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Comparison of Dry-Land Training Programs Between Age Groups of Swimmers
Abstract
Objective:
To describe the current use of dry-land training in swimmers by age category.
Design:
Randomized sampling questionnaire.
Setting:
Web-based survey.
Participants:
Ninety-seven coaches from swim clubs throughout the United States.
Main outcome measures:
Dry-land training use, frequency, duration, mode of exercise, and exercise by body region in the following groups: ≤10 years, 11-14 years, 15-18 years, collegiate, and masters swimmers (≥18 years, noncollegiate).
Results:
Among the surveyed coaches (n = 97), dry-land training use varied by swimmers' age (≤10 years [54%], 11-14 years [83%], 15-18 years [93%], collegiate [86%], and masters [26%]) and type of training modality (age ≤18 years [body weight exercises, stretching]; collegiate [free weight/machine weights and body weight exercises]; and masters [weight and cardiovascular training]). The most common body region exercised for all categories except masters was the spine/core, followed by the proximal leg, and then the shoulder. Masters swimmers focused on the shoulder region, followed by the spine. The primary reason for participation in dry-land training was injury prevention for all categories except masters. Limited practice time was the most common reason for not using dry-land training.
Conclusions:
A total of 50%-93% of swim coaches surveyed for all groups except masters incorporated some form of dry-land training; they used body weight exercises in younger swimmers. The focus of dry-land training among swimmers ≤18 years and collegiate swimmers was the spine/core. These findings may be used to develop future studies on how dry-land training contributes to performance or injuries, especially in the younger swimmer.
... In young competitive swimmers (age: 12.08 ± 0.76 years) it was found a tendency to enhance sprint swimming performance due to dry-land strength improvements [14] and it was also previously reported that a combined program of swimming and dry-land strength lead to significant gains in swimming sprinting performance in national-level competitive swimmers (age: 21.8 ± 3.9 years) [15]. Dry-land training was indicated as an integral part of the programs used by youth, adolescent, and collegiate swim programs, although, the authors referred to the master swimmers as the least likely to use dry-land training because of limited practice time [16]. Nonetheless a study highlighted that hand grip strength (HG) was the best predictors in short-distance events comparatively to age and height in master swimmers [17]. ...
... In this regard and of note that an important association exists between severe muscle loss and the increased risk of physical disability [41] cognitive decline [42], metabolic disorders [43] and mortality [44]. Nevertheless, masters swimming teams previously reported relatively low rates of dry-land usage (26%) [16]. ...
Background: Master swimming is becoming increasingly popular, but research related to the training process and its effect on this population is scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of 12 weeks in-water training in stroke kinematics, dry-land power, and swimming sprints performance in master swimmers, and the relationships between these variables in this sports population. Methods: 15 healthy and physically active male master swimmers (age 32.3 ± 5.1 years, height 1.81 ± 0.04 m, body mass 77.0 ± 6.5 kg, training experience of 11 ± 4 years and average swimming training volume~2.5 km/day, 3 times a week) participated in the study. Previously and after the intervention program, entirely water-based, swimmers were tested in a dry-land environment to assess their upper and lower body limbs (UL and LL) strength through power measurements, namely countermovement jumps (CMJ), seated 3 kg medicine ball throwing (MBT) and maximal isometric strength with handgrip (HG). In-water 50 m maximal front crawl swimming test was also completed. Swimming performance at 15, 25, and 50 m (T15, T25, and T50) was determined, and the associated stroke kinematics. During the intervention program period, swimming training comprised three sessions per week (7.5 ± 0.9 km per microcycle), with low-to high-intensity aerobic and anaerobic swimming series and technical drills. Results: T25 significantly decreased after 12 weeks of training (18.82 ± 2.92 vs. 18.60 ± 2.87 sec, p = 0.02), the same was observed in the case of T50 (40.36 ± 7.54 vs. 38.32 ± 6.41 sec, p = 0.00). Changes in stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL) and stroke index (SI) in swimming performance at 15 m were not observed, contrarily to 25 and 50 m, where SL and SI significantly increased. MBT and HG improved, but not CMJ, and improvements in T15, T25 and T50 were mostly related to kinematic proficiency improvement. Conclusions: 12 weeks of in-water training in master swimmers significantly enhance performance time in 25 and 50 m front crawl swimming. SL and SI are also improved and are the variables that most influence T15, T25 and T50 when compared to SR and dry-land power variables. Centering the training process not only in in-water tasks in master swimmers seem to be of relevant interest since age influences stroke kinematic and power variables.
... Competitive year round swimmers cover 6,000 to 14,000 meters (m) a day in practice, while some distance swimmers cover as far as 24,000 m a day during practice. [4][5][6][7][8] Practices are generally held five to seven days per week, oftentimes twice daily up to 3 times per week. This equates to roughly 60,000 to 80,000m of total swimming distance per week. ...
... This equates to roughly 60,000 to 80,000m of total swimming distance per week. [4][5][6][7][8] This exercise volume can result in the development of shoulder pain. Shoulder pain is among the most frequent complaints of competitive swimmers with the incidence of shoulder pain in competitive swimmers ranging between 3-80%. ...
Background:
Shoulder pain is common in competitive young swimmers. A relationship between shoulder strength and shoulder soreness in competitive young swimmers may indicate need for strengthening.
Purpose:
To determine if a shoulder exercise program will improve shoulder strength and decrease pain in competitive young swimmers.
Study design:
Randomized control.
Methods:
Participants (10 control, 11 experimental), randomly assigned to a control or experiment group, completed the 12 week program. Strength was measured prior to the study for shoulder flexion, abduction, external rotation, internal rotation, and extension on the dominant arm using handheld dynamometry. The experimental group was then assigned exercises to be performed three times per week. The control group was instructed not to perform the exercises. All participants were re-tested at six and twelve weeks following initiation of the study.
Results:
The changes in strength for each muscle group and pain were compared between groups using a mixed design two-way ANOVA. The experimental group significantly increased external rotation strength compared to the control group. Shoulder soreness was not significantly different between groups.
Conclusion:
Adolescents who perform shoulder strengthening significantly increased their external rotation strength compared to adolescents who only participated in a regular swimming regimen.
... Effective and functional upper quarter testing could be used to help develop offseason and dryland training programs focused on performance enhancement and injury prevention. 12,13 Swimming requires a significant amount of upper body and core strength, endurance, 11,14 and shoulder mobility and stability. 5 Although a number of tests have been designed to assess upper quarter function, few tests assess upper quarter stability at the limit of closed chain stability, [15][16][17][18] which has been associated with performance enhancement and injury prevention in swimmers. ...
