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From Isovists to Visibility Graphs: A Methodology for the Analysis of Architectural Space
Abstract
An isovist, or viewshed, is the area in a spatial environment directly visible from a location within the space. Here we show how a set of isovists can be used to generate a graph of mutual visibility between locations. We demonstrate that this graph can also be constructed without reference to isovists and that we are in fact invoking the more general concept of a visibility graph . Using the visibility graph, we can extend both isovist and current graph-based analyses of architectural space to form a new methodology for the investigation of configurational relationships. The measurement of local and global characteristics of the graph, for each vertex or for the system as a whole, is of interest from an architectural perspective, allowing us to describe a configuration with reference to accessibility and visibility, to compare from location to location within a system, and to compare systems with different geometries. Finally we show that visibility graph properties may be closely related to manifestations of spatial perception, such as way-finding, movement, and space use.
... The word "campus" was first used in the context of an American university in the 18 th century, although the country's first university facilities were found in the 17 th century at the University of Princeton (Turner, 2001). The 'activities on-campus ground' concept makes a sense of ownership of those activities for individual learners, during their stay at the university precinct. ...
... An (Turner, et. al., 2001). ...
... The visibility graph analysis investigates the properties of a visibility graph derived from a spatial environment (Turner et. al, 2001 arranged as a part to whole. The more integrated and well connected spatial measure it will carry, the more it will have the ability to accommodate activities from the user. ...
Social interaction among university students is a primary factor in their learning for
higher education. In highrise vertical universities, the provision for designing any social space within a building complex is quite challenging. Due to land constraints & other financial factors, the private institutions construct a compact & introverted kind of highrise building where educational facilities are accommodated. Architects are found to design internal open spaces in the form of a central or linear-shaped plaza, surrounded by building blocks in the university campus. These open spaces have the potential to act as social spaces in this compact built environment. This research tries to find the spatial and design aspects of this internal open space to accommodate students' informal interaction.
This research identified the campus activities of university students that are social
interactions in learning scenarios through a literature review. These activities are
explored in two case studies through student interviews and observation. The spatial values of internal open spaces are identified by measuring accessibility and visibility using space syntax. The correlation method revealed the relation of occurrence of interaction with the spatial values of the parts of the internal open space in these case studies.
Findings show that, although having different morphological characteristics, the internal open space in both case studies plays a significant role in accommodating students’ informal interactions. The internal open space in both cases is spatially more integrated than other spaces in the total building system. The study also revealed, that in vertical university campuses, additional social space is needed for upper-floor students. The other findings from this research suggest few design guidelines for accommodating large or small group interaction and static or moving interaction in the internal open space.
... As a result, we will leverage space syntax theories and methodologies to examine the influence of spatial geometry have on visual impression, extending from previous research (Hillier & Hanson 1989). Specifically, we will use visibility graph analysis (Turner et al. 2001), a technique that measures intervisibility in navigable space. Such analysis is often applied to capture wayfinding behaviour in complex buildings (Weisman 1981, Peponis et al. 1990, Wiener et al. 2009, Gath-Morad et al. 2021). ...
... A. collect gaze data from human subjects (10 subjects trained in architecture with 9 images) B. compute visibility graphs analyses VGA in SST (Turner et al. 2001). ...
... In the next stage, we calculate the visibility graph analysis (Turner et al. 2001) for the same urban scenes. The procedure as shown in fig5 consists of the following steps: i. matching street scenes between real space and model space, ii. ...
Recent research has shown increasing use of computational methods in the built environment for studying the visual impression of architectural spaces (VIAS) by either; (i) linking visual stimuli from imagery data with linguistic descriptions, (ii) analysing visual attention data from eye tracking devices, or (iii) a combination of these. Despite advancements in capturing multi-modal subjective impressions of architectural space, limited research links the geometry of the environment in relation to its impression. Comprehending how the geometry of the built environment affects our perception is essential for translating perceptual insights into designs. Our aim is thus to leverage on space syntax methodology, VIAS research and eye-tracking technology to explore the linkage between the spatial configuration of an urban space and its visual impression during moments of “Oku”, an abstract architectural concept in Japan to describe a sense of curiosity and depth. In particular, we examined subjective perception and conjecture that spaces with longer isovists(greater depth), higher occlusivity(curiosity) and visibility can potentially stimulate greater visual attention during moments of “Oku.” To trace the impression of Oku to the spatial configuration of the space, we: (1)collected gaze from human subjects; (2)calculated visibility graph analytical measures, and (3)associated the two. Our exploratory results indicate a weak association between VIAS and SST visibility graph metrics. These findings highlight both the potential and the complexities of connecting our visual perceptions with the spatial layout of our built environment. Moving forward, we aim to assess gaze attention dynamically to uncover how the shape of our environment influences our senses within it.
... If a straight line can link any two nodes without passing through a wall (i.e., if the locations are mutually visible), then this is classed as a graph edge. Once the visibility graph is completed, then multiple topological measures are derived from the isovist field (Batty 2001;Turner 2003;Turner and Penn 1999;Turner et al. 2001). Not surprisingly though, the scale of the data developed from VGA has tended to require the development of new methods of Fig. 3 Visibility maps of a simple architectural plan, colored to represent, from left to right, (a) integration, (b) occlusivity, and (c) area visualization to present any findings. ...
... For this reason, they are often linked to the assessment of various social and cognitive properties of architectural plans. For example, isovists and isovist fields have been used for a range of purposes since the 1970s, including studies of spatial cognition and wayfinding (Braaksma and Cook 1980;Conroy 2001;Meilinger et al. 2009), accessibility (Turner et al. 2001), spatial structure (Psarra 2005;Tzortzi 2004;Zamani and Peponis 2013), social structure (Markhede and Koch 2007), and object display (Stavroulaki and Peponis 2003). Isovists and isovist fields have also been used to analyze the properties of particular architects' works (Choudhary et al. 2007;Peponis and Bellal 2010) and the experience of historic buildings. ...
... Human perceptions of spatial exposure and enclosure also correlate closely with several local isovist measures (Dosen and Ostwald 2016). Global measures derived from VGA have also been adapted for the analysis and prediction of pedestrian movement (Desyllas and Duxbury 2001;Turner and Penn 1999;Turner et al. 2001). Because pedestrian behavior has a significant impact on several social factors, including crime rates, rental returns, spatial occupation, and social encounters, isovists can be used to optimize space for a range of purposes (Desyllas 2000;Hillier and Shu 2000). ...
... The review of the general space syntax literature shows that, while such an analytical approach and methodology has enabled the analysis of cities since the early 1980s (Hillier and Hanson, 1984;Hillier, 1996), this theoretical field has also grown to include research at the scale of buildings and has been significantly enriched in recent decades, particularly in relation to Benedikt's (1979) isovist field theory, visibility analysis (Turner et al., 2001;Turner and Penn, 2002) and simultaneously expanded since the 1990s with studies focusing on cognition (Penn, 2003;Kim and Penn, 2004), modes of behaviour, wayfinding and navigation, etc. (Peponis et al., 1990;Dalton et al., 2014;Krukar et al., 2017;Geng et al., 2021;Yesiltepe et al., 2023;Lian and Li, 2023), broadening its extent to include the potential of the physical structure of the space to reveal individual differences through various empirical research for patient-centred design (Sabir and Mustafa, 2023;Rowe and Knox, 2023). Thus, this review indicates that the twopronged approach employed in this study is not the only one used in similar studies. ...
... The software used for space syntax analysis produces graphics in which deep spaces with high mean depth values are expressed with cold colours, from blue to green, while shallow spaces are expressed with warm colours, from orange to red ( Figure 5). The concept of isovist is the data that enables the understanding of how individuals visually perceive space and how their visual perception changes at each step, as demonstrated in the isovist graph ( Figure 6) (Turner et al., 2001). Benedikt (1979) proposed a set of geometric quantitative data regarding the visibility properties of space. ...
