and
endurance sessions on the first and the
second nights.
Discussion
The results of this study reveal that a single
session of physical exercise, strength or
endurance, at high intensity, is able to
induce modifications in nocturnal sleep. In
fact, intense morning exercise was shown
to improve the parameters related to both
the quantity and the quality of sleep; these
effects were particularly evident on the first
night following the exercises.
The analysis of the results shows that sleep
patterns and the parameters are subject to
inter-individual differences. Moreover, there
is a large variability across age, gender and
healthy/unhealthy populations
21
. When
actigraphy is used to evaluate the effects
induced by a certain intervention (i.e.
physical activity) on nocturnal sleep, it is
advisable to monitor the baseline condition,
rather than just referring to the typical
healthy adult population’s values.
Of particular interest in this study is the
improvement of the quantity and quality of
sleep as a result of morning physical
activity. In fact, the awake state and work
efficiency are strongly dependent on the
quality and duration of the sleep.
Adequate sleep duration is vital; restriction
of sleep in terms of both quantity and
quality can cause a range of
neurobehavioral deficits, including lapses of
attention, slowed working memory, reduced
cognitive throughput, depressed mood, and
perseveration of thought
22
.
In the present study, the authors have
demonstrated that both exercise typologies
positively influenced the parameters
indicative of total sleep time (Assumed
Sleep and Actual Sleep Time). In fact, they
were significantly improved on the night
after training, returning to values
comparable with baseline on the second
night. These data are in agreement with
those reported by Youngstedt et al
6
,
although the authors did not find significant
changes in terms of Sleep Latency. Instead,
these present authors’ data suggest that
both types of exercise can lead to an
improvement in Sleep Latency: trained
subjects tended to fall asleep more quickly
than those who did not train. In particular, it
seems that endurance-type activity is able
to produce more long-term effects on this
parameter, with a reduction of Sleep
Latency, especially during the second night.
On the other hand, strength training
seemed to lose its effect on the night after
physical activity, returning to baseline
conditions during the second night.
The positive effect of endurance exercise
on sleep is also evident on Sleep Efficiency:
this parameter shows, only for this type of
activity, a significant improvement on both
nights.
The quality of sleep, evaluated by the
Number of Sleep Bouts, Number of
Immobile Phases and Number of Minutes
Immobile, was also clearly improved during
the first night for both types of activity.
The positive effect of physical activity on
sleep shown in this research was obtained
when the exercise session was performed
in the middle of the morning (10h00-11h00).
Thus when the effect of exercise on sleep is
assessed, it is particularly relevant to
consider the time of day when the exercise
was performed
8,23
, as it is a key variable
influencing sleep quality either positively or
negatively. To complete this protocol, it
would be useful to compare the effects on
sleep of identical exercise sessions carried
out at different times of the day.
The results obtained in this present study
relate specifically to healthy young men
who had no sleep disorders. However, it
might be interesting to evaluate the effects
of acute exercise on nocturnal sleep
patterns of older subjects or of patients with
sleep disorders. In fact, several studies
have examined the relationship between
exercise and sleep in elderly subjects
7.
12,15,16
. Results for subjects over sixty-years-
old who performed aerobic physical activity
showed a reduction in sleep latency, fewer
nighttime awakenings and increased sleep
efficiency. Similarly, exercise at a moderate
intensity undertaken for a period of about 4
months in patients older than 50-years-old
have produced an improvement in sleep
quality and a reduction in sleep
fragmentation
7, 13
.
The intensity of physical activities also has
a specific role to play in producing changes
Effects of endurance and strength exercise on sleep International SportMed Journal, Vol.12 No.3, 2011, pp. 113-124.
Available at URL: http://www.ismj.com
123 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
in sleep: a single high-intensity exercise
session can lead to an overall improvement
in nighttime rest. The results in the literature
on this subject are heterogeneous: some
point out how physical activity performed at
moderate intensity is not always able to
determine changes in nocturnal sleep. On
the other hand, other authors highlight the
capacity of these activities to produce a
positive effect on sleep patterns
6,17,24
.
Conclusion
Based on the results in this present study,
there do not seem to be substantial
differences in the effects the two types of
exercise produce on nighttime sleep. In
fact, all of the parameters, with the
exception of Sleep Efficiency, show the
similar results in both training situations.
However, physical activity using strength
and endurance training, when carried out in
the morning, has a positive effect on
nighttime rest, making it easier to fall
asleep, lengthening the real time of sleep,
and improving the overall quality of sleep.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grants from
Regione Piemonte-Ricerca Sanitaria
Finalizzata; Dr C Sciolla was supported by
Progetto Lagrange-Fondazione CRT, Turin,
Italy.
Address for correspondence:
Dr Eliana Roveda, Department of Sport,
Nutrition and Health Sciences, University of
Milan, Milan, Via G. Colombo 71, 20133
Milan, Italy.
Tel.: +0039 02 50314656
Fax: +0039 02 503 14652
Email:
eliana.roveda@unimi.it
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