... 5 Although a number of tests have been designed to assess upper quarter function, few tests assess upper quarter stability at the limit of closed chain stability, [15][16][17][18] which has been associated with performance enhancement and injury prevention in swimmers. 12,13 The upper quarter Y balance test (YBT-UQ) can be conducted in the field setting with minimal equipment and examines the unilateral performance of the upper quarter at the end range of the athlete's ability to maintain stability. [15][16][17][18] The YBT-UQ challenges the core and upper quarter strength, stability, and mobility that are required for the performance demands of swimming. ...
Context:
Upper quarter injuries have a higher incidence in female swimmers; however, to date, there are few ways to assess the basic functional ability of this region. The upper quarter Y balance test (YBT-UQ) may assist in this process because it was developed to provide a fundamental assessment of dynamic upper quarter ability at the limit of stability.
Objective:
To examine how sex affects performance on the YBT-UQ in swimmers.
Design:
Cohort study.
Patients or other participants:
Forty-three male and 54 female National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I college swimmers were recruited preseason.
Main outcome measure(s):
We measured YBT-UQ performance for the left and right limbs in the medial, inferolateral, and superolateral directions. The maximum score for each direction was normalized to upper extremity length. The average of the greatest normalized reach scores in each reach direction was used to develop a composite score (average distance in 3 directions/limb length [LL] × 100). To examine reach symmetry between sexes, the difference in centimeters between the left and right sides was calculated for each reach direction prior to normalization. Statistical analysis was conducted using an independent-samples t test (P < .05).
Results:
Average scores in the medial (women: 92.5 ± 7.4%LL, men: 100.0 ± 8.7%LL; P < .01) and inferolateral (women: 85.6 ± 10.3%LL, men: 89.8 ± 10.8%LL; P = .05) directions and composite score (women: 83.4 ± 8.3%LL, men: 88.3 ± 8.9%LL; P < .01) were higher in men than in women. No differences were observed for reach symmetry in any direction.
Conclusions:
Performance on several YBT-UQ indices was worse for female than male collegiate swimmers. These results may have implications for the use of preseason and return-to-sport testing in swimmers as a measurement of upper quarter function and symmetry.
... This adds up to roughly 60,000 to 80,000 meters per week. 4,12,21,35,36 In addition to pool training, most club or collegiate training programs include land-based cross-training and strength-training programs (called "dryland") to improve performances in the pool. ...
Context
Competitive swimmers are at high risk of overuse musculoskeletal injuries due to their high training volumes. Spine injuries are the second most common musculoskeletal injury in swimmers and are often a result of the combination of improper technique, high loads on the spine in strokes that require hyperextension, and repetitive overuse leading to fatigue of the supporting trunk muscles. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current evidence regarding swimming biomechanics, stroke techniques, and common injuries in the lumbar spine to promote a discussion on the prevention and rehabilitation of lower back injuries in competitive swimmers.
Evidence Acquisition
From a PUBMED/MEDLINE search, 16 articles were identified for inclusion using the search terms “swimming,” “low back” or “lumbar,” and “injury” or “injuries.”
Study Design
Narrative review.
Level of Evidence
Levels 4 and 5.
Results
The trunk muscles are integral to swimming stroke biomechanics. In freestyle and backstroke, the body roll generated by the paraspinal and abdominal muscles is integral to efficient stroke mechanics by allowing synergistic movements of the upper and lower extremities. In butterfly and breaststroke, the undulating wave like motion of the dolphin kick requires dynamic engagement of the core to generate repetitive flexion and extension of the spine and is a common mechanism for hyperextension injuries. The most common lower back injuries in swimming were determined to be lumbar strain, spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis, facet joint pain, and disc disease. Most overuse swimming injuries can be treated conservatively with physical therapy and training adjustments.
Conclusion
Managing swimmers with low back pain requires a basic knowledge of swimming technique and a focus on prevention-based care. Since most swimming injuries are secondary to overuse, it is important for providers to understand the mechanisms underlying the swimming injury, including an understanding of the biomechanics involved in swimming and the role of spine involvement in the 4 strokes that assist in stabilization and force generation in the water. Knowledge of the biomechanics involved in swimming and the significant demands placed on the spinal musculoskeletal system will aid the clinician in the diagnosis and management of injuries and assist in the development of a proper rehabilitation program aimed at correction of any abnormal swimming mechanics, treatment of pain, and future injury prevention.
Strength of Recommendations
B. Recommendation based on limited quality or inconsistent patient-oriented evidence.
... Indeed, specific questionnaires have previously been used in swimming to identify on-field warm-up techniques (31), training load monitoring (32), injury surveillance (4), performance analysis (33) or specific training points such as underwater kicks (34). In the context of S&C, some studies investigated S&C practices on competitive swimmers (35)(36)(37)(38). More specifically, some studies (36,38) concomitantly evaluated S&C practices and the swimming training part, but without connection between the two fundamental training conditions. ...
Introduction
The aim of this study was to explore training and testing practices from Strength & Conditioning (S&C) coaches who manage groups of high-level French swimmers in elite training centers. The transfer of abilities from dry-land to in situ condition was also investigated.
Methods
24 French S&C coaches completed a survey via an online platform. Frequency analyses were made for quantitative and qualitative responses, the level of significance set for this study was p ≤ 0.05.
Results
Core stability, Strength & Power were the three most targeted qualities. Core strengthening in all its forms, Bench Press & Squat were the three most prescribed exercises. 79% of S&C coaches adapted exercises according to different parameters. Most of the coaches indicated that dry-land S&C sessions were preferentially placed before in-water sessions. Very varied exercises were used in-water to make the transfer from dry-land more effective. 87% of participants monitored the training load and 38% assessed the force and velocity parameters for some S&C exercises.
Discussion
Dry-land training practices of S&C coaches were mostly in line with scientific recommendations. In the light of results of the questionnaire, it would appear that testing procedures might be a key issue for transferring qualities from dry-land to in situ.
... There is a paucity of literature that has examined strength training with sufficient amounts of higher intensity training that is needed to cause long-term improvements in maximum strength. Most interventions either involve working against increased resistance in the water [127][128][129][130], the attempt to simulate the swimming movement with increased pulling resistance on the biokinetic swim bench on land [127,131,132], or performed training with low resistances and high numbers of repetitions [131,[133][134][135][136][137][138][139]. However, due to the duration and the low intensity of the training load, such procedures are typically classified as endurance training. ...