... Additionally, the analysis reveals the isovist area value of the space (Benedikt, 1979), which demonstrates the visibility structure of the plan (Haq and Luo, 2012). In this context, the concept of isovist is defined as the data that provides insight into space, how the individuals visually perceive space, the nature of their visual interaction with space and how their visual perception changes with each step they take (Benedikt, 1979;Turner et al., 2001). Hillier (1996;2005, p. 116), posits that the intelligibility of space is contingent upon the plan layout's spatial structure. ...
Purpose
The primary objective of this study is to investigate the cognitive aspects of spatial experiences of paediatric inpatients who receive long-term treatment in a healthcare setting in relation to the syntactic parameters of healthcare environment. It is aimed to investigate how the change in the child’s cognition caused by the environmental stress experienced by the child during his/her stay in the hospital is related to the physical parameters of the treatment space.
Design/methodology/approach
The methodology of the study is based on a correlational analysis to identify the cognitive and syntactic factors of the healthcare environment that contribute to changes in the perceptual processes of a sample group of thirty children. The study examined the relationships between the graph and isovist variables, and the cognitive parameters of paediatric inpatients. The two datasets were subjected to regression analyses in order to identify any significant findings, which allowed for a discussion of how the patients’ changing perceptual processes are influenced by the syntactic measures of the healthcare setting.
Findings
The study showed that a syntactically intelligible floor plan contributes significantly to reducing environmental stress among paediatric inpatients. The presence of shared spaces within the healthcare environment, where social interaction with peers is possible, emerges as a crucial factor influencing children’s spatial perception. Additionally, the visibility characteristics of shared spaces may also play a key role in enhancing children’s perceptions of safety.
Research limitations/implications
The limitations of the study include the fact that the study was conducted in an oncology and haematology inpatient unit with challenging conditions in terms of the mobility potentials of the children, which might have affected their perceptual processes. A further limitation is that the sample size comprised only 30 children, and the spatial configuration of the healthcare environment was linear and not particularly complex.
Social implications
By identifying the impact of spatial design on children’s well-being, the study informs the creation and improvement of healthcare environments. Enhanced understanding of factors like intelligible floor plans, shared spaces and isovist values can lead to more child-friendly facilities, potentially alleviating stress for young patients. Consequently, this research may contribute to improved healthcare outcomes, increased comfort for paediatric inpatients, and a more supportive environment for their families, fostering a holistic approach to paediatric care and positively influencing the overall quality of life for children undergoing long-term treatment.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the theoretical discourse on how the constrained physical conditions of a paediatric healthcare environment may influence the perceptual processes of paediatric inpatients. The results of this evidence-based study have the potential to inform the evaluation of design guidelines for healthcare settings, with the ultimate aim of enhancing therapeutic environments.
... He also suggests that isovist field could serve as a foundation or contribute to a more comprehensive description of the environment (Benedikt, 1979). Turner et al. (2001) state that isovists are an intuitively appealing way of thinking about a spatial environment because they provide a description of space from the inside, from the perspective of individuals as they perceive, interact with and move through it. Franz et al. (2005) mention that there is the first empirical evidence that isovists capture environmental features of space related to spatial behavior and experience. ...
... Isovists are basically polygons that define the area visible from a given observation point and capture the spatial properties of that area. To better describe the spatial characteristics of an environment as a whole, Turner et al. (2001) proposed the technique of visibility graph analysis (Franz et al., 2005). The researchers created an undirected graph linking all visible points on a human-scale grid. ...
... The product of this notation is a graph in which each point is noted as a node, and the visibility condition for connecting one node to another is the visibility between them (Al-Sayed et al., 2014). A visibility graph is a graph of mutually visible locations in a spatial layout, and visibility graph analysis investigates the properties of a visibility graph derived from a spatial environment (Turner et al., 2001). ...
City image includes people's perceptions of the built and natural environments as well as the emotions and ideas the city arouses in them. In the city image, the preservation of the buildings, especially historical buildings, which carry the past cultures, meaning and structural features of the city to the present day, can be ensured by making these buildings visible and perceptible by the inhabitants. Historical buildings' visibility can facilitate the recognition and appreciation of their historical significance, thereby contributing to the preservation of the city's cultural heritage. This study aims to analyse the visibility of a historical building that holds a significant place in the urban memory and to suggest recommendations for enhancing its visibility. In this context, the viewpoints used to examine the İskenderun Beş Temmuz Primary School Historical Building's visibility were specified by space syntax visibility graph analysis (VGA). Subsequently, the building's visibility in three different historical periods was determined by the isovists technique, utilizing these viewpoints. Based on the same viewpoints, an observational field study and a survey applied to 47 people were conducted. Consequently, it was identified that the historical building could not be sufficiently seen due to the presence of surrounding service structures, perimeter walls, and high buildings. Furthermore, this study proposed the removal of additional structures that negatively affect historical building's visibility. Additionally, a design approach was developed for new buildings and landscaping to enhance the historical building's visibility, and the efficacy of the proposed design was evaluated through isovists and VGA analyses. Keywords visibility, isovists and visibility graph analysis (VGA), city image, new building design in historical environments, Iskenderun Beş Temmuz Primary School
... Visibility graphs are created by overlaying a grid on a floor plan of a space (such as a CAD drawing) using space syntax software. Visual connectivity is the number of spaces that are directly visible from a given point (Turner et al., 2001). Visual integration measures the visual distance from one room to all other rooms, including rooms that are not directly visible (Ullah and Park, 2016;Turner et al., 2001). ...
... Visual connectivity is the number of spaces that are directly visible from a given point (Turner et al., 2001). Visual integration measures the visual distance from one room to all other rooms, including rooms that are not directly visible (Ullah and Park, 2016;Turner et al., 2001). ...
The aim of this research is to validate safety standards and to analyze the position of emergency exits in the spatial configuration of hostel buildings using spatial indices. Current building design standards provide important guidelines to achieve safety in buildings during emergencies but doesn't have sufficient information for the emergency exit design in terms of spatial layout and users' flow pattern. In the design of buildings along with other systems (Structural, HVAC, Mechanical, Materials, firefighting), it is important to focus on enhancing the Spatial Layout and, Circulation design for safe evacuation during emergency. This research utilized space syntax, Autodesk Revit for the analysis of visibility, accessibility, travel path and time analysis of emergency exits. The Depthmap identified the potential areas for the correct placement of emergency exits where the visibility, and accessibility are higher than the existing location of emergency exits. The results also validate a safety standard that emergency exit should be accessible from main corridors instead of dead ends. Based on the analysis, the emergency exits of some buildings can be relocated to potential areas to improve safety and standardize the evacuation system without damaging the physical structure of the building, which will reduce the travel distance and improve the visibility of the targeted area.
... This study employs Depthmap X within the Space Syntax framework to analyse the floor plan's spatial structure and lineof-sight relationships. Additionally, a multi-model analysis method is constructed based on the VGA (Visibility Graph Analysis) and the CAA (Central Axis Analysis) model [60,61]. ...
... This study employs Depthmap X within the Space Syntax framework to analyse the floor plan's spatial structure and line-of-sight relationships. Additionally, a multi-model analysis method is constructed based on the VGA (Visibility Graph Analysis) and the CAA (Central Axis Analysis) model [60,61]. ...
The exploitation of urban subsurface space in urban inventory planning is closely connected to the quality of urban environments. Currently, the construction of underground pedestrian streets is characterised by inefficiency and traffic congestion, making them insufficient for fulfilling the demand for well-designed and human-centred spaces. In the study of spatial quality, traditional evaluation methods, such as satellite remote sensing and street maps, often suffer from low accuracy and slow updating rates, and they frequently overlook human perceptual evaluations. Consequently, there is a pressing need to develop a set of spatial quality evaluation methods incorporating pedestrian perspectives, thereby addressing the neglect of subjective human experiences in spatial quality research. This study first quantifies and clusters the characteristics of underground pedestrian spaces using spatial syntax. It then gathers multidimensional perception data from selected locations and ultimately analyses and predicts the results employing machine learning techniques, specifically Random Forest and XGBoost. The research results indicate variability in pedestrians’ evaluations of spatial quality across different functionally oriented spaces. Key factors influencing these evaluations include Gorgeous, Warm, Good Ventilation, and Flavour indicators. The study proposes a comprehensive and applicable spatial quality evaluation model integrating spatial quantification methods, machine learning algorithms, and multidimensional perception measurements. The development of this model offers valuable scientific guidance for the planning and construction of high-quality urban public spaces.
