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Historical changes in the mineral content of fruits and vegetables

July 1997
British Food Journal 99(6):207-211

Project: Nutrition and Agriculture research projects

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Implies that a balance of the different essential nutrients is necessary for maintaining health. The eight minerals that are usually analysed are Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn. A comparison of the mineral content of 20 fruits and 20 vegetables grown in the 1930s and the 1980s (published in the UK Government’s Composition of Foods tables) shows several marked reductions in mineral content. Shows that there are statistically significant reductions in the levels of Ca, Mg, Cu and Na in vegetables and Mg, Fe, Cu and K in fruit. The only mineral that showed no significant differences over the 50 year period was P. The water content increased significantly and dry matter decreased significantly in fruit. Indicates that a nutritional problem associated with the quality of food has developed over those 50 years. The changes could have been caused by anomalies of measurement or sampling, changes in the food system, changes in the varieties grown or changes in agricultural practice. In conclusion recommends that the causes of the differences in mineral content and their effect on human health be investigated.

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[ 207]

British Food Journal

99/6 [1997] 207–211

[ISSN 0007-070X]

Historical changes in the mineral content of fruits

and vegetables

Anne-Marie Mayer

Independent Researcher, Devon, UK

Implies that a balance of the

different essential nutrients is

necessary for maintaining

health. The eight minerals

that are usually analysed are

Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn.

A comparison of the mineral

content of 20 fruits and 20

vegetables grown in the

1930s and the 1980s (pub-

lished in the UK Government’s

Composition of Foods

tables)

shows several marked reduc-

tions in mineral content.

Shows that there are statisti-

cally signiﬁcant reductions in

the levels of Ca, Mg, Cu and

Na in vegetables and Mg, Fe,

Cu and K in fruit. The only

mineral that showed no sig-

niﬁcant differences over the

50 year period was P. The

water content increased

signiﬁcantly and dry matter

decreased signiﬁcantly in

fruit. Indicates that a nutri-

tional problem associated

with the quality of food has

developed over those 50

years. The changes could

have been caused by anom-

alies of measurement or

sampling, changes in the food

system, changes in the vari-

eties grown or changes in

agricultural practice. In

conclusion recommends that

the causes of the differences

in mineral content and their

effect on human health be

investigated.

The purpose of this paper is to address the

question: has the nutritional quality (particu-

larly essential mineral content) of fruits and

vegetables changed this century during the

period of changes in the food system and

modernization in agriculture? The UK Gov-

ernment’s Composition of Foods data provides

a source of data at two time points separated

by approximately 50 years; by comparing this

data I attempt to answer this question.

The composition of foods tables

The ﬁrst edition of the UK Chemical Composi-

tion of Foods[1] arose from a need to provide

investigators with information for a wide

range of foods consumed in the UK. The data

on fruit and vegetables were compiled from

previous studies of the composition of

foods[2]. Unfortunately, these reports were

destroyed in a ﬁre during the Second World

War and have been out of print ever since.

This means that exact dates or details of the

analyses are not known.

Since the ﬁrst edition there have been four

subsequent updates of the full Composition of

Foods tables. It wasn’t until the ﬁfth edition,

however, that the tables included substantial

revisions of the original data on fruits and

vegetables that were listed in the ﬁrst edition.

The ﬁfth edition of The Composition of

Foods[3] addressed a need for updates of the

old data. The introductory section states “The

nutritional value of many of the more tradi-

tional foods has changed. This can happen

when there are new varieties or new sources

of supply for raw materials; with new

farming practices which can affect the nutri-

tional value of both plant and animal

products…”

The updated compositions of fruits and

vegetables are based on analytical studies

commissioned by the Ministry of Agricul-

ture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF). The sam-

ples were designed to reﬂect the usual pattern

of consumption in the UK at the time of analy-

sis. The tables are not designed to provide

comparative historical data – the fruit and

vegetables would not necessarily have been

grown in similar conditions, soils, or times of

year or be of the same varieties. The data

were also provided by mixed sources (see

below). More controlled data would have been

better, but this data nevertheless provides a

good starting point for the comparison.

The updated vegetable analyses were car-

ried out by the Institute for Food Research

between 1984 and 1987 and have been used for

all the vegetable mineral data. The updated

fruit analyses were based largely on data

from the Laboratory of the Government

Chemist (LGC). Most of the twenty fruits

listed, however, include data from other

sources for one or more of the minerals. For

instance, the entry for cooking apples makes

use of data from the LGC for P, Fe, Cu and Zn.

The values for Na, K, Ca, Mg are an average of

LGC data and the old Chemical Composition of

foods data from 1936. Table I lists sources of

data for all the twenty vegetables and fruits

that were selected for the comparison.

In this paper I have examined only raw

fruits and vegetables. This has been done to

exclude differences caused by changes in

methods of processing. The updated analyses

provide an opportunity to compare the

changes in purchased raw food over approxi-

mately a 50-year period.

