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A Historical Review of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality
Abstract
From its roots in classical mythology, narcissism was originally conceptualized in the early 20th century as excessive self-love, but it soon began to be considered its own personality disorder or style. In the 1970s, increased interest in narcissism in psychoanalysis, social theory, and social/personality psychology led to conceptual confusion, which is only now being resolved.
... The DSM-5 reports that up to 75% of those diagnosed with Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) are men (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Such figures suggest that the representation of narcissism as codified in the DSM-5 may only be marginally applicable to females, given its prominent focus and nature on capturing grandiose themes at the expense of vulnerable variants of the disorder (Levy et al., 2011). The extent to which the construct and ensuing prevalence of this psychiatric disorder is, in fact, genderbiased has significant implications for the differential diagnosis and clinical treatment of men and women. ...
... The psychoanalytic literature contains a myriad of conceptual and clinical observations that portray diverse variants of the narcissistic disorder. For the purposes of this thesis, only those relevant and prominent theorists will be discussed (for a more extensive overview, see Levy, Ellison & Reynoso, 2011 Freud (1914Freud ( /1957 signified that these individuals were extraverted, aggressive, highly independent, and unable to love or commit in close relationships. ...
... The criteria of NPD in the DSM-5 have been challenged on conceptual, clinical and empirical grounds, the most common criticism pertaining to the evident lack of narcissistic vulnerability (Cain et al., 2008;Dimaggio, 2012;Kealy & Rasmussen, 2012;Levy et al., 2011;Reidy et al., 2008;Ronningstam, 2009). The failure to capture the phenomenology of NPD in its entirety has been said to most likely contribute to this disorder, exhibiting the lowest prevalence rate of the DSM personality disorders (Caligor, Levy & Yeomans, 2015;Russ et al., 2008). ...
Despite its longevity as a personality construct, theoretical understandings of gender differences in narcissistic presentation are underdeveloped given the overemphasis of grandiose features indicative of the male gender. The existing literature is also fragmented across empirical and clinical subfields, with inconsistent conceptualisations regarding an assumed heterogeneous construct encompassing grandiose and vulnerable features. In this context, this thesis aims to enhance theoretical knowledge regarding gender differences in grandiose and vulnerable narcissism through undertaking three distinct but interrelated studies. The focus was specifically on parenting styles in the development of narcissism and variances in self-esteem regulation within Intimate Partner Violence, and the gender bias of narcissistic pathology as captured in the psychiatric nomenclature.
Results demonstrate that hypothetical patients with vulnerable narcissism symptomatology are being (mis)diagnosed as having other ‘vulnerable disorders’, findings which may contribute to the observed gender bias in the psychiatric nomenclature (Study 1). Converging evidence demonstrates gender differences linking females to vulnerable features of narcissism (Study 2 and Study 3). Retrospective accounts of childrearing experiences generated findings which associated different parenting styles with manifestations of narcissism and partner violence outcomes in each gender, further elucidating the underling construct of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism (Study 2). The complexity of narcissism is revealed, as gender roles were perceived to shape self-regulatory strategies in females to obtain their self-worth (Study 3).
It is concluded that gender socialisation processes play an important role in producing these gender differences, impacting on the diagnostic assessment, development, and manifestation of narcissism. It is recommended that a significant theoretical re-synthesis is required to capture gender issues in narcissism at the level of conceptualisation and clinical treatment, and integrate the disjointed subfields. Limitations of the thesis are identified and suggestions for future research made.
... Indeed, the prominence of interpersonal dysfunction was clearly reflected in early editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) for narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). Such classification systems overtly required the presence of significant interpersonal dysfunction (Criterion E), as relating to entitlement and non-reciprocation, interpersonal exploitativeness, idealization and devaluation and lack of empathy (Levy et al., 2011;Levy et al., 2013;Reynolds & Lejuez, 2011). The current categorical criteria for NPD do not explicitly require the presence of interpersonal dysfunction in the same way, with interpersonal dysfunction being explicitly outlined in one criterion (e.g., Criterion 6: Is interpersonally exploitative) and implicit in a number of others (American Psychiatric Association, 2013a). ...
... Finally, these results also implicate interpersonal patterns of idealization and devaluation for individuals with narcissistic pathology. While early DSM criteria also included this for NPD (e.g., American Psychiatric Association, 1980), it was subsequently removed in order to reduce overlap with other personality disorders (Levy et al., 2011;Levy et al., 2013); however, these results suggest that it may remain a potentially salient feature of narcissistic functioning as has been suggested in alternate diagnostic and theoretical frameworks (Lingiardi & McWilliams, 2017). ...