... Apart from using case studies to evaluate visibility based on spatial openness (Boutellier et al. 2008), previous research has evaluated visibility by visual fields unobstructed by physical barriers . Based on this, various quantitative tools for visibility evaluation have been developed, such as isovists (Benedikt 1979;Turner et al. 2001), space syntax (Hillier and Hanson 1984), and SAVisualPower (Lim, Kim, and Zimring 2019). However, it is important to note that the visibility of users is influenced not only by spatial factors but also by their movement behaviora consideration often overlooked in previous tools for visibility evaluation. ...
... Another theory related to visibility assessment is Hillier's "Space Syntax" (Hillier and Hanson 1984), aimed at understanding the interplay between space, social behavior, and psychological perception, where visibility serves as a key element. Turner et al. (Turner et al. 2001) provided Depthmap, a tool based on Space Syntax theory, for quantitatively analyzing visibility within architectural floor plans (Chau et al. 2018). However, Space Syntax primarily focuses on overall spatial visibility. ...
... For each building typology, the Visibility Graph (VG) is generated to evaluate the visual connectivity of the spaces of residential neighborhoods. VG demonstrates how the built environment relates with the surrounding context and comprehends the visual links between various site features (Turner et al., 2001). Visibility Graph Analysis (VGA) allows one to locate the most exposed, and therefore the most public areas within the neighborhoods. ...
... Spatial configuration of the open space affects frequency of use and type of activity occurring there (Kim and Kim, 2022). Compared to hidden or difficult-to-access places, highly visible and accessible spaces attract more visitors and encourage social contacts (Turner et al., 2001). Figure 7 shows the VG for the six neighborhoods, where red represents a higher level of visibility, and blue shows the lower level. ...
... Visual Graph Analysis (VGA) is a method for evaluating the inter-visibility of spaces [8]. In the VGA model, the value of connectivity is determined by the number of nodes connected to the knot [9], calculated by the formula (8.1). ...
The e-industrial park (EIP) has been designed and constructed to promote the economic developments, innovation and sustainability. Alibaba Xixi EIP is a typical newly built EIP with ecological engineered landscaping (EEL) in Hangzhou City. In this study, several space syntax models, i.e., angular segment analysis (ASA), visibility graph analysis (VGA) and agent-based analysis (ABA) models, are applied to make quantitative estimates of the efficiency of spatial design techniques in the spaces of the EIP. The ASA model is adopted to estimate and explain the ‘centrality of accessibility’ and ‘centrality of choice’ in the EIP. The high-level ‘intelligibility’ is found between the local and global spaces. Differences in spatial configuration between the eye level and the knee level are revealed by the VGA model for both stuffs and visitors of the EIP, while specific spatial characteristics of spaces are found to correspond to those of the ASA model. Furthermore, the ABA model is adapted to explain the dynamic impacts of entrances in different status on pedestrian’s circulation, especially for areas around the constructed wetlands. This research illustrates the relationship between local and global spaces of the EIP through quantitative estimation, which provides valuable guidance for the design of sustainable development of EIPs.
... Quanto mais rasa ela for, mais acessível será (Amorim e Barros Filho, 2017). Turner et al. (2001) desenvolveram a Análise Grafo Visual (do inglês, Visual Graph Analysis -VGA) para investigar a intervisibilidade dos espaços, utilizando os conceitos de isovistas, grafos e distâncias de visibilidade. Isovista é uma área visual determinada a partir de um ponto de observação no espaço, sendo representada por um polígono delimitado por suas barreiras visuais e linhas de oclusão (Benedikt, 1979). ...
Rios são elementos naturais vitais para o exercício da urbanidade e de grande importância histórica para as cidades. No entanto, nas últimas décadas, em decorrência da urbanização não planejada, atrelada à precariedade do saneamento básico e ocupação irregular das suas margens, os rios urbanos deixam de ser protagonistas e tornam-se cada vez mais esquecidos e marginalizados. Um bom exemplo é o Riacho das Piabas, um importante corpo hídrico para o surgimento e crescimento da cidade de Campina Grande que vem sendo transformado em um canal de esgoto, ladeado por vias de alto fluxo de veículos. O presente trabalho busca avaliar as condições de visibilidade deste Riacho com o seu entorno, com a
premissa de que a configuração dos espaços livres e edificados pode facilitar ou dificultar sua apropriação pela população. Inicialmente, 27 áreas do seu entorno foram analisadas. Posteriormente, duas delas com condições extremas de visibilidade foram selecionadas e comparadas entre si. Os resultados revelaram que a visibilidade do Riacho aumenta à medida que se aproxima da sua foz. No entanto, os espaços livres do seu entorno tornam-se cada vez mais distantes dos pedestres, dificultando sua apropriação pelas pessoas.
... Visibility graph base map: VGA uses a graph-based approach to analyze spatial layouts based on visibility connections between key points (Turner et al., 2001). Our workflow generates a visibility graph with access points as the vertices and the shortest path between each origin and destination (OD) pairs as the edges. ...
This paper introduces a visibility-graph-based workflow for early stages of architectural design, aimed at estimating relative pedestrian crowd distribution in shopping malls. Traditional methods like Agent-Based Modeling (ABM) and Space Syntax analysis face challenges in early design phases due to extensive data or configuration needs and lack of detail respectively. Our approach uses visibility graph as the foundation and generates visit probabilities and Chains of Activities (COAs) from empirical studies, balancing accuracy, accessibility and efficiency. The workflow's integration within designers’ familiar design interface allows for rapid prototyping and assessment of design iterations, making it a practical tool. Validation through a case study in a shopping mall in Singapore demonstrates the workflow's accuracy, with results showing strong similarity to both ABM and observed data, but with significantly less time and resource demands. This workflow offers a novel solution for early-stage design, providing a swift and accurate means to evaluate pedestrian dynamics and optimize design layouts.
... Representation of urban visibility in a quantitative, graph-based way allows innovative analysis of graph structure and simulation of its dynamics, using analytical models from graph theory and complexity science (Barthelemy, 2011;Barabási and Albert, 1999). Most of the existing vision-related approaches used in the analysis of urban environments, consider only street networks and ignore functional aspects of the built form (Turner et al., 2001;Jiang et al., 1999;Hillier and Hanson,1984), whereas urban uses are extremely important features of the city landscape. Consideration of urban uses presents more comprehensive picture of urban realm. ...
Urban planners and designers have long standing interest in quantifying urban dynamics and activity patterns effectively. However, many existing approaches focus solely on street networks, overlooking the functional aspects of the built form, while urban form significantly shapes the city landscape. Considering urban form and activities provides a more comprehensive view of the urban realm. This paper delves into the reasons behind the emergence of urban activity patterns and explain why cities exhibit specific morphologies in this regard. The paper introduces a novel model simulating the emergence of diverse points of interest i.e., urban uses and activities. It operates on the premise that pedestrian movement, on an aggregated scale, is influenced by urban form and its spatial elements, particularly visual attributes. It employs a network approach that combines traditional network analysis and multi-agent simulation. The developed model simulates the emergence of sightlines-imaginary lines between a hypothetical pedestrian's eyes and points of interest. These sightlines play a pivotal role in urban design, shaping pattens of activities in various urban configurations-squares, plazas, alleys, parks, and street layouts. The model is exercised on synthetic urban environments, resemble real modern cities. Simulation outcomes reveal distinct evolution pattens based on variety of sightline lengths. In settings with poor visibility conditions, new points of interest tend to cluster near existing ones. Conversely, where the city morphology supports better perception, points of interest drift toward main street intersections. Therefore, the method outlined in this paper, connects the built environment with urban usage, capturing urban dynamics through visually guided pedestrian behaviour.
... Established approaches to visibility analysis in urban planning based on Isovists typically involve static simulations or post-processing techniques that do not offer real-time feedback (Turner et al., 2001). Other methods such as studying gaze movement patterns, often demand significant time and resources, making it difficult to provide real-time information in IVR applications (Holmqvist et al., 2011), ...