This narrative review deals with the topic of strength training in swimming, which has been a controversial issue for decades. It is not only about the importance for the performance at start, turn and swim speed, but also about the question of how to design a strength training program. Different approaches are discussed in the literature, with two aspects in the foreground. On the one hand is the discussion about the optimal intensity in strength training and, on the other hand, is the question of how specific strength training should be designed. In addition to a summary of the current state of research regarding the importance of strength training for swimming, the article shows which
physiological adaptations should be achieved in order to be able to increase performance in the long term. Furthermore, an attempt is made to explain why some training contents seem to be rather unsuitable when it comes to increasing strength as a basis for higher performance in the start, turn and clean swimming. Practical training consequences are then derived from this. Regardless of the athlete’s performance development, preventive aspects should also be
onsidered in the discussion. The article provides a critical overview of the abovementioned key issues. The most important points when designing a strength training program for swimming are a sufficiently high-load intensity to increase maximum strength, which in turn is the basis for power, year-round trength training, parallel to swim training and working on the transfer of acquired strength skills in swim training, and not through supposedly specific strength training exercises on land or in the water.
... Strength training with resistance exercises have been shown to have performanceenhancing and injury-reducing benefits in youth athletes [20,21]. The awareness of such benefits is demonstrated by an increasing number of swimming coaches working with different age groups that incorporate dryland training, including theraband training, into their swimming programmes [22]. A number of studies have found a positive relationship between strength, power and swimming performance. ...
Background and Study Aim. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 6 weeks theraband training on respiratory parameters, upper extremity muscle strength and 50-100m swimming performance in swimming athletes.
Material and Methods. Totally 12 male swimmers participated voluntarily and were divided into two groups as control group (n=6) and experimental group (n=6). Control group did only swimming training, experimental group did theraband exercises in addition to swimming exercises. Respiratory parameters, upper extremity anaerobic performance, shoulder extension/flexion strength and swimming performance were measured. Mann Whitney-U Test was used to determine the differences between two groups. Wilcoxon Test was used to determine intra-group differences.
Results. There was no statistically significant difference between the pre and post-test values of respiratory parameters, anaerobic performance values and swimming measurements of the experimental groups (p>0.05). There was a statistically significant difference between shoulder extension and flexion values (p0.05). There was a statistically significant difference between the post-test values of the experimental and control groups shoulder extension and flexion values (p0.05).
Conclusions. As a result of the findings, it can be said that theraband training which is done as a land work with swimming training leads to positive effects in the upper extremity muscle strength and swimming performance development of youth swimmers.
... Following the semi-structured interview, each coach completed a closed-ended questionnaire that was designed to gather information about the coach's current training practices across all of the developmental stages of a competitive swimmer. The questionnaire was adapted from research by Krabak et al. (2013) and was pilot tested with two expert swimming coaches in order to establish validity (see Appendix 3 ...
... The FPI values obtained indicate that the swimmers had a more strongly pronated foot posture. This finding is accounted for by the biomechanical technique applied to 150 the lower limb by swimmers, together with the effect of the type of trainingmainly in the waterin this sport (Krabak, Hancock, & Drake, 2013). In the aquatic environment, less resistance is offered and body weight is decreased, and therefore the muscle activity of the lower limbs is reduced (Liebenberg et al., 2011). ...
This aim of this study is to observe the differences in foot posture and the angle of the knee according to different physical activities. Seventy-eight football players and 72 swimmers were recruited, and in each case a foot posture analysis, based on the foot posture index (FPI), was conducted and the Q angle of the knee was determined. The following mean values were obtained for the lower extremities: in the swimmers, FPI 6.45 ± 2.04 and Q angle 15.38º ± 3.79º. In the footballers, FPI 2.23 ± 1.72 and Q angle 13.16º ± 1.36º. There were statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) between the two groups. The swimmers presented a foot posture with a tendency towards pronation, and a Q angle with a tendency towards valgus, while the results for the footballers were within the normal range.
... Appropriate Resistance Training (RT) has been shown to have performance-enhancing and injury-reducing benefits in youth athletes [5,6]. The awareness of such benefits is demonstrated by an increasing number of swimming coaches working with different age groups that incorporate dry-land training, including RT, into their swimming programmes [7]. Although RT is associated with increased strength, power production [8] and the rate of force development [9], the exact effects of various dry-land training interventions on swimming performance, particularly in youth swimmers is unclear. ...
Resistance training has been shown to have both performance-enhancing and injury-reducing benefits in youth athletes. The benefits are somewhat overlooked by many swimming coaches, therefore the effects of a structured resistance training programme in highly trained youth swimmers was investigated. Nine competitive youth swimmers (age: 13 ± 1.1 years) underwent a 7 week dry-land resistance training programme. Swimming performance and other relevant physiological parameters were measured pre- and post-training. There was a small non-significant improvement in swimming performance following the 7 week training programme (100 m freestyle; p > 0.05, ES = 0.26). Countermovement jump height (p < 0.05, ES = -1.26), back and leg strength (p < 0.05, ES = -1.85) and number of push ups completed in 60 s (p < 0.05, ES = -1.86) all significantly improved. Although the resistance training programme did not significantly improve swimming performance, other physiological parameters, important for success in the pool, did significantly improve. It may be that an adaptation period is needed so the swimmers can learn to efficiently apply their increased force in the water.
... Following the semi-structured interview, each coach completed a closed-ended questionnaire that was designed to gather information about the coach's current training practices across all of the developmental stages of a competitive swimmer. The questionnaire was adapted from research by Krabak et al. (2013) and was pilot tested with two expert swimming coaches in order to establish validity. The Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model that is currently in use by the national governing body was suggested as the most practical method to categorise the distinct phases in the development of competitive swimmers within this cultural context (2014). ...
