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Empathy as a Personality Disposition
Abstract
MacKayfs initial chapter of this book demonstrates the complexity of the empathy construct by reviewing various definitions and conceptualizations of empathy. The present chapter analyzes empa-thy as a personality disposition. Empathy-like any personality disposition-possesses four levels of meaning. These four levels of meaning are: (1) global, evaluative impressions about an actor perceived by an audience; (2) regularities in an actor's behavior that are responsible for these global impressions; (3) conscious desires and plans that guide an actor's behavior; and (4) latent structures responsible for an actor's desires and plans. These four layers of personality help explain, respectively, (1) how empathy affects the helping relationship; (2) which specific behaviors can be taught in empathy training programs; (3) why people act empathically or unempathically in social interaction; and (4) the natural constraints on empathy development in training programs.
... Patients who feel treated with empathy are more likely to fully explain their symptoms, provide relevant details, and actively engage in the patient-physician relationship [3,11]. And, the empathy of physicians has positive impacts on gaining the trust of patients [12], effective communication [13], patient's insistence on treatment [11], adherence to medical recommendations [14,15], patient satisfaction [16][17][18], alleviating patient pain [19], improving treatment outcome [20,21], and reducing potential legal risks [22,23]. Empathy, in addition to its beneficial effects on patients, also has a profound impact on doctors and medical students, as it is closely tied to the well-being of physicians [24]. ...
Introduction
Empathy is considered the ability to understand or feel others emotions or experiences. As an important part of medical education, empathy can affect medical students in many ways. It is still lacking a comprehensive evaluation of the existing articles on empathy’s impact on medical students, despite the existence of many articles on the topic.
Objectives
To summarize the impact of empathy on medical students during medical education from four perspectives: mental health, academic performance, clinical competence, and specialty preference.
Methods
The search terms used for retrieval were “empathy”, “medical student”, “mental health”, “depression”, “anxiety”, “burnout”, “examinations”, “academic performance”, “clinical competence”, “specialty preference” on PubMed, EBSCO, and Web of Science before January 2024. The search was carried out by two reviewers. Titles and abstracts were screened independently and reviewed based on inclusion/exclusion criteria. A consensus was drawn on which articles were included.
Results
Our results indicated that high empathy was a positive factor for mental health, However, students with high affective empathy were more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and burnout. Empathy was found to be unrelated to academic performance, but positively correlated with clinical competence, particularly in terms of communication skills. Medical students with high levels of empathy tended to prefer people-oriented majors.
Conclusions
Medical students who score higher on the self-reported empathy scales often have better mental health, better communication skills, and tend to choose people-oriented specialties. But empathy is not related to academic performance. Additionally, the different dimensions of empathy have different impacts on medical students. It is necessary to design targeted courses and training for medical students to enhance their empathy.
... I-deals involve negotiations, and negotiators' personalities can play a crucial role in determining whether negotiations unfold as productive or unproductive. Empathy has been established as a disposition of personality (Johnson, 1990) and, hence, it is sensible to study its role in determining the outcome of i-deal negotiations. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between two sub-dimensions of a leader’s empathy (perspective-taking and empathic-concern) and successful authorization of idiosyncratic deals (developmental, location flexibility and schedule flexibility i-deals).
Design/methodology/approach
Structural equation modeling was conducted on the cross-sectional data collected from 307 managers working in software development and support companies located in major cities in India.
Findings
While empathic-concern is positively related to successful authorization of both developmental and flexibility i-deals, perspective-taking related positively to authorization of developmental i-deals and showed no significant relationship with flexibility i-deals.
Research limitations/implications
The study reiterates the importance of empathy in modern workplaces and encourages managers to be conscious of their intelligence, as well as emotions, while participating in negotiations at the workplace.
Originality/value
The paper relates i-deals to sub-dimensions of empathy which is a previously unexplored antecedent to i-deals.