The design of urban public spaces (UPSs) aims to facilitate users’ physical and mental well-being by facilitating dynamic and stationary activities. The success of a UPS is often measured by its users’ engagement and experiences. However, UPSs frequently exhibit varying usage patterns, with some areas being heavily frequented and others neglected. This discrepancy is often due to users’ perceptions of safety, comfort, and liveliness. Failure to anticipate and address these aspects during the design phase of UPSs can result in dysfunctional urban spaces that fail to meet users’ needs. People experience UPSs primarily through their senses, with vision being the predominant sense and key to spatial cognition in UPSs. Therefore, adequate visibility of the spatial configuration must be integral to UPS design as a design goal. As a result of recent advances in Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) end-users can participate in, interact and experience the possible UPS design scenarios, however, most IVR applications do not provide real-time feedback for design goals such as visibility. Established methods exist for analyzing visibility in UPS. However, these techniques are not usually integrated into VR apps to assess the effects of the designs. This paper addresses the gap for the lack of real-time visibility feedback within IVR applications for UPS design and its technical challenge. Building on a previous IVR application, CoHeSIVE, which was developed for UPS design, we integrated a ray-casting method and Unity’s built-in callbacks for dynamic visibility assessment of the features within the user’s field of view. The visibility assessment is then presented on a dashboard within the IVR app. This study serves as a cornerstone for future real-time feedback mechanisms of visibility assessment within IVR applications for urban design, facilitating informed design decisions.
... Building on this, Conzen's (1960) urban morphology model analyzes street networks, building layouts, and plot structures to uncover the relationship between the historical evolution of urban form and its modern functions [20]. These theories provide essential support for analyzing the coupling relationship between pedestrian networks and functional distribution in high-density urban environments, especially in three-dimensional space [21,22]. ...
Urban high-density development has led to the emergence of complex three-dimensional pedestrian networks. As a crucial component of city centers, these networks significantly influence the spatial distribution of service industries. Understanding the correlation between pedestrian networks and service industry layouts is vital for effective planning and development. This study proposes a technical framework for analyzing the relationship between three-dimensional pedestrian networks and service industry layouts. Using the Xinjiekou central area in Nanjing as a case study, we constructed a three-dimensional pedestrian network model using the sDNA method. Focusing on catering formats, we introduced a method to study the spatial distribution characteristics of service industries in three-dimensional spaces and employed a graph convolutional network model to systematically analyze the correlation between pedestrian network closeness and betweenness with catering formats. The results indicate that pedestrian network closeness is significantly positively correlated with the number and average spending of catering formats, while betweenness shows almost no correlation. High-closeness areas, due to their traffic convenience and walkability, are more conducive to the concentration of catering formats and higher spending levels. Our findings provide valuable insights for catering format location decisions and the optimization of three-dimensional pedestrian networks, contributing to sustainable urban development.
... The syntactical examination was conducted using the UCL Depthmap 10 software, developed by scholars at University College London. Depthmap is a professional software designed for the syntactical evaluation and identification of spaces, enabling the anticipation of social aspects in pedestrian movement patterns through analysis [61]. ...
This research explores the impact of urban design performance qualities on pedestrian behavior in a cultural heritage site designated by UNESCO. The study employs a multi-method approach, including a questionnaire survey, empirical observation of pedestrian activities, and empirical axial line and visibility graph analysis using the space syntax technique. The first part of the study involved a questionnaire formatted as a polling sheet to gather expert assessments of spatial performance measures. The second part used a pilot survey to capture the perspectives of end users regarding the study’s objectives and their perceptions of the site. Pedestrian flow was observed using a technique called “gate counts”, with observations recorded as video clips during specific morning and afternoon periods across three pedestrian zones. The study also examined the behavioral patterns of pedestrians, including their movement patterns. Finally, the ArcGIS 10.3.1 software was employed to evaluate the reliability of the results. The main finding of this research is that pedestrian behavior and walkability in the historical areas are significantly influenced by landmark integration, wayfinding behavior, and the socio-economic functions of heritage sites. This study highlights the importance of using cognitive and syntactic analysis, community engagement, and historical preservation to enhance walkability, accessibility, and social interaction in heritage contexts. In addition, it identifies the need for improvements in urban design to address inconsistencies between syntactic maps and actual pedestrian flow, emphasizing the role of imageability and the impact of environmental and aesthetic factors on pedestrian movement. This research provides valuable insights for urban designers and planners, environmental psychologists, architects, and policymakers by highlighting the key elements that make urban spaces walkable, aiming to enhance the quality of public spaces.
... According to this theory, spatial and social forms are closely related to a certain spatial configuration and several social patterns (Hillier 1996). This technique facilitates integrative analysis (Turner et al. 2001) in the built environment through the calculation and measurement of the intervisibility of distributed locations in the entire environment to describe the spatial characteristics of that environment. This kind of statistical analysis can be used to measure the spatial syntax in variance and correlation analysis in two parameters, namely, connectivity and visual integration analysis (Table 5). ...
This research investigates a syntactical study and comparative analysis of the statistical and spatial characteristics of traditional houses in an urban kampung settlement, focusing on a selected case study built by a participatory Arabic community in Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia. This research aims to determine a formal rule basis for spatial configurations to reveal identical sociospatial structures based on syntactical analysis. This experiment measures spatial layout variation through space syntax analysis to provide a better understand of how the correlation between spatial configuration and sociospatial structures in traditional houses can be deconstructed. This syntactical analysis applies four distinctive procedures: a selected case study, data collection, statistical and graphical analysis, and graph analysis. The results indicate that the spatiality of all traditional houses in this kampung settlement highlights the spatial hierarchy order as a formal rule-based system, and approximately an average of 10% of this community is concerned with designing intelligible layouts. Rumah Batu and other dwellings have a similarity and closeness. The main dwelling’s function involves more steps to separate public and private functional rooms, but a functional transformation from a dwelling into a public facility creates a short distance for easy access by users. Additionally, this separation affects occupants, especially in terms of spatial distribution activities, movement flows, and other social phenomena. This approach provides practical and tangible benefits for preservation values related to buildings; this strategy may also change how buildings are perceived in other built environments.
... Studies have shown that factors such as building layout and signage significantly impact an individual's wayfinding performance (Slone et al. 2015). To enhance navigation efficiency within terminals, methods such as the visibility index (VI) (Churchill et al. 2008), inter-connection density (ICD) (O'Neill 1991), and space syntax (Turner et al. 2001) have been employed to quantify ease of wayfinding. However, these methods only evaluate wayfinding performance on a two-dimensional plane. ...
The concept of the metaverse, representing a cutting-edge virtual reality paradigm, has gained significant traction as a mode of communication and data acquisition within virtual environments, applied across diverse domains. This study investigates the utilization of a metaverse-based platform in environmental behavior analysis, focusing on wayfinding behavior. We developed a metaverse-based platform for the Satellite Terminal 1 (S1) of Shanghai Pudong International Airport (PVG), offering participants an immersive and intuitive virtual environment. Leveraging the serious game concept, we designed a wayfinding task, through which 2,746 wayfinding trajectory data were collected for performance evaluation purposes. Notably, this metaverse-based platform presents a feasible and efficient approach for studying wayfinding behavior and streamlining data collection processes.
... Trata-se de uma adaptação do conceito de isovistas, cuja origem remonta à década de 1960, que podem ser definidas como um polígono de tudo que pode ser visualizado a partir de um determinado ponto no espaço (Figura 5). Entretanto, buscando lidar com a questão sob uma ótica global, Turner et al. (2001) consideraram as isovistas de todos (ou quase todos -, pois as ferramentas computacionais fazem cálculos mediante uma malha que pode ser mais ou menos espessa) os pontos de um determinado espaço, ou seja, como elas se relacionam entre si (Figura 5). ...
