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The Importance of Ship Hull Fouling as a Vector of Species Introductions into the North Sea
Abstract
Ships have long been recognized as a major vector for the introduction of non-native and harmful organisms. From 1992 to 1996 a shipping study was undertaken in Germany, focusing on the fauna transported by ships, to assess the importance of species introductions by international shipping traffic. Ballast water, tank sediment or hull fouling of 186 vessels was sampled. A total of 257 species were identified, ranging from Foraminifera to Teleostei, and 57% of the species sampled were considered to be non-native to the North Sea region, originating from elsewhere in the world including the north eastern Atlantic (west of the English Channel). Non-native species were recorded in 38% of all ballast water samples, 57% of all sediment samples and 96% of all hull samples, indicating that hull fouling is an important vector of introduction. Four species (1.6%) of unknown origin (cryptogenic species) were identified. The potential for establishment in the North Sea region of all non-native species found was classified into three categories based on the degree of similarity of climatic conditions in the North Sea and the donor region. Based on this criterion 19 of the species found in the fouling communities on ships' hulls were deemed to have a high potential for establishment in the North Sea.
... Since the mid-1900s, A. lacustre has rapidly expanded outside of its native range, which is attributed to transport by shipping vessels, where it fouls the hull and colonizes ballast tanks (Gollasch 2002;Llansó and Sillett 2009). A. lacustre was documented in estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico in the 1980s (Heard 1982) and in the lower Mississippi River in 1989 (Payne et al. 1989). ...
... A. lacustre is known to foul vessel hulls (Gollasch 2002;Llansó and Sillett 2009) and multiple studies have concluded that the most plausible explanation for its rapid, and often discontinuous, expansion in an area was due to transport by ships, with A. lacustre attaching to biofilm on hulls (e.g., Krodkiewska et al. 2021) or residing in the interstitial spaces of zebra mussel colonies on hulls (e.g., Grigorovich et al. 2008). A. lacustre was not collected during a small pilot study that scraped vessel-hulls on the La Grange Pool of the IWW (see Supplemental Information Section; Suppl. ...
... material 2). This is somewhat surprising considering their propensity to foul vessel hulls (Gollasch 2002;Llansó and Sillett 2009) and that La Grange Pool had the highest abundance of A. lacustre in our study (55% more A. lacustre per sample on average; Table 1). It is possible that a more dedicated and widespread hull scraping effort could find A. lacustre fouling vessel hulls in the IWW, so we encourage further research to attempt to confirm the presence of A. lacustre on vessel hulls and determine the potential for spread from this vector. ...
Apocorophium lacustre-a species of benthic amphipod native to American and European estuaries along the North Atlantic Ocean-has rapidly expanded outside of its native range and is now established in the Illinois, Upper Mississippi, and Ohio river systems, USA. A. lacustre is considered high risk for colonization and disruption of the Laurentian Great Lakes' benthic communities. To further our understanding of factors influencing A. lacustre distribution and its threat to the Great Lakes, zoobenthic and habitat data were collected from colonization samplers (i.e., rock bags) deployed at 370 sites along the Illinois Waterway. A. lacustre was found in the lower six pools of the Illinois Waterway and was the most abundant amphipod collected in those pools. Our results parallel other studies in that A. lacustre was not observed upstream of Dresden Island Pool, but A. lacustre was found ~11 km farther upstream of any previous records. Generalized linear mixed effects modeling indicated that parameters pertaining to food availability, water quality, and impoundment influenced A. lacustre abundance. Model averaging identified five statistically significant variables: A. lacustre abundance was negatively associated with turbidity, fluorescent dissolved organic matter, and vegetation density and positively associated with temperature and downstream distance (i.e., closer to the next downstream dam). Our findings of what factors influence A. lacustre abundance should be of broad interest to risk assessment and invasion forecasting in other regions where A. lacustre have been or may be introduced.
... For the stabilization and safety of the ship voyage, ships pump natural water into ballast tanks and store it; when the ship is fully loaded, the BW is discharged [3]. With merchant ships sailing around the globe, more than 3 billion tons of BW are transferred to ports around the world every year [4]. Species are transferred around the world through the BW transfer over the years, and species migration has led to multiple and wide-ranging ecological impacts [4][5][6][7][8]. ...