The debate over low-volume, high-intensity training versus high-volume, low-intensity training, commonly known as Quality versus Quantity, respectively, is a frequent topic of discussion among swimming coaches and academics. The aim of this study was to explore expert coaches' perceptions of quality and quantity coaching philosophies in competitive swimming and to investigate their current training practices. A purposeful sample of 11 expert swimming coaches was recruited for this study. The study was a mixed methods design and involved each coach participating in 1 semi-structured interview and completing 1 closed-ended questionnaire. The main findings of this study were that coaches felt quality training programmes would lead to short term results for youth swimmers, but were in many cases more appropriate for senior swimmers. The coaches suggested that quantity training programmes built an aerobic base for youth swimmers, promoted technical development through a focus on slower swimming and helped to enhance recovery from training or competition. However, the coaches continuously suggested that quantity training programmes must be performed with good technique and they felt this was a misunderstood element. This study was a critical step towards gaining a richer and broader understanding on the debate over Quality versus Quantity training from an expert swimming coaches' perspective which was not currently available in the research literature.
... The LTAD model further suggested that boys aged 12-15 and girls aged 11-14 should perform 24,000-32,000 m over 6-12 sessions per week. Similar training practices for youth swimmers are evident in the literature (25,35). It is highly questionable that how youth swimmers could commit to these training recommendations without early specialization within the sport. ...
The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the extent and quality of the current research literature in order to determine the effects of low volume, high intensity training (HIT) on physiological performance and swimming performance in competitive swimmers.The methodology followed the PRISMA-P protocol. A search of relevant databases and conference proceedings was performed until December 2015. The inclusion criteria was: a) competitive swimmers, b) ≥ 4 weeks HIT intervention, c) comparison group had to involve a higher training volume, d) outcome measures of physiological and swimming performance, e) all experimental study designs. Quality assessment was performed using the Quality Index checklist.Results indicate that of the 538 studies retrieved, 7 studies met the inclusion criteria. Six out of the 7 studies found that a HIT intervention resulted in significant improvements in physiological performance. Four of the 7 studies found that HIT resulted in significant improvements in swimming performance, whilst none of the 7 studies resulted in a reduction in physiological or swimming performance.Despite the positive findings of this review, the short study duration is a limitation to a number of the studies. The current evidence on the effects of HIT on performance is promising however it is difficult to draw accurate conclusions until further research has been conducted.
... Focused Strengthening Exercises Dryland training has been an important part of strengthening programs among swimmers at different age and skill levels. The main focus of these training programs seems to be the spine and core strengthening [47]. Strength deficits can play an important role in fatigue development. ...
Swimming is one of the most popular sports worldwide. Competitive swimming is one of the most watched sports during the Olympic Games. Swimming has unique medical challenges as a result of a variety of environmental and chemical exposures. Musculoskeletal overuse injuries, overtraining, respiratory problems, and dermatologic conditions are among the most common problems swimmers encounter. Although not unique to swimming, overtraining is a serious condition which can have significant negative impact on swimmers' health and performance. This review article is an attempt to discuss various issues that a medical team should consider when caring for swimmers.
Objective
The purpose of the current study is to synthesize the outcomes of investigations reporting the odds of lumbar degenerative disc disease (DDD) in competitive swimmers compared to controls.
Literature Survey
PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases were searched according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses guidelines from inception until March 2023 to identify relevant studies evaluating the risk for lumbar DDD associated with swimming.
Methods
Data in the current literature were synthesized for positive imaging findings of DDD at one or more lumbar level in swimmers compared to nonswimmers. Additionally, data regarding prevalence of lumbar disc degeneration and back pain in competitive swimmers were synthesized.
Synthesis
Four studies were included in the final analysis. Study quality and risk of bias were deemed adequate. There was significant heterogeneity among studies ( I ² = 0.74) regarding data collected, population of swimmers, sample size, and methods. Therefore, a meta‐analysis was not conducted. The majority of the studies included in this study (three of four) reported that swimmers have increased odds of developing lumbar DDD. Additionally, secondary outcome analysis indicated that swimmers have a higher probability of developing moderate‐to‐severe back pain.
Conclusion
Competitive swimming appears to be associated with the presence of DDD on advanced imaging and moderate‐to‐severe back pain. These findings are limited by significant differences in study methodology in the included studies. Although swimming is conventionally considered a low‐impact sport, elite swimmers risk developing lower back pain and disc pathology, possibly because training involves unique biomechanics with repetitive rotational and hyperextension/flexion of the spine. Further research investigating risk factors involving biomechanics of swimming on the spine may have important implications for stroke technique, injury prevention, and rehabilitation for swimmers.
Çalışmamızın amacı Amerika ve Türkiye’de yüzen yaş grubu sporcularının; beslenme ve fiziksel aktivite alışkanlıkları ile performansları arasındaki farkların karşılaştırılmasıdır. Çalışmaya yaş Ort.= 11,34, S.= 0.57 yıl olan 41 Türk sporcu ve Ort.= 11,40, S= 0,71 yıl olan 32 Amerikalı sporcu katılmıştır. Çalışmaya katılan tüm sporcular aktif olarak yüzme yarışmalarına katılan lisanslı sporculardır. Çalışmaya katılan sporculara veri toplama aracı olarak anket formu uygulanmıştır. Performans ölçütü olarak çalışmaya katılan tüm sporcuların (n=73), kendi ülkelerinde 2015-2016 sezonu kış şampiyonalarında yüzdükleri yarışlardan elde ettikleri en yüksek Uluslar Arası Yüzme Federasyonu (FINA) puanı toplamlarının ortalamaları alınmıştır. Bulgulara göre antropometrik ölçümler değerlendirildiğinde Türk yüzücülerin boy ortalama değerleri 153,85 ± 6,72cm, Amerikaları yüzücülerin 153,75 ± 8.62cm, Türk yüzücülerin kilo ortalama değerleri 40,97 ± 5,57kg, Amerikalı yüzücülerin 41,07 ± 6,7kg; Türk yüzücülerin %80,5, Amerikalı yüzücülerin %81,3’ünün yeterli ve dengeli beslendiği, yine Türk yüzücülerin %63,4, Amerikalı yüzücülerin %93,7’ünün yüzme antrenmanı dışında düzenli olarak fiziksel aktivite yaptıklarını ifade ettikleri, Türk yüzücülerin FINA puan ortalamalarının 376,4 ± 85,91 puan, Amerikalı yüzücülerin 409,4 ± 108,02 puan olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Sonuçlar olarak, Amerikalı ve Türk sporcuların öğünlerde tüketilen besin seçimlerinin, günlük TV ve bilgisayar kullanım sürelerinin değişiklik göstermesinin sosyo kültürel farklılıklardan kaynaklandığı ve bu durumun performans farklılıklarına neden olmadığı, fiziksel aktivite düzeylerindeki farkların ise performans farkının nedeni olabileceği düşülmektedir.