O objetivo deste artigo é analisar, por meio do aparato teórico-metodológico da Sintaxe Espacial, a configuração interna da casa modernista da Rua Santa Cruz, projetada em 1927 por Gregori Warchavchik (1896-1972), em contraponto com a posterior reforma empreendida em 1935. Construída para sua família, a casa é por muitos considerada o marco inicial da aplicaçãodas novas gramáticas compositivas vanguardistas. Diversos estudos já foram feitos acerca desse projeto, mas acrescenta-se aqui uma nova abordagem buscando ir além das questões da caixa mural, aprofundando-se na espacialidade. A Sintaxe Espacial é uma teoria que visa articular padrões espaciais às apropriações sociais sobrepostas, de modo a correlacionarcomo diferentes qualidades dos espaços – entendidos como um sistema de permeabilidades e barreiras – dependem de diferentes lógicas sociais. Os resultados encontrados demonstram uma rígida separação funcional, onde os espaços de transição oferecem distribuição de fluxos e de controle de acesso entre os ambientes. Em termos da integração visual, a concepção espacial anseia por espaços mais fluidos, especialmente no setor social. Entretanto, pouco se rompe com espaço tradicional da casa brasileira até então: patriarcal, segregado, controlado e profundo. Há, portanto, uma contradição entre o avanço e retrocesso – corroborando os estudos precedentes sobre a plástica do edifício: mesmo que se almeje romper com certas tradições, as amarras culturais, sobrepostas aos espaços domésticos, prevalecem.
... Turner [8] extends the notion of isovist, by showing that they can be used to generate a graph representation of mutual visibility between locations. This resulting graph can be achieved by other techniques as well and is called visibility graph. ...
Following the Lisbon 1755 earthquake, Manuel da Maia (1677-1768), chief engineer of King D. José I (1714-1777), commissioned six plans for the city’s reconstruction. We analyze these plans weighing how they addressed the challenges of building a modern city of the XVIII century. In them, churches had different roles in the urban morphology of the city. We investigate their interplay over the plans. The analysis of the importance of religious buildings in the city plan was made through the visual impact that those buildings had in the public space. Using isovists, we examine the visual impact of religious buildings on public space. Our results indicate that all plans, except the chosen one, promoted a greater visual impact of churches in public space. Plan 6 proposed a patriarchal church in Terreiro do Paço, with an extreme impact on the city’s visual landscape. Conversely the chosen plan presented a similar visual impact of churches in the plan as the pre-1755 city. This resulted from the removal of churches from the main streets and their integration inside the city blocks. This plan presented a similar level of visual impact, comparable to the pre-1755, but with a completely different approach to the street drawing. Overall, this study sheds light on how different reconstruction options for the city of Lisbon could have impacted the city being rebuilt. The aftermath of the 1755 earthquake provided an opportunity not only to rebuild the city, but also to redefine the power balance within the kingdom and to shift the importance of the church as a central aspect of city life.
... The spatial syntax has three main specific analytical tools, namely axial analysis, convex space analysis and isovist analysis. Although convex space is the theoretical prototype of spatial syntax and the basis for axial and visual domain analysis (Turner et al., 2001), fewer studies have directly applied convex space analysis. Axial analysis is often applied to the study of the overall topological relationships of larger spaces, or isovist analysis is applied to the study of the morphology of small open spaces and interior spaces. ...
From "organic growth" following traditional planning ideas to "order reconstruction" influenced by modern urban planning, public space has different connotations and morphological representations in different stages of urban development. This paper takes the area around Deshengmen, which connects the traditional district inside Beijing's Old City and the modern district outside Beijing's Old City, as an example, and conducts a comparative study of the public space forms formed in different periods with different social contexts. Based on the meaning of public space, this paper draws a figureground map of the Deshengmen area and analyzes morphological indexes at three scales: 1) shape index analysis of the basic units of public space based on the principle of "convex space" of space syntax; 2) analysis of the Perimeter Area Fractal Dimension and Landscape Division Index of continuous public space and non-public space forms; 3) analysis of the global and local integration of public space in the whole area around Deshengmen. The results show that the proportion of public space to urban space remains consistent in two districts, but the traditional district have smaller and more numerous basic units of public space, and more continuous and winding public space patterns, showing better levels of global integration, while the modern district have more concentrated and complete patterns of non-public space. In summary, present paper investigates the similarities and differences of public space morphology between traditional and modern urban space, revealing the morphological influence of different urban development concepts.
Este trabajo explora las características morfológicas de algunos espacios públicos abiertos dentro de Ciudad Universitaria percibidos como inseguros por la comunidad a partir de los talleres de cartografía participativa del proyecto “Espacios de confianza en Ciudad Universitaria”. El objetivo es explorar la relación entre morfología y percepción de inseguridad en el campus universitario. Se utiliza el análisis de visibilidad (VGA) con Isovist y tipos de frentes mediante información levantada en campo. Los resultados indican que existen características visuales atribuibles a la morfología que se relacionan con espacios percibidos como más o menos seguros, como los relacionados con la geometría y topologia, incluyendo la continuidad visual o la presencia de elementos que interrumpen en el espacio.
Visibility has extensive application in areas such as architecture, urban planning, and security. This study proposes a novel approximation method, called the shortest-path tree-based method (SPT-based method), for calculating the visible area using a random Delaunay network on a 2D plane. Various methods are available for calculating the visible area, including exact and approximation methods. However, it is difficult to calculate the visible area repeatedly in a space that has a vast number of obstacles while achieving efficient time and memory usage. The SPT-based method focuses on time- and memory-saving preprocessing. To achieve an efficient calculation of the visible area, we discretised a plane using a random Delaunay network and approximated the visible area using Dijkstra’s method. To evaluate the efficiency of the proposed method, we compared the calculation time, accuracy, and memory usage of the plane-sweep, ray-trace, brute-force, and SPT-based methods while considering the influence of the number of obstacles. This study provides valuable insights for researchers and practitioners for choosing the most suitable approach for their specific needs. Overall, the proposed method offers a time- and memory-efficient solution for calculating the visible area, making it suitable for a detailed analysis of the visual environment and providing a heuristic solution to the art gallery problem requiring repetitive calculations.
Traditional Chinese private gardens, as a unique spatial typology, create a maze-like quality through the arrangement of sightlines and pathways, offering occupants a sense of perpetual circulation and boundless time. The rich experiential nature cultivated within these confined spaces, alongside the ecological worldview of “harmony between heaven and humanity,” holds significant relevance for urban landscape design and the sustainable development of urban environments. While there is ample research literature on various aspects of garden spaces, studies exploring how private gardens generate visually infinite and cyclic spatial experiences within limited areas often remain confined to intuitive analysis, lacking concrete and rational explanations. This study employs the method of Isovist Analysis to test the validity of the spatial consciousness of “Limitless vision, Endless recurrence” within the spatial layout and tour organization of traditional private gardens, using the analysis of Isovists at eight scenic spots within the Xiaocanglang Water Courtyard, as well as an examination of visual-spatial changes along both primary and secondary pathways in different tour directions. It is hoped that this research method will serve as a tool for urban designers and landscape architects to assess spatial-visual characteristics and experiences during the design phase.
Djémila (Cuicul) is one of Algeria’s most important archaeological sites, and it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. Despite this status, archaeological excavations have been halted since the 1950s, implying that these remains have yet to reveal all their secrets. The original core of Djémila, whose limits were crossed at the beginning of the third century, continues to raise questions about its street network and the transformations that occurred, particularly the location of the Cardo Maximus. The Djémila plan was analyzed using space syntax measures, specifically the axial map, segment map, and Visibility Graph Analysis (VGA), which revealed the street hierarchy and distribution of the main public buildings. The findings show that the street that intersects the Decumanus Maximus at the Forum’s southern entrance serves as the Cardo Maximus of the Djémila core. In addition, the results show the impact of the Venus Genitrix temple’s construction on the street network, as well as the significance of the Forum and temples in the lives of Djémila’s residents during the second century.
Purpose
“Coliving” is a rapidly developing cohousing typology, characterised by high-density private micro-units integrated with shared, mixed-use amenity spaces. This research examines the interrelationship between spatial configuration, space typologies and the frequency and intensity of copresence within a large coliving building-also known as large-scale purpose-built shared living (LSPBSL).