Pathological narcissism is marked by deficits in psychosocial functioning. Difficulties in relationships include instances of aggression, devaluation and control; however, few studies have examined these relationships from the perspective of partners and family members. We studied participants who were in relationships with relatives high in narcissistic traits (N = 436; current romantic partners [57.3%]; former romantic partners [21.1%]; family members [15.4%]). Participant responses were analysed thematically, and their underlying mental health problems were also measured. Thematic analysis of participant responses indicated themes of abuse from the relative with narcissism (physical, verbal, emotional and sexual) as well as the relative imposing challenging financial and sexual behaviours. There were complex interpersonal themes of mutual idealization but also devaluation. In response, participants reported high levels of anxiety, depression, self‐aggression, sickness and somatic concerns. Further, participants expressed overt outward hostility towards their relative with narcissism, but also dependency strivings and frustrated dependency themes. Partners and their relative with narcissism appeared locked into interpersonal and intrapersonal dynamic conflicts. Clinical implications include specific attendance to alliance issues, dependency themes, and a focus on limit setting to establish personal safety.
... Similarly, other studies also demonstrated that narcissism did not predict trolling behaviors (Lopes & Yu, 2017;March et al., 2017). It was argued that since narcissists are preoccupied with themselves more than others (Levy et al., 2011), there was no significant association between trolling and narcissism. Based on this information, we also do not expect a significant relationship between narcissism and any form of trolling. ...
The aim of this study is twofold. First, this study develops a new scale measuring sarcastic trolling and investigates the reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the Troll Deviancy Scale. Second, this study explores the associations among different trolling measures, dark triad, and overt and relational aggression. Eight items measuring sarcasm in trolling were written to develop a Likert type of scale. In total, 809 university students participated in the study and completed an online questionnaire. Findings suggested that both the sarcastic trolling scale and the Turkish version of the Troll Deviancy Scales are valid and reliable. Analyses showed that there were significant associations among trolling measures. Moreover, the differential predictive value of dark personality traits and overt and relational aggression in different forms of trolling were revealed. This study extends the existing literature on linking personality traits and aggression to a new form of trolling. Moreover, this study focused on a non-Western culture to examine different forms of trolling behaviors.
... Narcissism, Narcissistic Abuse, and Access to Support and Understanding Narcissism has been defined through theoretical identification and diagnostic classification within a psychiatric medical model (Levy et al., 2011). The psychiatric formulation of narcissism by the American Psychiatric Association (2013) focuses upon the narcissist's difficulties with self-identification and self-functioning within a diagnosis of Narcissistic Personality Disorder. ...
This article reports the results of a qualitative study which aimed to investigate the role of internet memes in facilitating supportive discussions among women on an online platform concerning narcissistic abuse. Narcissistic abuse is an under-recognised form of abuse underpinning experiences of domestic abuse and intimate partner violence. The study focuses upon women’s communication through the use of Facebook memes. Studying these and their associated content/posts is important for examining narcissistic abuse experiences because memes have been identified as immediate conveyors of meaning, and associated posts and comments provide rich data that can generate new findings pertinent to abuse and support experiences. A total of 4 public Facebook pages concerning narcissistic abuse were used to analyse 100 memes and their attached comments/posts, which ranged from 15 to 175 per meme with an arithmetic mean of 39.4. Employing a feminist relational discourse analysis (FRDA) framework, the data were categorised in terms of thematic frames and dominant discourses of victim-survivors. The analysis identified how community-specific Facebook pages assisted help-seeking discussions and expressions of distress. It also suggested that memes function as speech acts to discursively shape online conversations related to experiences of narcissistic abuse. As immediate conveyors of meaning, memes facilitated emotional expression to provide psychosocial support and a form of feminist activism to those who experienced feelings of isolation and marginalisation within broader political, psychological, and social contexts.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between an individual’s narcissistic personality and his/her financial risk tolerance in an emerging country sample. The sample consists of undergraduate university students who have been taking finance classes in their student life. The data is examined using mean differences and regression analyzes in this study. The main findings show that men tend to be more narcissistic and more risk-tolerant than women. The regression analysis result shows that narcissism and financial risk-taking have a statistically positive and significant relationship. In other words, the increase in the narcissism level of an individual leads him/her to be more risk-tolerant. This study has two main contributions to the literature; providing a framework for measuring the link between narcissism and financial risk tolerance and providing evidence about “narcissism bias” from an emerging country.