Warm - up is an integral part before the participation in any activity. An interesting scientific field is about the
effect of warm-up at the swimming performance on childhood swimmers. The purpose of this study was to record
what the Greek swimming coaches choose as a warm – up method in childhood swimmers before the races of
100m freestyle. In the study participated 70 Greek coaches aged 35 ± 11 years. They replied to a questionnaire
which contains 34 questions about the content of a warm - up before 100m freestyle in 11 – 12 years old swimmers.
For the data analyzation was used descriptive statistic at the statistical software SPSS 27. According to the answers,
Greek coaches use a dryland warm up for 5 – 10 minutes which contains dynamic exercises. The warm-up total
volume in the water ranges from 400 to 800m. Specifically, technique and kick exercises are used in a volume of
100 to 150m and 50 to 100m respectively. Sets in constant intensity are used from 50 to 100m, whereas the incre-
mented intensity sets are used in a volume from 50 to 100m. Sprint sets ranged from 12.5 to 25m, whereas, the
recovery at the end of warm – up, is used in distances between 50 and 100m. Also, the coaches choose 2 starts
from the block, whereas the most of them do not use flips and finishes. Concluding, the ideal duration between
warm-up and swimming race, which was chosen by coaches, for the swimmers’ optimal performance is between
15 and 30 minutes, while the duration which probably could limit the beneficial properties of warm-up, is equal
to or greater than 50 minutes. In conclusion, it was found that Greek coaches choose for 11 – 12 years - old swim-
mers, a warm-up structure similar with the older one but in a reduced volume. The results of the study can be
used by researches to construct warm – up protocols in which will be examined their possible effects on childhood
swimmers’ performance.
Background and Study Aim. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of different training programs on the improvement of motoric and swimming performance prepubescent swimmers. Material and Methods. Forty-five children between the ages of 9 -11 years with at least 2 years of training experiences, participated in the study. Three different [(1) dry-land with elastic resistance band group + swimming (ERB); (2) dry-land without elastic resistance band (DL) + swimming and (3) swimming group (SG) with swimming training alone] training group were formed. And a 12-week training program was implemented thought the study. Biceps, chest, waist, hip, thigh body circumference measurements were taken from all participants. Vertical jump (VJ), flexed-arm strength (FAS), speed, upper body strength (UBS), Standing horizontal jump (SHJ), flexibility, aerobic endurance (AE), balance, and 50 m freestyle swimming (FS) score were tested on the participants. As statistical analysis, normality and homogeneity of variance assumption were checked (Shapiro-Wilk and Levene tests, respectively). A non-normal distribution was found. The values of each variable were expressed as mean ± standard deviation, and median. The training effects within the groups were evaluated using analyses of Friedman for repeated measures and the level of significance was set at p<0.05 for all tests. Results. There was a significant difference in SHJ, UBS, FAS, speed, and FS score among the assessment times 1-3 and 1-4 in both of ERB and DL training groups (p<0.05). ERB and DL training were significantly effective compared to the SG on VJ, FAS, speed, UBS, and freestyle swimming performance (p<0.05). Conclusions: The study findings showed that DL training more effected relatively on motoric performance.
Background and Study Aim. The purpose of the study is a biomechanical examination of the inclusion of active flexibility in artistic gymnastic movements requiring mobility (muscles' ability to stretch), flexibility and other motor abilities such as force, power, etc.
Material and Methods. The study included 17 girl gymnasts aged 7-9 years old, with a body height of 140.7±10.2, weight of 34.1±6.4, and a body mass index of 17.6±3.0. Data collection in the study was made by using performance tests developed by FIG such as a Forward-Backward Split, Side Spit, Arm-Trunk Angle Backward, Trunk Bent Forward, Leg Raise forward, Leg Raise Sideward, Bridge, Standing long Jump, Lift Trunk Forward-60secs, Angle Degree of the Leg Split Position in Cartwheel, and Arm-Upper Body Angle Backward in Bridge Technique. The Kinovea 0.8.15 program was used in the data analysis of the variables in the study. The SPSS 24 software program was used for the data analysis. Percentages of the angle degree calculated by the formula “%= (angle0 of the mobility in functional movement / angle0 of the active flexibility) *100” were found.
Results. Results indicate that active flexibility was 90% functional in the leg raise sideward, 90% in the leg split during execution of the cartwheel, 17.5% in the bridge technique, and completely functional for the flexibility ratio expressed in the leg raise forward technique. In the analysis of the various elements of the similar biomechanics, the anatomic structure and similar body planes, it was concluded that active flexibility expressed in the movements required a mobility of around 65-75%.
Conclusions.. it was determined that the functionality rate of the techniques requiring active flexibility and requiring mobility of the same biomechanical and anatomical structure was around 65-75%. Therefore, to execute 100% of the flexibility in action (during active elements) as it is in a passively or actively, it may significantly increase force, motor control, dynamic balance, coordination etc., in the large range of motion.
Purpose:
To compare the efficacy of resisted sprint swim training (RST) to that of unresisted sprint swim training (ST) on 50-meter freestyle competition time (VMAX50) in age-group swimmers.
Methods:
Twenty-four age-group swimmers (age 10.6-14.9 years) were divided into RST or ST and completed a sprint swim training intervention twice per week for ten weeks. Repeated 10-meter sprints with progressively increasing resistance were used to determine measures of swim power. Skeletal muscle mass (SMM) was estimated using B-mode ultrasound. Maturity status was estimated using predicted adult height (%Ht-adult) and maturity offset.
Results:
A two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed no group × time interaction for measured variables. VMAX50 was correlated with SMM and swim power variables, whereas no significant relationship was found between relative changes in these variables. Estimated maturity status (%Ht-adult) appeared to be associated with initial measures of swim power and performance variables.
Conclusions:
Ten weeks of RST was not any more effective than ST at improving sprint swim performance in age-group swimmers.