... With merchant ships sailing around the globe, more than 3 billion tons of BW are transferred to ports around the world every year [4]. Species are transferred around the world through the BW transfer over the years, and species migration has led to multiple and wide-ranging ecological impacts [4][5][6][7][8]. Over the past 20 years or so, many introduction events have been attributed to the transportation of BW [9][10][11]. ...
Ballast water (BW) poses the risk of introducing species. Therefore, ships install the ballast water management system (BWMS) to reduce the risks caused by BW. To gain a deeper understanding of the treatment effectiveness of the BWMS, in this study we compared the effectiveness of four different treatment processes of BWMSs on seawater phytoplankton, which were electrochlorination treatment, hydroxyl radical oxidation treatment, membrane separation and deoxygenation treatments, and UV irradiation treatment. The results showed that all four BWMSs had a reduction in phytoplankton density of over 99%. In terms of phytoplankton taxa, the effectiveness of the four BWMSs was different. The taxa removal rates of the four BWMSs were 81.25%, 39.58%, 59.31%, and 74.49%, respectively. Electrochlorination treatment and UV irradiation treatment were significantly more effective than hydroxyl radical oxidation treatment and membrane separation and deoxygenation treatments. The residual phytoplankton taxa were mainly dinoflagellate and diatoms, such as Cucumeridinium, Prorocentrum, Navicula, and Skeletonema. Taxa that can tolerate treatment may be more likely to survive and reproduce. There is still a need to continue to strengthen the development and research on the BWMS in the future to promote the development of BW management.
... NIS can cause biodiversity loss and change community structure through the local elimination of native species [2][3][4]. NIS can be introduced by ships and negatively impact marine ecosystems by destroying the habitats of native species, changing the species compositions, and reducing marine resources [5,6]. Ports are the main focus of NIS, and artificial structures are becoming spots of introduction [2,7]. ...
... In Germany, species introductions by international ships were assessed from 1992 to 1996. NIS were found in 38% of all ballast water samples, 57% of all sediment samples, and 96% of all hull samples, indicating that hull-fouling is an important source of introduction; 57% of the species were not native to the North Sea [6]. Of percentages all species found in New Zealand, 69% of NIS were found on hulls compared with 3% in ballast water [19]. ...
Global ecological concern regarding the transfer of fouling organisms to ship hulls is increasing. This study investigated the species composition, dominant species, distribution patterns, community structure, and life-cycle differences of hull-fouling macroinvertebrates on five research vessels (R/Vs: Isabu, Onnuri, Eardo, Jangmok 1, and Jangmok 2) operated by the Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST). Hull-fouling macroinvertebrates were collected three to five times on quadrats from the upper and middle sectors of the hull sides, bottom, and niche areas (the propellers and shafts and the thrusters). A total of 47 macroinvertebrate species were identified, represented by 8,519 individuals(ind.)/m2 and a biomass of 1,967 gWWt/m2 on the five vessels. The number of species, density, and biomass were greater on the coastal vessels the Eardo, Jangmok 1, and Jangmok 2 than on the ocean-going vessels the Isabu and Onnuri. Among the coastal vessels, barnacles were the most abundant and had the greatest density, while mollusks had the highest biomass. Differences between hull sectors showed that the highest species abundance and density appeared on all hulls in ports and bays where the Jangmok 1 operated, while the highest species abundance, density, and biomass were identified in the niche areas of the Eardo, which operated farther from the coast. The hull-fouling macroinvertebrates that exceeded 1% of all organisms were the barnacles Amphibalanus amphitrite, Balanus trigonus, and Amphibalanus improvisus; the polychaete Hydroides ezoensis; the bivalves Magallana gigas and Mytilus galloprovincialis; and the amphipod Jassa slatteryi. The dominant species were cosmopolitan and globally distributed, and many of them were cryptogenic. Six native species were identified: M. gigas, H. ezoensis, the amphipod Melita koreana, the isopod Cirolana ko-reana, and the barnacle B. trigonus and F. kondakovi. Eight non-indigenous species (NIS) were de-tected: barnacles A. amphitrite and A. improvisus, the bivalve M. galloprovincialis, the polychaete Perinereis nuntia, amphipods J. slatteryi and Caprella californica, and bryozoans Bugulina californica and Bugula neritina. Of the fouling macroinvertebrates found on the vessel hulls, 13% were native and 17% were NIS. The nMDS ordination analysis of the five vessels showed four clusters of fouling macroinvertebrate communities: two ocean clusters (the Isabu and Onnuri), one coastal cluster (the Eardo and Jangmok 2), and one local cluster (the Jangmok 1). More diverse communities developed on the hulls of vessels that operated locally rather than globally or in deep oceans. Spearman rank correlation showed that biological indices such as number of species, density, and biomass correlated highly and positively with the numbers of days on coastal operations and negatively with the number days on ocean operations. The species diversity index correlated positively with the total number of anchoring days and coastal operation days and negatively with the total number of operation days and ocean operation days. The macroinvertebrates differed by the area of operation, the port of anchorage, the number of days in operation and at anchor, and the hull sectors. There is no previous research data on hull-fouling macroinvertebrates in the Republic of Korea, and this study provides a basis for future studies to identify introduced species and their differences based on operation area.