Design/methodology/approach
Using a UK-based case study, quantitative methods drawn from space syntax theory-namely, visibility graph analysis (VGA) and systematically structured ethnographic observations-were adopted to measure visual integration (HH) and copresence.
Findings
A positive correlation (r s = 0.43, p = 0.07) and no statistically significant difference in distribution (V = 76, p = 0.70) was identified between macro- and micro-level visual integration (HH), indicating that “fractality” exists in the building. Positive correlations were also identified between visual (HH) and spatial (1/RRA) integration (r s = 0.62, p < 0.01); visual integration and copresence frequency (r s = 0.55, p = 0.12); copresence frequency and intensity (r s = 0.63, p < 0.01) and copresence intensity (CI) and frequencies of large group interactions.
Originality/value
No existing research examines the relationship between spatial configurations and the frequencies, intensities and patterns of copresence within coliving buildings. Thus, this article contributes to spatial theory by (1) identifying correlations between these variables within an uncharted spatial context, and (2) introducing a novel syntactic concept – “fractality” – alongside a method for its calculation. By identifying the space typologies and spatial configurations that facilitate the greatest opportunities for social encounter, this study also contributes towards our knowledge of shared living environments.
Purpose
This study aims to explore how users’ movement is influenced by different hospital ward layouts, by using space syntax theory. This study also compared four circulation patterns to find the best one for the study goal.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors used both qualitative and quantitative methods to study how users’ wayfinding in hospitals depends on various indicators and factors. The study used Depth Map software to do case studies and then analyzed the indicators from theoretical foundations and used the Pearson Test to check the correlation between indicators. This study also looked at Iran’s Ministry of Health standards for ward layouts. Finally, the results obtained from the research data were compared to achieve a suitable model based on the research objectives.
Findings
The linear-patterned plan was the best for easy wayfinding and accessibility among four patterns. The optimal hospital circulation patterns can improve wayfinding and reduce wayfinding problems and user movement.
Originality/value
By pioneering space syntax in hospital research, this study unveils the novel interaction between path architecture and user movement. It gives new insights into current trends, helping architects, administrators and policymakers improve health-care design, efficiency and patient experience.
In an era where localization is increasingly vital for daily activities, determining an individual's location and providing suggestions is crucial for successful navigation. Central to our method is the concept of visibility areas, defined as spaces from which a landmark is at least partially visible. We tessellate space into a grid and use raycasting to determine these visibility areas. Visibility areas are further subdivided into sub‐spaces, each representing a unique set of visible landmarks. To efficiently manage and query these sub‐spaces, we create a tree of options for each landmark and merge them into one compact multitree. This structure represents a hierarchical composition of sub‐spaces and enhances query efficiency while storing each sub‐space only once in the memory. The multitree is designed to support the rapid identification of sub‐spaces based on observed landmarks, resulting in efficient localization within the environment is presented to calculating the optimal localization point in a visibility area based on suggested visible landmarks. The paper concludes with a discussion of the approach targeting indoor localization but highlights also its potential for further research and some limitations.
Bereczki, Z. (2023). Space Syntax: konfiguráció a várostörténetben. Közép-európai horizontok. A Közép-Európa Kutatóintézet évkönyve, 1(1):109–121.
In the focus of the research methodology and criteria system discussed in the study stands the street network (space syntax), the plot structure (urban morphology) and the construction, i.e. the relationship between buildings and open spaces (space syntax: convex analysis, visibility analysis; urban morphology). The criteria system, even the city itself, has several layers. The methodology presented here enables researchers to reveal the tears of historic urban tissues (roads, new urban structures), and settlement- like or individual enclaves of buildings, for example, in the post- World War I and post- World War II periods. The study of the three cities that once belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Miskolc, Košice (SK) and Subotica (RS), reveals the location- and country-specific nature of the structural changes and can provide a basis for further studies.
Research on modern heritage is attracting interest nowadays. For this research, we focused on the large housing estateof Climat de France, designed by Fernand Pouillon. We aim with this participation to provide alternatives like digitalinstruments to enhance these dwellings, articulating our research on the following problematic: How can thecontribution of space syntax be useful for carrying out a diagnosis and digitization of the Climat de France? Theresearch will be based on an integrated urban approach that combines spatial and geographical analysis. We will focuson understanding the different elements of space (roads, public spaces, the built environment, and physical attitudes)and describing the relationships between them in terms of connectivity, accessibility, nodality, and density, theseparameters will therefore require the use of software such as depthmapx. In conclusion, the study of the Climat deFrance using syntaxe could be an effective lever for safeguarding and valorization of this modern heritage.
A new dimension in convex representation, configuration value for the location of the static space link ABSTRACT The spatial configuration explores and explains unconscious behaviour using axial, convex and isovisit analyses. Axial analysis is widespread and produces significant results for movement activities in static and dynamic spaces. On the other hand, although static spaces embody social life and human communication face-to-face, studies analysing static spaces as convex are limited, while the isovisit analysis discusses the visual field from a point, its properties (area, vista length, etc.) and its configuration (directed visibility, co-visibility, etc.). The distribution of unconscious activity in static space is influenced by its properties. The manuscript studies the effect of the connection location between spaces-as one of their properties-on the priority of static activity localization in space parts. Where:-Space syntax theory considers a space connection without caring about its location specifically in convex analysis, and-The main difference in the perception concept between dynamic and static activities is that the dynamic activity examines variable points (compatible with axial representation). In contrast, the static activity examines constant points (compatible with convex representation). Depending on the results of previous studies about the visual fields and their effects on static activities, the research proposes a pair (topology depth, visual angle-to connection location-) to order space's cells according to the prioritised locations of static activities, using the order relations from Mathematics. The proposed method is constructed by considering two conditions : the space has a regular shape with orthogonal boundaries, and the space dimensions are a multiple of the connection location's length.
This research explores the spatial configuration and architectural characteristics of Hosseiniyahs in Taft, Yazd province, as exemplars of collective Iranian-Islamic spaces. Employing a multidisciplinary approach, including Graph Theory, spatial statistics, and 3D geo-visualization, the study investigates the intricate relationship between qualitative spatial aspects and underlying configuration patterns.
My findings reveal that quality-enhancing features of Hosseiniyah spaces align with spatial patterns driven by principles of centrality, enclosure, and connectivity. These elements not only facilitate a correspondence between physical patterns and spatial behavior but also support the creation of optimized public urban spaces.
The research suggests that incorporating the spatial experiences and qualitative components of Hosseiniyahs into urban design can foster more inclusive and equitable spaces, ultimately enhancing the quality of urban life. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on effective urban planning and development, offering valuable insights for architects, urban planners, and policymakers alike.
The environmental approach to urban security acknowledges the importance that spatial and social dimensions of urban environments have for both real and perceived security, emphasizing the need to understand how urban spaces influence human behaviour. Space Syntax offers insights into human behavioural patterns in space by examining the spatial configuration of places and identifying individuals' movement patterns, representing an asset to uncovering underlying spatial dynamics in criminal behaviour, both at the urban and micro-urban scale. The association between Space Syntax and crime patterns is not new, however additional steps should be taken to associate it to environmental criminological theories, which deconstruct the components that contribute to crime occurrence. Considering this, the research delves into the existing correlations between crime distributions and intrinsic spatial properties derived from Space Syntax, using the historic centre of Pisa, Italy, as a case study. Two objectives are set: (1) identifying a comprehensive set of significant measures to explore crime phenomena through a discussion of previous research and an examination of the logic of criminology theories; and (2) to develop and discuss a methodology for linking Space Syntax metrics with crime distribution patterns, and assess correlations between space and crimes, thus identifying risky areas within the urban context. The direction and the strength of correlations between certain type of crime and specific attributes of the environment suggests the existence of a “Spatial Crime Impedance” property: a measure of natural resistance that the urban environment, considering only its spatial configuration and physical layout, opposes to criminal activities.