It is unknown whether or not the daily swim training distances of master swimmers (MS) affects the observed changes in skeletal muscle mass (SM) and physical function commonly associated with the aging process. Twenty-two male master swimmers aged 52-82 years were divided into two groups based upon training distance: High-MS (>3000 m swim/session and 4.1 times/wk; n=11) and Moderate-MS (1500~2800 m swim/session and 3.4 times/wk; n=11). Eleven age- and body mass index-matched older (aged 56-80 years) men served as controls (AMC). Subjects who performed resistance training were excluded in this study. Muscle thickness (MTH) was measured by ultrasound at 9 sites on the anterior/posterior aspects of the body (forearm, upper arm, trunk, thigh and lower leg), and from this, total and segmental SM mass was estimated. Thigh MTH (anterior:posterior mid-thigh, A50:P50) ratio was calculated in order to assess the site-specific thigh muscle loss. Straight and zigzag walking performance and maximum knee extension/flexion strength was also measured. Arm SM was greater for High-MS and Mod-MS than for AMC. Total SM index was higher for High-MS than for Moderate-MS and AMC. A50:P50 ratio was greater for High-MS than for AMC. Absolute and relative knee extension strength, but not flexion strength, were greater in High-MS than in AMC. The A50:P50 ratio inversely correlated (p<0.05) with zigzag walking time while relative knee extension strength positively correlated (p<0.05) with both straight and zigzag walking performance. Training distance in older master swimmers may be an important factor for maintaining muscle mass and function in the aging process.
Effectiveness of the Power Dry-Land Training Programmes in Youth Swimmers
The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of the dry-land power training on swimming force, swimming performance and strength in youth swimmers. Twenty six male swimmers, free from injuries and training regularly at least 6 times a week, were enrolled in the study and randomly assigned to one of two groups: experimental (n=14, mean age 14.0 ± 0.5 yrs, mean height 1.67±0.08 m and mean body mass 55.71 ±9.55 kg) and control (n=12, mean age 14.1 ± 0.5 yrs, mean height 1.61±0.11 m and mean body mass 49.07 ±8.25 kg). The experimental group took part in a combined swimming and dry-land power training. The control group took part in swimming training only. The training programmes in water included a dominant aerobic work in front crawl. In this research the experimental group tended to present slightly greater improvements in sprint performance. However, the stroke frequency insignificantly decreased (-4.30%, p>0.05) in the experimental group and increased (6.28%, p>0.05) in the control group. The distance per stroke insignificantly increased in the experimental group (5.98%, p>0.05) and insignificantly decreased in the control group (-5.36%, p>0.05). A significant improvement of tethered swimming force for the experimental group (9.64%, p<0.02) was found, whereas the increase was not statistically significant in the control group (2.86%, p>0.05). The main data cannot clearly state that power training allowed an enhancement in swimming performance, although a tendency to improve swimming performance in tethered swimming was noticed.
Competitive swimmers are predisposed to musculoskeletal injuries of the upper limb, knee, and spine. This review discusses the epidemiology of these injuries, in addition to prevention strategies that may assist the physician in formulating rehabilitation programs for the swimmer following an injury.
A literature search was performed by a review of Google Scholar, OVID, and PubMed articles published from 1972 to 2011.
This study highlights the epidemiology of injuries common to competitive swimmers and provides prevention strategies for the sports health professional.
An understanding of swimming biomechanics and typical injuries in swimming aids in early recognition of injury, initiation of treatment, and design of optimal prevention and rehabilitation strategies.
In accordance with the principles of training specificity, resistance and endurance training induce distinct muscular adaptations. Endurance training, for example, decreases the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, but increases intramuscular substrate stores, oxidative enzyme activities, and capillary, as well as mitochondrial, density. In contrast, resistance or strength training reduces mitochondrial density, while marginally impacting capillary density, metabolic enzyme activities and intramuscular substrate stores (except muscle glycogen). The training modalities do induce one common muscular adaptation: they transform type IIb myofibres into IIa myofibres. This transformation is coupled with opposite changes in fibre size (resistance training increases, and endurance training decreases, fibre size), and, in general, myofibre contractile properties. As a result of these distinct muscular adaptations, endurance training facilitates aerobic processes, whereas resistance training increases muscular strength and anaerobic power. Exercise performance data do not fit this paradigm, however, as they indicate that resistance training or the addition of resistance training to an ongoing endurance exercise regimen, including running or cycling, increases both short and long term endurance capacity in sedentary and trained individuals. Resistance training also appears to improve lactate threshold in untrained individuals during cycling. These improvements may be linked to the capacity of resistance training to alter myofibre size and contractile properties, adaptations that may increase muscular force production. In contrast to running and cycling, traditional dry land resistance training or combined swim and resistance training does not appear to enhance swimming performance in untrained individuals or competitive swimmers, despite substantially increasing upper body strength. Combined swim and swim-specific 'in-water' resistance training programmes, however, increase a competitive swimmer's velocity over distances up to 200 m. Traditional resistance training may be a valuable adjunct to the exercise programmes followed by endurance runners or cyclists, but not swimmers; these latter athletes need more specific forms of resistance training to realise performance improvement.
In the last 25 years, it is estimated that over 42,000 male and female swimmers have competed at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-A level. Despite the magnitude of these numbers, little is known about the epidemiology of collegiate swimming injuries. Purpose To describe the pattern of injuries incurred for one NCAA Division I collegiate men's and women's swimming team over 5 seasons.
Descriptive epidemiology study.
Musculoskeletal and head injuries reported in the Sports Injury Management System for a Division I swimming team from 2002-2007 were identified. Gender, body part, year of eligibility, position, stroke specialty, scholarship status, and team activity during which the injury occurred and lost time were recorded. Risk of injury was assessed relative to gender, stroke specialty, and year of eligibility.
From 2002-2007, 44 male and 50 female athletes competed for the University of Iowa swimming and diving team. The overall injury rates were estimated as 4.00 injuries per 1000 exposures for men and 3.78 injuries per 1000 exposures for women. Thirty-seven percent of injuries resulted in missed time. The shoulder/upper arm was the most frequently injured body part followed by the neck/back. Freshman swimmers suffered the most injuries as well as the highest mean number of injuries per swimmer. A significant pattern of fewer injuries in later years of eligibility was also demonstrated. The relative risk (RR) for injury was higher among nonfreestyle stroke specialties (RR, 1.33 [1.00-1.77]). Injury most often occurred as a result of, or during, practice for all swimmers. However, 38% of injuries were the result of team activities outside of practice or competition, such as strength training. No significant relationship was found between occurrence of injury and gender or scholarship status. There was no significant relationship between body part injured and stroke specialty. An increased number of total injuries and an increased risk of injuries in freshman collegiate swimmers were found.
Particular attention should be given to swimmers making the transition into collegiate level swimming. These data also suggest that injury surveillance and potential prevention strategies should focus on the shoulder for in-pool activities and the axial spine for cross-training activities.