The present study aims to assess the psychometric properties (i.e., reliability and validity) and factor structure of the Korean version of the Short Dark Triad (SD3) with 27 items for evaluating the traits of the Dark Triad: narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. An analysis of factor structure using both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) within Study 1 and Study 2 (N = 250 for study 1, N = 250 for study 2) yielded two factors of Machivellianism-Psychopathy (Ma-Psy) and Narcissism in Korea and did not suport the 3-factor solution of the original SD3 developed by Johns & Paulhus (2014). For item-level validity, the Rasch Rating Scale Model was applied and the final 17 items with two factors of the dark personality (SD-2) were confirmed as a result of an item goodness-of-fit and item difficulty. Also, the psychometric properties of the Korean adaptation of the SD3 (2-factor solution with 17 items, called SD2) provided support for both convergent and discrimiant validity estimates as well as stability over 1-month time interval. Implications and limitations of the current research are discussed.
Background:
Individuals with narcissistic traits, specifically vulnerable ones, are more prone to experiencing concerns related to self-worth and physical appearance and to showing heightened sensitivity to appearance evaluation. Negative body image and body image self-consciousness may, in turn, undermine sexual functioning, especially when apprehension is related to body appearance in sexual contexts.
Methods:
We aimed to evaluate the associations between self-reported pathological narcissistic traits, both grandiose and vulnerable, and sexual functioning in a large sample of nonclinical women (N = 656). Furthermore, we tested the mediating role of body image self-consciousness in these associations.
Outcomes:
Sexual functioning was measured through the Female Sexual Function Index.
Results:
The results highlight that vulnerable narcissistic traits are associated with lower sexual functioning, this association being mediated by higher levels of body image self-consciousness. Conversely, grandiose narcissistic traits are linked to lower body image self-consciousness and, consequently, higher levels of sexual functioning.
Clinical implications:
Considering the link between body image self-consciousness and sexuality is of utmost importance in clinical practice with women, as well as in promoting positive body appreciation. Clinicians working with individuals presenting with pathological personality traits should consider including an assessment of their sexual functioning. S Pavanello Decaro, M Di Sarno, A Anzani, et al. Narcissistic Personality Traits and Sexual Dysfunction in Women: The Role of Body Image Self-Consciousness. J Sex Med 2021;XX:XXX-XXX.
Pathological narcissism is a term often applied to former President Donald Trump, but it has been less examined as a potential predictor of voting for him. Trump projects a grandiose and omnipotent self-image during press conferences and rallies, and his followers at these events often respond with both effusive admiration and an inflated sense of their own self-regard, all of which are aspects of narcissism. However, while Trump’s personal narcissism has been well documented, there is little research on the narcissism of his supporters. In this study we conducted an exploratory analysis examining the hierarchical structure of pathological narcissism and which aspects of narcissism within that structure were associated with intended voting for Trump in the 2020 U.S. presidential election in a sample of U.S. residents collected online ( N = 495) using Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Results indicated that an eight-echelon hierarchy best fit the data. Within this hierarchy, antagonistic and indifferent aspects of narcissism within the fifth echelon best predicted intended voting for Trump over and above relevant demographic variables. These results have implications for the study of narcissism and, especially given the results of the 2020 election, the degree to which one can make use of narcissistic aspects of personality in political contests.
The relation between individual and collective processes is central to the social sciences, yet difficult to conceptualize because of the necessity of crossing disciplinary boundaries. The result is that researchers in different disciplines construct their own implicit, and often unsatisfactory, models of either individual or collective phenomena, which in turn influence their theoretical and empirical work. In this 1985 book, Drew Westen attempts to cross these boundaries, proposing an interdisciplinary approach to personality, to culture, and to the relation between the two. Throughout the book, Westen provides reviews of a variety of fields, including personality theory, moral development, ego development, and culture theory. His book will appeal to students and scholars in all the social sciences, as well as to any reader concerned with understanding the relation between individuals and the world in which they live.
Herbert Rosenfeld makes a powerful case both for the intelligibility of psychotic symptoms and the potential benefits of their treatment by psychoanalytic means.
Volume 3 of the American Handbook of Psychiatry is an attempt to "include new material and bring up to date what was presented in the first two volumes." Advances in well established areas of psychiatry are reported in the first three parts of the book: Clinical Studies, Aspects of Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis, and Biological Studies and Artificial Syndromes. The newly developing areas of Biochemical Psychiatry, Psychiatry and the Community, and Conceptual Psychiatry are dealt with in the last three sections.All of the chapters are competently written; many of them are excellent. However, the choice of topics appears capricious. Chapters on the contributions of Carl Rogers, Melanie Klein, and Fairbairn can hardly be said to deal with new developments. The absence of any material on the conditioning therapies and the growing problem of drug abuse is striking. The separation of the Psychophysiology of Sleep and Dreams and Sleep Deprivation into