The Space Syntax theoretical framework sustains that the urban spaces' configuration possesses intrinsic information which allows to model and foresee patterns of human movement and social interaction. Critics argue, however, that there are several factors beyond configuration that influence pedestrian behaviour. In particular, critics focus on the absence of the temporal component by saying that, while Space Syntax can reveal systemic logics, it cannot depict the actual time-dependent movement variation in micro-urban scales and their causes. Nevertheless, if accounted pedestrian flows maintain their hierarchies over time and those coincide with the street hierarchies denoted by Space Syntax, this would reinforce the role of the configurational component in movement. Given this premise, the paper discusses pedestrian flow data and Visibility Graph Analysis in Piazza delle Vettovaglie, Pisa (Italy), to assess: a) if pedestrian flows hierarchy actually changes, by comparing people counts registered in different timestamps, along three days, at different access gates; b) if different Space Syntax metrics express the same gate hierarchy; c) if-and-how the modelled and real hierarchies differ from each other. This discussion aims to unveil the role of time in micro-urban spaces usage, and provide a first answer to the question: do changes in pedestrian movement across time follow the configurational hierarchy established with Space Syntax? Results inform that despite changing in flows, the hierarchy proved rather regular across time, thus confirming the Space Syntax premises and the role of configurational component in movement.
Understanding urban dynamics through complexity has attracted increasing interest in urban research. However, complexity theories also provide valuable insights regarding the temporal brain-body-environment dynamics, and how spatial structure is perceived over time. Nonlinear dynamical system approaches are often central in embodied-enactive accounts of cognition and ecological theories of direct perception. Gibsonean views suggest that our perceptual systems become attuned to the invariant structure of the continuous flowing energy array. To find our way, we actively pick up informational variables that we perceive over time, which requires coordination between perceptual systems, behaviour and environmental information. The paper focuses on these processes and introduces an analytic approach to isovist paths grounded in dynamic systems. Several studies have demonstrated that different types of behaviour (e.g., temporal estimation, gait, eye movements) yield time series distributions that display fractal structure, a fingerprint of complex systems. Consequently, this encourages the extension of such investigations to exploratory behaviour: Can empirical data associated with exploratory behaviour be described by a power law and what could this suggest about the agent-environment system? To address this, I examine the variability surrounding virtual exploratory behaviour of 20 participants, by comparing the fluctuations of time-series data of isovist paths (occlusivity, drift angle and drift magnitude) against randomly shuffled data. Power spectral analysis and detrended fluctuation analysis were conducted to assess whether there is a correlational structure in the data (1/f scaling). The findings suggest the presence of structured, non-random variability, which may be an indication of sensorimotor coordination supporting emergent exploratory behaviour.
This article presents a method for constructing circulatory networks that intrinsically combine geometric, topological, and semantic spatial attributes. The objective of this work is to generate concise graph representations extracted from spatial geometry that may be used for wayfinding and code compliance analyses to inform architectural design and urban planning. Our approach is based on shape analysis using the Medial Axis Transform skeletonization method. We present a process for the semantic classification of its nodes and edges by constructing an analytical rational piece-wise 3D surface representation. This overcomes the problem of identifying salient or otherwise graph features. Furthermore, we augment the networks with peripheral pathways. This addresses the fundamental limitation of skeletal graphs forcing paths exclusively through the middle of space and thus producing unreasonable detours. We demonstrate that our approach encompasses subtle circulatory features and generates concise graphs for open and free-form spaces that do not exhibit corridor-like structures.
The later-prehistoric linear ditches that divide the chalk landscape of Wessex, south England, are markers in an area. It is a topographic space. The ditches seem to be placed with a view to their visibility in the landscape. It is a human topographic space. A GIS study of the ditches' place, in terms of what a human sees in moving acros undulating ground, goes beyond that environmental determinism which underlies many GIS studies.
The elevations recorded in the DEM are not without error, and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) published a root-mean-squared error (RMSE) for each DEM. The research reported here examines how that error propagates into derivative products resulting from geographic information system (GIS)-type operations. One product from a DEM, the focus of this paper, is the viewshed. Repeated error fields with varying parameters are added to the original DEM, and the viewshed is determined in the resulting noisy DEM. -from Author
Line-of-sight communication on topographic surfaces has relevance for several applications of Geographical Information Systems. In this paper, we study the problem of linking a set of transceiver stations in a visibility-connected communication network, by placing a minimum number of relays on the terrain surface. The problem is studied in the framework of a discrete visibility model, where the mutual visibility of a finite set of sites on the terrain is represented through a graph, called the visibility graph. While in the special case of only two transceivers an optimal solution can be found in polynomial time, by computing a minimum path on the visibility graph, the general problem is equivalent to a Steiner problem on the visibility graph, and, thus, it is untractable in practice. In the latter case, we propose a practical approximate solution based on a Steiner heuristic. For both the special and the general case, we propose both a static and a dynamic algorithm that allow computation of a solution, and we show experimental results.
In July 1995, the Tate Gallery commissioned the Unit for Architectural Studies to carry out a study of the spatial design and patterns of space use in the existing Tate Gallery, as an aid to evaluating proposals for a new masterplan with a basement level entrance. The study was to comprise four stages: computer modelling and analysis of the existing layout using 'space syntax' techniques; observations of current patterns of movement and space use; correlation of the spatial analysis and observations to provide a detailed picture of how the Tate is currently working; computer simulation of the new design proposals in light of findings of the study in order to evaluate the likely effects of changes in the layout on the pattern of movement and space use in the Gallery.
The observation study was carried out during the week of 7th August. Because Room 20 was closed at this time until 4th September, further observations in and around this space were carried out after this date to see how far the closure had affected the pattern of movement and space use. The lower ground gallery was not open during the first observation period, and was therefore also observed during this later period. Full reference: Tate Gallery, Millbank: A Study of the Existing Layout and New Masterplan Proposal (B. Hillier, M.D. Major, J. Desyllas, K. Karimi, B. Campos, T. Stonor). Unit for Architectural Studies Report, 1995, 31 pp.
As we move through buildings, we experience not only continuous changes of perspective but also discrete transitions from one space to another. To describe movement as a pattern of such transitions we need methods for partitioning space into relevant elementary units. Here we explore several convex partitions including one based on the thresholds at which edges, corners, and surfaces appear into the field of vision of a moving subject, or disappear outside it. Our purpose is to contribute to the development of quantitative descriptions of building shape and spatial configuration.
One of the most common uses of digital terrain databases is in the evaluation of intervisibility, or clear line of sight, between points in space. These evaluations are often used to make decisions regarding deployment of equipment or personnel. However, there will be errors or discrepancies between the database and the true terrain, and, because of these discrepancies, the visibility in the field will differ from that predicted using the database. This paper describes a method for calculating the probability of visibility over an area for a given error specification. Results are described showing the sensitivity of visibility uncertainty to database error and terrain roughness. Sensitivity to other parameters is discussed. The results show that databases are very good for predicting masking but are less reliable for predicting visibility. Also, the reliability of the visibility predictions increases with increasing terrain roughness.
There follows a summary of the proposed variants, and a re-~h~ determination of the visible area or viewshed from a view of their sensitivity to database error. Finally, a discus-viewing point looking out on a landscope is a widely availa-sion of how these variants may be used to respond to the ble function in a GIS. A reconsideration of the oueries which queries is presented. ma; be made of the viewshed, however, reveal; that often the function does not address them correctly. This has led to the specification of alternative viewshed functions intended to give flexible outcomes which can be used to respond to the queries directly. The alternatives include the horizons viewshed, the local offset viewshed, the global offset view-shed, and reverse viewing versions of all three. Applications of these alternative viewshed functions to answer queries about the landscape and the view which the binary viewshed is not able to respond to either precisely or flexibly are ex-amined.
A new algorithm for generating viewsheds from grid-based digital elevation models is presented. It uses a combination of sightline analysis and the relationships between the local surfaces at the source and destination points. Depending on the nature of the terrain sugace, significant savings in com- putation time over existing sightline only based algorithms are made because a substantial proportion of the destination points can be determined as invisible from the source point without the need for sightlines. The new algorithm also pro- duces more reliable results by better consideration of points at or near the viewshed horizon.