... see Chopik, O'Brien, & Konrath, 2017) from a contemporary measure of empathy (the IRI; Davis, 1983) in an undergraduate student sample (N ¼ 784, M age ¼ 19.49, SD ¼ 1.39; 69% female; 72.8% White/Caucasian, 10.6% Asian, 9.2% Black/African American, and 7.4% Other). 1 We identified 22 items that were correlated at least |.30| with one of the empathy subscales. From this set of 22 items, we added 8 items identified by an expert sort of a "highly empathic individual" conducted by professional psychologists and advanced graduate students, as reported in Hogan (1969; also see Johnson, 1990). From this set of 30 items, the first and second authors examined each item to ensure that it conceptually tapped into empathy as a construct or at least a close correlate of empathy. ...
The development of empathy is a hotly debated topic. Some studies find declines and others an inverse U-shaped pattern in empathy across the life span. Yet other studies find no age-related changes. Most of this research is cross sectional, and the few longitudinal studies have their limitations. The current study addresses these limitations by examining changes in empathy in six longitudinal samples (total N = 740, age 13–72). In a preliminary study (N = 784), we created and validated a measure of empathy out of the California Adult Q-Sort. The samples were combined for multilevel analyses in a variant of an accelerated longitudinal design. We found that empathy increased across the life span, particularly after age 40, and more recent cohorts were higher in empathy.
... Falar sobre empatia -que parece ser algo de compreensão quase intuitiva e espontânea para aqueles que autenticamente ocupam o lugar de psicoterapeutas (Hassenstab, Dziobeck, Rogers, Wolf & Convit, 2007), mostra-se um desafio de grandes proporções quando outros campos profissionais, que se valem das reflexões oriundas das psicologias modernas aplicadas, buscam compreendê-la como conceito. Considerada como elemento fundamental na relação médico-paciente (Costa & Azevedo, 2010), a empatia acumula definições distintas e, por vezes, confusas (von Fragstein et al, 2008;Hojat, Gonnella, Nasca, et al., 2002b;Johnson, 1990). Entende-se, no entanto, que todas as definições levam a reflexões necessárias para recobrar e sedimentar o campo humanístico no saber médico contemporâneo. ...
O estabelecimento de vínculos terapêuticos entre os médicos e seus pacientes, pela empatia, constitui-se como habilidade clínica cada vez mais valorizada no ensino superior. O objetivo geral deste trabalho é fornecer dados e promover reflexões acerca de possíveis intervenções para o desenvolvimento da empatia na formação médica. Mediante um estudo exploratório de metodologia mista sequencial, foram investigados os tipos psicológicos (QUATI), as medidas de empatia (EMRI) e as percepções dos estudantes sobre a aprendizagem da empatia durante a graduação. No primeiro estudo – quantitativo e transversal - concluiu-se que altas pontuações nas medidas da empatia independem do tipo de personalidade do estudante. Apenas o domínio sentimento do QUATI contribuiu ligeiramente para a explicação do domínio consideração empática da EMRI. No segundo estudo – qualitativo – os dados dos grupos focais com estudantes de empatia elevada revelaram que há diferentes modos desenvolver empatia, a depender do tipo psicológico. Como entraves para o desenvolvimento da empatia, destacaram-se, dentre as categorias de análise, a desvalorização das habilidades e atitudes e a negligência na avaliação do estudante pelo professor. A conduta do professor – no sentido da humildade, da ética e da empatia na relação com o estudante e com o paciente – apareceu como principal facilitador no desenvolvimento da empatia. Concluiu-se que um modelo de intervenção para o desenvolvimento da empatia na formação médica deve estar voltado, sobretudo, para o desenvolvimento humanístico do próprio professor universitário. Fazem-se necessários e urgentes estudos aprofundados, voltados para o desenvolvimento da empatia docente no ensino superior.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The establishment of therapeutic relationship between physicians and their patients, by means of empathy, is constituted as clinical skill increasingly valued in higher education. The aim of this study is to provide data and promote reflections on possible interventions for the development of empathy in medical training. Through an exploratory study of sequential mixed methodology, psychological types (QUATI), empathy measures (EMRI) and perceptions of students about their empathy development during graduation were investigated. In the first study, quantitative and cross-sectional, it was concluded that high scores on measures of empathy are independent of student's personality type. Only the "feeling" QUATI's domain contributed somewhat to the explanation of "empathic concern" field of EMRI. In the second study, a qualitative analisys of data from focus groups with high empathy level students, revealed there are different ways to develop empathy, depending on the psychological type. As barriers to the development of empathy, stood out among the categories of analysis, the "devaluation of skills and attitudes" and the "negligent review" of the student by the professor. The "teacher behavior" - in the sense of "humility, ethics and empathy" in the relationship with the student and the patient - appeared as main facilitators in the development of empathy. It was concluded that an intervention model for the development of empathy in medical education should be focused on humanistic faculty development. In- depth studies focused on the development of professors' empathy in higher education are needed and urgent.