Faigenbaum, AD, Kraemer, WJ, Blimkie, CJR, Jeffreys, I, Micheli, LJ, Nitka, M, and Rowland, TW. Youth resistance training: Updated position statement paper from the National Strength and Conditioning Association. J Strength Cond Res 23(5): S60-S79, 2009-Current recommendations suggest that school-aged youth should participate daily in 60 minutes or more of moderate to vigorous physical activity that is developmentally appropriate and enjoyable and involves a variety of activities (). Not only is regular physical activity essential for normal growth and development, but also a physically active lifestyle during the pediatric years may help to reduce the risk of developing some chronic diseases later in life (). In addition to aerobic activities such as swimming and bicycling, research increasingly indicates that resistance training can offer unique benefits for children and adolescents when appropriately prescribed and supervised (). The qualified acceptance of youth resistance training by medical, fitness, and sport organizations is becoming universal ().Nowadays, comprehensive school-based programs are specifically designed to enhance health-related components of physical fitness, which include muscular strength (). In addition, the health club and sport conditioning industry is getting more involved in the youth fitness market. In the U.S.A., the number of health club members between the ages of 6 and 17 years continues to increase () and a growing number of private sport conditioning centers now cater to young athletes. Thus, as more children and adolescents resistance train in schools, health clubs, and sport training centers, it is imperative to determine safe, effective, and enjoyable practices by which resistance training can improve the health, fitness, and sports performance of younger populations.The National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) recognizes and supports the premise that many of the benefits associated with adult resistance training programs are attainable by children and adolescents who follow age-specific resistance training guidelines. The NSCA published the first position statement paper on youth resistance training in 1985 () and revised this statement in 1996 (). The purpose of the present report is to update and clarify the 1996 recommendations on 4 major areas of importance. These topics include (a) the potential risks and concerns associated with youth resistance training, (b) the potential health and fitness benefits of youth resistance training, (c) the types and amount of resistance training needed by healthy children and adolescents, and (d) program design considerations for optimizing long-term training adaptations. The NSCA based this position statement paper on a comprehensive analysis of the pertinent scientific evidence regarding the anatomical, physiological, and psychosocial effects of youth resistance training. An expert panel of exercise scientists, physicians, and health/physical education teachers with clinical, practical, and research expertise regarding issues related to pediatric exercise science, sports medicine, and resistance training contributed to this statement. The NSCA Research Committee reviewed this report before the formal endorsement by the NSCA.For the purpose of this article, the term children refers to boys and girls who have not yet developed secondary sex characteristics (approximately up to the age of 11 years in girls and 13 years in boys; Tanner stages 1 and 2 of sexual maturation). This period of development is referred to as preadolescence. The term adolescence refers to a period between childhood and adulthood and includes girls aged 12-18 years and boys aged 14-18 years (Tanner stages 3 and 4 of sexual maturation). The terms youth and young athletes are broadly defined in this report to include both children and adolescents.By definition, the term resistance training refers to a specialized method of conditioning, which involves the progressive use of a wide range of resistive loads and a variety of training modalities designed to enhance health, fitness, and sports performance. Although the term resistance training, strength training, and weight training are sometimes used synonymously, the term resistance training encompasses a broader range of training modalities and a wider variety of training goals. The term weightlifting refers to a competitive sport that involves the performance of the snatch and clean and jerk lifts.This article builds on previous recommendations from the NSCA and should serve as the prevailing statement regarding youth resistance training. It is the current position of the NSCA that:
The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of a 3-wk period of electrostimulation training on the strength of the latissimus dorsi m. and the swimming performances of 14 competitive swimmers divided into 7 electrostimulated (EG) and 7 control swimmers (CG). The peak torques registered during the flexion-extension of the arm was determined with the help of an isokinetic dynamometer at different velocities (from -60 degrees.s(-1) to 360 degrees.s(-1)). Performances were measured over a 25-m pull buoy and a 50-m freestyle swim. For EG, a significant increase of the peak torques was measured in isometric, eccentric, and concentric conditions (P < 0.5). The swimming times declined significantly (P < 0.01) by 0.19 +/- 0.14 s, for the 25-m pull-buoy, and by 0.38 +/- 0.24 s, for the 50-m freestyle. For CG, no significant difference was found for any of the tests. For the whole group, the variations of the peak torques, measured in eccentric condition (-60 degrees.s(-1)) were related to the variations of the performances (r = 0.77; P < 0.01). These results showed that an electrostimulation program of the latissimus dorsi increased the strength and swimming performances of a group of competitive swimmers.
This study was undertaken to compare the effects of dry-land strength training with a combined in-water resisted- and assisted-sprint program in swimmer athletes. Twenty-one swimmers from regional to national level participated in this study. They were randomly assigned to 3 groups: the strength (S) group that was involved in a dry-land strength training program where barbells were used, the resisted- and assisted-sprint (RAS) group that got involved in a specific water training program where elastic tubes were used to generate resistance and assistance while swimming, and the control (C) group which was involved in an aerobic cycling program. During 12 weeks, the athletes performed 6 training sessions per week on separate days. All of them combined the same aerobic dominant work for their basic training in swimming and running with their specific training. Athletes were evaluated 3 times: before the training program started, after 6 weeks of training, and at the end of the training program. The outcome values were the strength of the elbow flexors and extensors evaluated using an isokinetic dynamometer, and the speed, stroke rate, stroke length, and stroke depth observed during a 50-meter sprint. No changes were observed after 6 weeks of training. At the end of the training period, we observed significant increases in swimming velocity, and strength of elbow flexors and extensors both in the S and RAS groups. However, stroke depth decreased both in the S and RAS groups. Stroke rate increased in the RAS but not in the S group. However, no significant differences in the swimming performances between the S and RAS groups were observed. No significant changes occurred in C. Altogether, programs combining swimming with dry-land strength or with in-water resisted- and assisted-sprint exercises led to a similar gain in sprint performance and are more efficient than traditional swimming training methods alone.
The common problem of shoulder pain in swimmers is caused by instability of the glenohumeral joint. The instability stems from demands placed on the shoulder that allow for increased performance but simultaneously reduce the humeral head's ability to remain centered in the glenoid. These demands include: 1) the beneficial effects of increased shoulder range of motion; 2) the beneficial effects of increased internal rotation and adduction strength; and 3) the beneficial effects of prolonged, fatiguing, shoulder-intensive training. Treatment is aimed at increasing stability by modifying these demands and reducing the inflammation, which can lead to scarring and perpetuation of pain.