... International vessel traffic drives marine invasions globally (e.g., Carlton 1987;Gollasch 2002;Katsanevakis et al. 2013) and to oceanic islands in particular (e.g., Carlton et al. 2019;Castro et al. 2020). Rapa Nui's offshore cruise ship and cargo anchorage site is located about 500 meters off Caleta Hanga Piko, where our settlement plates were installed. ...
... This impact directly influences the physiological processes and growth dynamics of marine organisms, shifts species distribution and community composition, alters interactions among species, and significantly impacts the biodiversity pattern in marine environments, posing a threat to the survival and stability of numerous species [198]. Moreover, the escalation of coastal resource development, global trade activities, and shipping operations has facilitated the introduction of non-native species through ballast water discharge [199]. This poses a risk to indigenous marine biological species while potentially reducing natural predators for explosively proliferating marine organisms. ...
Owing to global climate change or the ever-more frequent human activities in the offshore areas, it is highly probable that an imbalance in the offshore ecosystem has been induced. However, the importance of maintaining and protecting marine ecosystems’ balance cannot be overstated. In recent years, various marine disasters have occurred frequently, such as harmful algal blooms (green tides and red tides), storm surge disasters, wave disasters, sea ice disasters, and tsunami disasters. Additionally, overpopulation of certain marine organisms (particularly marine faunas) has led to marine disasters, threatening both marine ecosystems and human safety. The marine ecological disaster monitoring system in China primarily focuses on monitoring and controlling the outbreak of green tides (mainly caused by outbreaks of some Ulva species) and red tides (mainly caused by outbreaks of some diatom and dinoflagellate species). Currently, there are outbreaks of Cnidaria (Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa organisms; outbreak species are frequently referred to as jellyfish), Annelida (Urechis unicinctus Drasche, 1880), Mollusca (Philine kinglipini S. Tchang, 1934), Arthropoda (Acetes chinensis Hansen, 1919), and Echinodermata (Asteroidea organisms, Ophiuroidea organisms, and Acaudina molpadioides Semper, 1867) in China. They not only cause significant damage to marine fisheries, tourism, coastal industries, and ship navigation but also have profound impacts on marine ecosystems, especially near nuclear power plants, sea bathing beaches, and infrastructures, posing threats to human lives. Therefore, this review provides a detailed introduction to the marine organisms (especially marine fauna species) causing marine biological disasters in China, the current outbreak situations, and the biological backgrounds of these outbreaks. This review also provides an analysis of the causes of these outbreaks. Furthermore, it presents future prospects for marine biological disasters, proposing corresponding measures and advocating for enhanced resource utilization and fundamental research. It is recommended that future efforts focus on improving the monitoring of marine biological disasters and integrating them into the marine ecological disaster monitoring system. The aim of this review is to offer reference information and constructive suggestions for enhancing future monitoring, early warning systems, and prevention efforts related to marine ecological disasters in support of the healthy development and stable operation of marine ecosystems.