... Although the magnitude of the relationship with psychological well-being was relatively small, the independent effect of empathy on psychological well-being was still significant after controlling for the effect of psychological need satisfaction. Also, previous research has supported the positive influences of empathy on various health care outcomes other than psychological well-being and burnout, such as health care professionals' confidence in patient treatment, quality of interactions with patients, and patient compliance with treatment [82][83][84][85]. Taken all together, empathy is a significant element of pharmacy professionalism and education [86][87][88][89], and thus pharmacy curricula should be thoughtfully discussed and developed to understand the level of empathy of current students and to incorporate empathy training to strengthen this characteristic. ...
Background
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between Korean pharmacy students’ empathy and psychological need satisfaction and their levels of burnout and psychological well-being, using structural equation modeling.
Methods
The participants were 452 pharmacy students from five South Korean universities. The Jefferson Scale of Empathy (Health Professions Students version), the Activity-Feeling States Scale, and the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey were used to assess empathy, psychological need satisfaction, and burnout, respectively. Psychological well-being was measured with the Mood Rating Scale, Self-Esteem Scale, and Satisfaction With Life Scale. The fits of the measurement and structural regression (SR) models with data on the four variables were evaluated using the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), incremental fit index (IFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) using AMOS 18.0.
Results
A total of 447 students (98.9%) completed the survey. The measurement model showed adequate fit indices; all hypothesized factor loadings were significant. The proposed SR model also showed an acceptable fit (TLI = 0.92, IFI = 0.94, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.072); each path was supported except the path from empathy to burnout (β = 0.005). Empathy was positively associated with psychological well-being (β = 0.18). Perceived satisfaction of psychological needs was positively related to psychological well-being (β = 0.59), but strongly and negatively related to burnout (β = − 0.71). The model explained 50 and 44% of variances in burnout and psychological well-being, respectively.
Conclusions
Pharmacy students’ empathy and psychological needs should be considered in pharmacy education systems to promote psychological adjustment.
... Communicating a new sense of awareness of the hardships that deaf consumers face on a daily basis, hearing respondents felt this experience briefly "put them in the shoes" of deaf consumers, which represents the primary value for customers in this service encounter. Participants conveyed a sense of empathy and compassion for deaf consumers (Johnson, 1990;Baron, 1993), which directly relates to an individual's increased propensity for helping others and maintaining such relationships (Gilliam and Rayburn, 2016). Additional sample quotes for this theme and the remaining hearing-participant themes can be found in Table IV: There is something special about being forced to sign and in that environment, that opens up a new world of their way of living that we mostly don't even notice. ...