To compare the effects of 6 weeks of weight assisted training (WAT) to free-weight training on swimming performance, 10 highly trained collegiate swimmers were performance matched and divided into two equal groups (n = 5). Both groups swam together during the 12-week study. The only difference between the groups was the mode of strength training. No significant differences were observed between groups in power gains as measured by tethered swimming and a biokinetic swim bench. However, the WAT group did show a significant improvement in swim bench power. Performance measurements in a 22.9-m and 365.8-m front crawl time trial revealed no variation between groups at any measured time points. From baseline to Week 12 the WAT group improved significantly in the 22.9-m front crawl sprint. Both groups significantly decreased their 365.8-m time by approximately 4% from Weeks 4 to 12. No observed changes occurred in stroke rate or distance per stroke. These data suggest that weight assisted training did not provide an advantage as compared to free-weight training, or a disadvantage when applied to front crawl swimming.
(C) 1994 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Behringer M, vom Heede A, Yue Z, et al. Pediatrics 2010;126:1199–210.[OpenUrl][1][CrossRef][2]
There is emerging consensus that resistance training is safe and effective during all stages of childhood and adolescence. Little is known, however, about the influence of age and maturity on strength gains. In particular, it is not clear whether the onset of puberty, with its rapid increase in sex hormones corresponds to an increase in the response to strength training.
The authors aimed to synthesise the best available evidence to determine whether resistance training programmes are effective in children and adolescents as well as to examine the influence of age, maturity and programme parameters on strength gains.
Six biomedical databases were searched from …
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[2]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1542/peds.2010-0445&link_type=DOI
Although physiologic benefits of resistance training for children and adolescents have been well documented, the impact of age and maturity on trainability of muscle strength remains poorly understood.
To assess the effects of resistance training in different age groups and maturity levels.
We searched electronic bibliographic databases, key journals, and reference lists of reviews, book chapters, and articles. Two independent reviewers evaluated the effects of resistance training on muscle strength for prepubertal and postpubertal healthy children and adolescents (younger than 18 years) by using the results of randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials. Assessments of muscle endurance and motor performance tests (eg, vertical jump) were excluded. The influence of continuous and categorical moderator variables was assessed by meta-regression and subgroup analyses, respectively.
The overall weighted effect size of 1.12 (95% confidence interval: 0.9-1.3) was significantly greater than 0 (P < .01). Subgroup analyses revealed "maturity" to be a significant categorical moderator variable (z = 2.50; P = .01) and positive correlation coefficients were found for the continuous variables "duration" (r = 0.28; P = .02) and "frequency" (r = 0.26; P = .03).
The results of our analysis indicate that the ability to gain muscular strength seems to increase with age and maturational status, but there is no noticeable boost during puberty. Furthermore, study duration and the number of performed sets were found to have a positive impact on the outcome.
To identify and compare the nature and frequency of training and cross-training injuries incurred by members of a women's collegiate swim team.
A longitudinal survey of training-room and medical records for 7 years, classifying injuries by diagnosis and time lost from participation.
Division I women's collegiate swimming program, United States.
All swimmers in a Division I women's collegiate swimming program over 7 years, for a total of 68 swimmers. ASSESSMENT OF RISK FACTOR: Not applicable.
Not applicable.
"Injury" was defined as any contact with a trainer or physician that resulted in evaluation or treatment. Each injury was categorized with respect to (a) activity during which injury was incurred; (b) diagnosis, including body part injured; (c) time lost from participation in practice or competition; and (d) severity, i.e., minor (< or = 7 days), moderate (7-21 days), and major (> 21 days). An "Exposure" was defined as participation in one practice session or competition.
The overall injury rate per 1,000 exposures per athlete was 2.12; 44% of injuries were due to swimming, 44% to cross training, and 11% to activities unrelated to athletics. Cross-training injuries occurred primarily in the lower extremities, while swimming injuries occurred more commonly in the upper extremities. The ratio of upper to lower extremity injuries due to swimming was 3:1, whereas the ratio for cross training was 1:4.
Injuries to swimmers occur at a lower rate per exposure than to other collegiate athletic populations. Swimming injuries occurred primarily in the upper extremities, especially the shoulder. Lower extremity injuries occurred primarily due to cross training. We conclude that swimming is relatively safe compared to other collegiate sports, but special care should be used in designing injury-avoiding cross-training programs.
Treatment of shoulder pain includes the following: 1. Avoid all painful activities. 2. A 2-week course of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication and ice. 3. Decreased anterior capsule stretching and increased posterior capsule stretching. 4. Increased rotator cuff exercise with emphasis on external rotators. 5. Scapular-positioning muscle exercises and increasing body roll. Shoulder pain can be prevented by the following: 1. Avoid all painful activities, and notify coach of shoulder pain immediately. 2. Do not use nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications or ice on a chronic basis. 3. Spend equal time stretching the posterior and anterior capsules. 4. Perform general rotator cuff exercises. 5. Perform scapular-positioning muscle exercises, with emphasis on body roll. [figure: see text] Shoulder pain in swimmers is common and can be debilitating. Most of the pain is caused by instability, which stems from swimming-specific demands that increase performance but decrease shoulder stability. These sport-specific demands are (1) increased shoulder range of motion, (2) increased internal rotation and adduction strength, and (3) prolonged, fatiguing, shoulder-intensive training. Instability leads to [figure: see text] inflammation and pain and can become a self-perpetuating process. Treatment consists of patient education, cessation of all activities that cause pain, activity modifications to increase shoulder stability, and pharmacologic treatment of the inflammation. In patients who do not improve using this regimen, surgery can be of benefit, either to reduce capsular laxity or to remove chronic inflammation and scar tissue. The patient must be aware of the risk of decreased performance.
Pediatricians are often asked to give advice on the safety and efficacy of strength-training programs for children and adolescents. This statement, which is a revision of a previous American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement, defines relevant terminology and provides current information on risks and benefits of strength training for children and adolescents.
Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Strength training by children and adolescents
American Academy of Pediatrics, Council on Sports Medicine and
Fitness. Strength training by children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2008;
121:835-844.
- S Stavrianeas
- Aquatics
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Epidemiology of Injury in Olympic Sports. West Sussex: Blackwell
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