... Additionally, hull fouling is a potential vector for invasive species (Gollasch, 2002;Cuesta et al., 2016). Given the significance of oyster culture in sites like La Gironde, Sylt, and Oosterschelde, intraregional oyster trade may serve as another vector for the spread of Hemigrapsus species in European waters. ...
Three intertidal varunid crab species of the genus Hemigrapsus , viz. H. penicillatus , H. sanguineus , and H. takanoi , are widely distributed along the East Asian coastline. The first two became globally well-known after their introduction into Atlantic waters of North America and Europe. Since the first record in the late 1980s, they established breeding populations and now live in sympatry with native and other invasive crab species. The aim of this study was to determine the correct species identity and geographic origin of these invasive populations and, if possible, estimate the number of independent invasion events. For that purpose, specimens from the three species were obtained from native populations in Taiwan, Japan, Russia, Korea, and China, and genetically compared to invasive populations from Europe and the U.S.A. Sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene were generated and used for haplotype network and AMOVA analyses, thus providing insights into the potential invasion pathways, gene flow, and phylogeography of the two invasive species. Pronounced geographic structure for all three species is revealed in their native ranges, with a marked differentiation among northern and southern populations. We furthermore provide evidence that all invasions into North America and Europe originated from northern Asian populations, which is in line with similar climatic conditions in Europe, northeastern America and northern Asia. Our results also confirm the recent finding that all European populations previously thought to consist of H. penicillatus should be reclassified as H. takanoi .
... Overall, floating artificial structures provide surfaces analogous to floating transport vectors (e.g., hulls of ships). Given that NIS are often transported on the hulls of vessels (Godwin, 2003;Gollasch, 2002), it is likely that artificial structures with physical properties similar to floating vectors will aid NIS colonisation to new areas. ...
The UHPLC‐MS/MS metabolomics approach was employed to profile and characterize multi‐components in Halamphora sp. extracted with different solvents that contribute to quorum sensing inhibitory (QSI) activity. A total of 37 and 34 metabolites were tentatively identified from negative and positive ion modes, respectively. The metabolites have been assigned to various groups, including fatty acids, glycolipids, sterols, diazines, flavonoids, peptides, carotenoids, and pigments. ibitis study, a metabolomics apMultivariate data analysis showed that the QSI activity in the acetone extract was due to tumonoic acid A, terpeptin derivatives, pheophorbide A, hydroxyhexadeca‐1,5‐dien‐3‐ynoxy]propane‐1,2‐diol, L‐methionyl‐L‐tyrosine, stearidonic, hexadecadienoic, tricosenoic, palmitic and linolenic acids. These metabolites were more concentrated and differed significantly in acetone extract compared to other extracts. Acetone extract displayed a cluster of nodulisporic acid and fucoxanthin through MS/MS‐based molecular networking (MN) platform. The present study shows that the LCMS‐based metabolomics and MN effectively identify QSI‐active metabolites in Halamphora sp. extracts, which can be promoted as a natural antifoulant.
Rhodolith beds are predominantly formed by calcareous red algae with a rich benthic fauna. Nonetheless, little is known about the biota relationships with their structural variability. Rhodolith shape, size and vitality were examined from 22 sampling stations in dense and sparse areas of a mesophotic rhodolith bed in the Campos Basin, Brazil located within a major oil production area. Nine taxonomic benthic faunal groups were identified: Mollusca (58 taxa), Polychaeta (51), Echinodermata (27), Crustacea (24), Bryozoa (20), Porifera (19), Cnidaria (6), Ascidiacea (2) and Brachiopoda (1). Cnidaria, Mollusca, Bryozoa and Brachiopoda were abundant in areas with gravelly/rhodolith bottoms, while Polychaeta were associated with sandy/muddy bottoms. The faunal composition in the Peregrino oil field showed greater species richness than observed in other rhodolith beds worldwide. The present study contributes to the knowledge of the structural, taxonomical and functional characteristics of a rhodolith bed present along the Brazilian continental shelf.