Purpose
This research investigates new innovative service models that provide opportunities for hearing and deaf individuals to switch roles within a co-created service encounter to allow for an enhanced perspective-taking experience. The purpose of this paper is to gain an in-depth understanding of deaf individuals’ experience working within such models using their preferred language, American sign language, to interact with a primarily hearing-majority customer base.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected for two studies through qualitative depth-interviews with both the deaf service employees and the hearing-majority customers from a North American restaurant founded on this innovative service model.
Findings
Results of these studies yield new insights into understanding the value generated for both the minority and majority populations within this co-creation platform. Notably, the deaf employees primarily recognize the transformative value derived from this service experience, whereas the hearing customers note the missing habitual value elements to which they are accustomed in traditional service encounters that inhibit repatronage intentions.
Originality/value
This is the first study to investigate the interpersonal service experience of deaf and hearing individuals within these emerging service models. Further, this research represents an initial attempt to explore a co-creative service experience between two different cultures, the deaf-minority and hearing-majority populations, with differing levels of ability.
... Empathy as a personality disposition relates to perceptiveness, compassion and taking the perspective of others (Johnson, 1990). Those high in empathy more easily see the world from other's point of view rather than just their own. ...
Purpose
This paper aims to examine how other-regarding personality traits relate to reciprocity among frontline employees (FLEs).
Design/methodology/approach
Other-regarding personality variables were used to model the propensity for reciprocity and actual reciprocal behaviors with coworkers. Surveys of 276 FLEs were examined via structural equations modeling.
Findings
Other-regarding personality traits proved to be antecedents of reciprocity. Cynicism was particularly interesting in that it was positively related to reciprocity contrary to findings in other research.
Research limitations/implications
Among the interesting findings relating personality to reciprocity are a more affective type of reciprocity based on empathy and altruism, and a more calculative type based on cynicism related to Machiavellianism.
Practical implications
Managers can use the effects of personality traits on reciprocity and cooperation to hire and place FLEs in ways that provide superior service and increased profits.
Social implications
This paper indicates that certain individuals who might not typically be thought of as cooperative can in fact reciprocate. Specific ideas about cynicism and Machiavellian reciprocity in FLEs are discussed.
Originality/value
The findings will aid researchers and managers in understanding personality and FLEs cooperation. The findings on cynicism are particularly valuable in that they contradict some earlier research and commonly held managerial ideas.
... 3,4 It is positively related to patient confidence in health care professionals and to patient compliance with treatment. 5,6 Empathy is also positively associated with the clinical competence of medical students and with the quality of their patient interactions. 7,8 Empathic physicians tend to make more reasonable medical decisions, and empathy is regarded as a critical element of medical professionalism. ...
Objective:
To validate the Korean-translated Jefferson Scale of Empathy-Health Professions Student version (JSE-HPS) and to investigate the empathy levels of pharmacy students in South Korea.
Methods:
The JSE-HPS and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) were administered to 452 pharmacy students in their second and third years at 5 Korean universities. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), correlations, and one-way ANOVAs were conducted for data analyses.
Results:
The final sample size comprised 447 responses. The 3-factor model of the JSE-HPS was confirmed by CFA and the convergent validity was also supported by its correlations with the IRI subscales. The overall mean score was 80.3. Pharmacy students enrolled in women's or private universities reported significantly higher levels of overall empathy than their counterparts in co-ed or national universities.
Conclusion:
Our findings empirically support the psychometric soundness of the Korean JSE-HPS for pharmacy students.
This chapter explores the importance of developing the teachable personality dispositions of empathy and compassion in higher education. Here, empathy is considered as the ability to ‘feel into’ the situation of another, and compassion as the motivation to improve the wellbeing of another. Using the qualitative approaches of narrative injury and ethnography, the author navigates the constraints of a ‘crowded curriculum’ experienced by ‘time-jealous’ educators and students, to offer six guiding principles which may be considered by educators of all disciplines as a starting framework for making empathy and compassion core business and not mere by-products of curriculums focused on knowledge and skills. The author presents three social narratives or ‘happenings’ which are then reflected on with connections to the literature. This analysis reveals the need for holistic development of dispositions such as empathy and compassion that engender care, peace, and wellbeing for stakeholders in higher education.