The book presents a new theory of space: how and why it is a vital component of how societies work. The theory is developed on the basis of a new way of describing and analysing the kinds of spatial patterns produced by buildings and towns. The methods are explained so that anyone interested in how towns or buildings are structured and how they work can make use of them. The book also presents a new theory of societies and spatial systems, and what it is about different types of society that leads them to adopt fundamentally different spatial forms. From this general theory, the outline of a 'pathology of modern urbanism' in today's social context is developed.
Houses are not just assemblages of individual rooms but intricate patterns of organised space, governed by rules and conventions about the size and configuration of rooms, which domestic activities go together, how the interior should be decorated and furnished and what kinds of household object are appropriate in each setting, how family members relate to one another in different spaces, and how and where guests should be received and entertained in the home. Decoding Homes and Houses introduces new, computer-based techniques designed to retrieve and interpret this wealth of social and symbolic information. The various representations and measures show how domestic space provides a shared framework for everyday life, how social meanings are constructed in the home and how different sub-groups within society differentiate themselves through their patterns of domestic space and lifestyles.
Les modeles theoriques montrent que de substantielles economies peuvent etre realisees en densifiant les cites plutot qu'en les etirant. La structure spatiale de la maille urbaine est l'element cle. Les villes organiques qui ont pousse pendant de longues periodes semblent optimiser certains aspects fondamentaux de l'utilisation de l'espace et de la facilite de mouvement. Les civilisations denses paraissent devenir une possibilite de plus en plus attractive, ouvrant la voie vers une economie du mouvement
Parallel computing will likely play an important role in integrating spatial environmental models for large-scale systems. Intervisibility analysis with error simulation in a digital elevation model is used to illustrate an approach to developing parallel models, and to demonstrate some benefits of high-performance computing. Analyzing the structure of the application problem ensures an appropriate match between problem and parallel system implementation. Data communication is the most important computational issue in this application. The line of sight algorithms and data distribution strategies for two intervisibility models run on the Connection Machine-2 are described and partial program listings are appended. Results of this study show that intervisibility may be overestimated when the effects of DEM error are ignored.
The concept of computing least-cost paths has been proposed and discussed for a few decades but only in simplified form due to the limited computational resources in the past. With the advancement of computer technology in speed and data storage, it is now possible to implement least-cost path algorithms with realistic conditions. In this paper, we present our implementations of least-cost paths by integrating viewshed information computed from digital elevation models. Our implementations and analyses include four possible types of paths. They are scenic paths, strategic paths, hidden paths, and withdrawn paths. While possible applications of these least-cost paths include planning of civil engineering, military and environmental planning, other extensions can be formulated without much difficulty.
This book presents an empiricist alternative (‘constructive empiricism’) to both logical positivism and scientific realism. Against the former, it insists on a literal understanding of the language of science and on an irreducibly pragmatic dimension of theory acceptance. Against scientific realism, it insists that the central aim of science is empirical adequacy (‘saving the phenomena’) and that even unqualified acceptance of a theory involves no more belief than that this goal is met. Beginning with a critique of the metaphysical arguments that typically accompany scientific realism, a new characterization of empirical adequacy is presented, together with an interpretation of probability in both modern and contemporary physics and a pragmatic theory of explanation.
A text detailing critical aspects of geographic information systems for land resources assessment. Nine chapters cover themes on: 1. Overview of GIS components - computer mapping, data bases, future directions. 2. Data structures for thematic maps, including files, spatial data definitions, vector and raster structures, database facilities. 3. Digital elevation models. 4. Data input, verification, storage and output. 5. Methods of spatial data analysis and modelling, ranging from basic map overlay, to natural language processing. 6. Data quality, errors, and the nature of spatial data on maps. 7. Classification techniques - multivariate, and using expert systems. 8. Spatial interpolation methods. 9. Selecting a GIS. Each chapter has a list of references, and two appendices give a glossary of terms, and a list of selected information sources.-after Author
This paper, the first of a sequence, defines built forms as quasi-mathematical models and uses graph-theoretic representation in order to express how buildings are connected and packed over an area of land. Buildings are represented by points called built forms; external walls and partitions (party walls between buildings) by lines. The connected subgraphs made up of built forms and partitions are called arrays of built forms. This constitutes a simplified view of the built-form subsystem which, together with the channel network, gives rise to an urban graph. Twelve measures representing either the connectivity amongst the elements of the built-form subsystem or of the adjacency between built forms and the external environment are defined in order to provide a numerical scale for the properties under study. The majority of these are ratio measures which will be evaluated in a subsequent paper by use of actual data.
The environment is defined as a collection of visible real surfaces in space. An isovist is the set of all points visible from a given vantage point in space and with respect to an environment. The shape and size of an isovist is liable to change with position. Numerical measures are proposed that quantify some salient size and shape features. These measures in turn create a set of scalar isovist fields . Sets of isovists and isovist fields form an alternative description of environments. The method seems relevant to behavioral and perceptual studies in architecture, especially in the areas of view control, privacy, 'defensibility', and in dynamic complexity and spaciousness judgements. Isovists and isovist fields also shed light on the meaning of prevalent architectural notions about space . In the latter role it is hoped that an information-field theory such as the one presented can help provide fruitful common ground for designers and researchers.
The viewshed operation is integral to a number of modem geographic information systems. From a digital elevation model of an area, it derives a new coverage which shows those areas which are visible from one or more locations, and which is coded as a binary image: 1 indicating those areas which are visible, and 0 those which are not. For various reasons this representation has been shown to be insufficient and it has been suggested elsewhere that the probable viewshed is a more realistic alternative. In this paper the use of the probable viewshed in planning visible areas is explored. This involves a discussion of combining probable viewsheds by union, intersection, and weighted average. The data products thus derived are examined and it is shown that the analysis of probable viewsheds gives much more information about the nature of the viewable area, which in turn enables a more thorough approach to planning the use of viewable areas.
'Space syntax' analysis is used by architecture students to investigate the relation between composition and configuration in the houses of four influential modem architects whose work betrays a preoccupation with the formal decomposition of the cube. Analysis reveals that the houses permutate the morphological properties of depth and rings differentially to embed domestic functions within the home and to interface household members. Two of the houses are judged to be well composed but configurationally banal; two appear more inventive in relating compositional principles to space configuration, to create a measure of subtlety and richness in life-style which is lacking in the examples where form is manipulated in the abstract. The students discover that knowledge of both the internal laws of form and the social logic of space is required to generate the practical conjunction of formal rigour with functional ease which we recognise in the houses of great architects.
Existing theories relating patterns of pedestrian and vehicular movement to urban form characterise the problem in terms of flows to and from 'attractor' land uses. This paper contains evidence in support of a new 'configurational' paradigm in which a primary property of the form of the urban grid is to privilege certain spaces over others for through movement. In this way it is suggested that the configuration of the urban grid itself is the main generator of patterns of movement. Retail land uses are then located to take advantage of the opportunities offered by the passing trade and may well act as multipliers on the basic pattern of 'natural movement' generated by the grid configuration. The configurational correlates of movement patterns are found to be measures of global properties of the grid with the 'space syntax' measure of 'integration' consistently found to be the most important. This has clear implications for urban design suggesting that if we wish to design for well used urban space, then it is not the local properties of a space that are important in the main but its configurational relations to the larger urban system.
Networks of coupled dynamical systems have been used to model biological oscillators, Josephson junction arrays, excitable media, neural networks, spatial games, genetic control networks and many other self-organizing systems. Ordinarily, the connection topology is assumed to be either completely regular or completely random. But many biological, technological and social networks lie somewhere between these two extremes. Here we explore simple models of networks that can be tuned through this middle ground: regular networks 'rewired' to introduce increasing amounts of disorder. We find that these systems can be highly clustered, like regular lattices, yet have small characteristic path lengths, like random graphs. We call them 'small-world' networks, by analogy with the small-world phenomenon (popularly known as six degrees of separation. The neural network of the worm Caenorhabditis elegans, the power grid of the western United States, and the collaboration graph of film actors are shown to be small-world networks. Models of dynamical systems with small-world coupling display enhanced signal-propagation speed, computational power, and synchronizability. In particular, infectious diseases spread more easily in small-world networks than in regular lattices.
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Strategic space: patterns of use in public squares of the city of London
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