Global ecological concern regarding the transfer of fouling organisms to ship hulls is increasing. This study investigated the species composition, dominant species, distribution patterns, community structure, and life-cycle differences of hull-fouling macroinvertebrates on five research vessels (R/Vs: Isabu, Onnuri, Eardo, Jangmok 1, and Jangmok 2) operated by the Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST). Hull-fouling macroinvertebrates were collected three to five times on quadrats from the upper and middle sectors of the hull sides, bottom, and niche areas (the propellers, shafts, and thrusters). A total of 47 macroinvertebrate species were identified, represented by 8519 individuals (ind.)/m2 and a biomass of 1967 gWWt/m2 on the five vessels. The number of species, density, and biomass were greater on the coastal vessels Eardo, Jangmok 1, and Jangmok 2 than on the ocean-going vessels the Isabu and Onnuri. Among the coastal vessels, barnacles were the most abundant and had the greatest density, while mollusks had the highest biomass. Differences between hull sectors showed that the highest species abundance and density appeared on all hulls in ports and bays where the Jangmok 1 operated, while the highest species abundance, density, and biomass were identified in the niche areas of the Eardo, which operated farther from the coast. The hull-fouling macroinvertebrates that exceeded 1% of all organisms were the barnacles Amphibalanus amphitrite, Balanus trigonus, and Amphibalanus improvisus; the polychaete Hydroides ezoensis; the bivalves Magallana gigas and Mytilus galloprovincialis; and the amphipod Jassa slatteryi. The dominant species were cosmopolitan and globally distributed, and many of them were cryptogenic. Six native species were identified: M. gigas, H. ezoensis, the amphipod Melita koreana, the isopod Cirolana koreana, and the barnacles B. trigonus and F. kondakovi. Eight non-indigenous species (NIS) were detected: the barnacles A. amphitrite and A. improvisus, the bivalve M. galloprovincialis, the polychaete Perinereis nuntia, the amphipods J. slatteryi and Caprella californica, and the bryozoans Bugulina californica and Bugula neritina. Of the fouling macroinvertebrates found on the vessel hulls, 13% were native, and 17% were NIS. More diverse communities developed on the hulls of vessels that operated locally rather than globally or in deep oceans. The species diversity index correlated positively with the total number of anchoring days and coastal operation days and negatively with the total number of operation days and ocean operation days. The macroinvertebrates differed by the area of operation, the port of anchorage, the number of days in operation and at anchor, and the hull sectors. There is no previous research data on hull-fouling macroinvertebrates in the Republic of Korea, and this study provides a basis for future studies to identify introduced species and their differences based on operation area.
This and the companion volume describe and illustrate more than 2000 species, from selected protozoans to fishes, found in the coastal waters of the British Isles and north-western Europe. They cover all benthic habitats, from the intertidal zone to approximately 30 metres depth, and also include representatives of estuarine and supralittoral faunas. Each major animal group is briefly introduced, with notes on the morphology, biology, and ecology of representative species, together with suitable techniques for their collection and study. Short bibliographies list the most important specialist literature for each group. Identification is facilitated by dichotomous keys, first to families, and then to genera or species. Short diagnostic accounts are given for each family and higher taxon; descriptions of all species treated are followed by notes on their ecological and geographical distribution. All species are illustrated by line drawings, with related species grouped together to facilitate comparisons. The two volumes comprise the most comprehensive single account of the marine fauna of British and adjacent waters ever produced. It is intended as a bench work for both professional and amateur marine biologist, as well as for undergraduate and postgraduate students. It is essentially a practical work; taxonomic and synonmic detail is deliberately kept to a minimum, with emphasis given to identification procedures.
Das vielbeschworene Gleichgewicht der Natur scheint mehr ein Abbild menschlichen Harmoniebedürfnisses zu sein, als daß es ein wissenschaftlich nachweisbarer Zustand der Natur wäre. Im Wattenmeer ist die Natur schon von Natur aus sehr veränderlich. Das heißt aber nicht, daß aller Wandel in der Natur auch natürlich ist. Es ist die Aufgabe der empirisch-ökologischen Forschung, den Gesamtwandel in natürliche und technogene Anteile zu differenzieren. Nicht der Wandel an sich ist ausreichend, um den Einfluß des Menschen auf die Natur zu erkennen. Notwendig ist vielmehr eine historische, vergleichende und experimentelle Suche nach den Wandlungsursachen.