As a result of improved living conditions and the progress achieved in areas related to medicine, there is a decrease in the mortality rate but an increase in the number of patients with chronic diseases. Contrary to what happened until a few decades ago, patients with chronic diseases now have a high life expectancy. However, the patients increased life expectancy, often causes great pain and significant adverse effects. In addition to prolonging life, it is essential to increase the quality of life (QoL) of patients. The QoL is now considered an important aspect in clinical practice for patients with chronic illnesses, but the methods to assess QoL, in automatic or semi-automatic manners and their use in clinical decision support are still underexplored and their applications are virtually non-existent. This paper presents an overview of research related to health quality of Life, estimation of quality of life including its continuous estimation, modeling and behavioral recognition and representation of knowledge in this area and decision support systems for clinical decision making and quality of life related applications.
Psychology has worked hard to explore the inner self. Modem psychology was born in Wundt's laboratory and Freud's consulting room, where the inner self was pressed to reveal some of its secrets. Freud, in particular, devoted most of his life to explor ing the hidden recesses inside the self-hidden even from the conscious mind, he said. From Freud's work right down to the latest journal article on self-schemata or self-esteem, psychologists have continued to tell us about the inner self. More recently, psychology has turned some of its attention to the outer self, that is, the self that is seen and known by other people. Various psychologists have studied how the outer self is formed (impression formation), how people control their outer selves (impression management), and so forth. But how is the outer self related to the inner self? There is an easy answer, but it is wrong. The easy answer is that the outer self is mostly the same as the inner self. Put another way, it is that people reveal their true selves to others in a honest and straightforward fashion, and that others accurately perceive the individual as he or she really is. Sometimes it works out that way, but often it does not. The issue is far too complex for the easy answer.
The coming of language occurs at about the same age in every healthy child throughout the world, strongly supporting the concept that genetically determined processes of maturation, rather than environmental influences, underlie capacity for speech and verbal understanding. Dr. Lenneberg points out the implications of this concept for the therapeutic and educational approach to children with hearing or speech deficits.
Examined the strategies that observers use to see through self-presentations. In Exp I, 5 male actor Ss (undergraduates) lied or told the truth in simulated job interviews. 41 observers were moderately accurate in judging the actors' truthfulness. Actors were consistently good or poor liars, but judges were not consistently good or poor. When actors lied, they gave less plausible, shorter answers with longer latencies. Observers seemed to use the plausibility and latency, as well as an answer's vagueness and consistency and an actor's smiling, postural shifting, and grooming, to determine whether he was lying. Exp II experimentally manipulated the content of an answer and a nonverbal cue. 74 undergraduate observers were more likely to judge a female job applicant as lying when her answers were self-serving. A long hesitation before an answer made observers more suspicious of an already self-serving answer and more certain of the truth of an already forthright one. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
This paper presents an approach to studying ac curacy in person perception. Problems in assessing interpersonal accuracy are discussed, and then addressed in an empirical study of the perception of human performance. In the study, 16 scripts de scribing persons performing on two jobs—recruiting interviewer and manager—were prepared in such a way that the performers' effectiveness on various di mensions of performance approached a preset, realistic level. Five- to nine-minute performances of these scripts were videotaped, and "true scores" of effectiveness were developed by obtaining expert ratings of performance on each relevant job di mension. One hundred forty-six students thep com pleted a series of inventories tapping various in dividual differences and rated the performers' ef fectiveness on each dimension. Differential accuracy (DA; Cronbach, 1955) scores were computed for each subject, and DA scores were correlated with inventory responses. Seventeen percent of the var iance in DA was accounted for by the individual differences measured. A profile of the accurate per ceiver of performance was developed, and these re sults were compared to findings from other studies of interpersonal accuracy.