Methods

I analysed twenty vegetables and fruits using

two versions of the Composition of Foods

tables[3,4]. I used the 1960 version for the old

data because it was easily available and

includes the same analyses as the ﬁrst and

second editions. It also reports the results to

one more signiﬁcant digit than the fourth

edition. The fruits and vegetables selected

had to meet the following criteria:

• The old data had been updated for the ﬁfth

edition of the food tables. Some fruits have

also been included when old and new data

were averaged as outlined in Table I.

• The descriptions of the analysed portion of

the food were identical. For example, both

samples were peeled.

• Only raw samples were included.

• The food was not dried or rehydrated and

dry pulses were not included.

• The food was not a condiment (e.g. horse-

radish root).

[ 208]

Anne-Marie Mayer

Historical changes in the

mineral content of fruits and

vegetables

British Food Journal

99/6 [1997] 207–211

A total of 20 fruits and 20 vegetables satisﬁed

these criteria and these are listed with their

mineral contents at both time points in Table

III.

I calculated the logarithm of the ratios

(new:old) for each mineral for each fruit and

vegetable and from these computed the geo-

metric means. Students t-test was used to test

whether each mean ratio was signiﬁcantly

different from 1. The logs of the ratios were

used for this test.

Findings

The average ratios and results of the t-test

are listed in Table II. A ratio of 0.81 for

Table I

Sources of data for

The Composition of Foods

tables

Fruits Sources and dates of data

Apricots LGC 85-86 except Na: average of literature

Bananas LGC 85-86 except K, Zn: average of literature

Blackberries LGC 85-86

Cherries LGC 85-86

Cooking apples LGC 85-86 except Na, K, Ca, Mg: average of LGC, MW4

Eating apples LGC 85-86 except Na, K, Cu: average of literature

Grapefruit LGC 85-86 except Na, K, Ca: average MW4, USDA 86, literature

Grapes LGC 85-86 except Na, K, Zn: average of literature

Lemons MW4, USDA, literature.

Melon cantaloupe LGC 85-86

Nectarines LGC 85-86 except K, Mg: literature

Oranges LGC 85-86 except K: literature

Passion fruit Literature sources

Peaches LGC 85-86 except K: literature

Pears LGC 90

Pineapple LGC 85-86, MW4, literature

Plums Recalculated from stewed plums

Raspberries LGC 85-86

Rhubarb Average of USDA 81, MW4

Strawberries LGC 85-86

Notes:

LGC Laboratory of the Government Chemist

MW4

McCance and Widdowson’s Composition of Foods

4th edition (1936 data)[6]

USDA United States Department of Agriculture data

First to third editions: The data used in the ﬁrst four editions of the

Chemical Composition of Foods

were compiled

from the 1936 data[2]

Fourth edition: The data were compiled from the 1936 data with a few additions from the literature. For example Zn

values were added from literature sources

Fifth edition: The data for vegetables in the ﬁfth edition were all taken from the Institute of Food Research between

1984 and 1987. The data for fruits were obtained from mixed sources

Table II

Average

ratio of mineral content (new:old) of 20 vegetables and 20 fruits

Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Dry matter H

Vegetables ratio 0.81 0.65 0.78 0.19 0.57 0.86 0.94 0.97 1.00

value

0.014* 0.000* 0.088 0.000** 0.013* 0.090 0.487 0.53 0.872

Fruits ratio 1.00 0.89 0.68 0.64 0.90 0.80 0.99 0.91 1.02

value 0.957 0.016* 0.002** 0.006** 0.561 0.000** 0.903 0.023* 0.006**

Notes:

Geometric mean, the antilogarithm of the mean of the logarithm of the ratio of 1980s to 1930s values

See text for data sources and Table III for vegetables and fruits included. Analyses of Mn, Se and I were

only added in the 1991 edition. Zn was only added in the 1978 edition. S was omitted from the 1991

tables although it was analysed in previous editions. C1 was not revised in many cases for the 1991

edition. For these reasons comparisons were only possible for the above 7 minerals, water and dry matter.

Probability that average of logarithm of new:old is statistically different from 0 by

-test. (This is

equivalent to the ratios being different from 1)

* = signiﬁcant at the 5 per cent level

** = signiﬁcant at the 2 per cent level

[ 209]

Anne-Marie Mayer

Historical changes in the

mineral content of fruits and

vegetables

British Food Journal

99/6 [1997] 207–211

calcium, for example, means that over an

approximate 50-year period the average con-

tent of calcium in vegetables has declined to

81 per cent of the original level.

There were signiﬁcant reductions in the

levels of Ca, Mg, Cu and Na, in vegetables

and Mg, Fe, Cu and K in fruits. The greatest

change was the reduction of copper levels in

vegetables to less than one-ﬁfth of the old

level. The only mineral that showed no

signiﬁcant differences over the 50-year

period was P. Water increased signiﬁcantly

Table III

Mineral content of vegetables and fruit (mg/100mg)

Dry Dry

Ca Ca Mg Mg Fe Fe Cu Cu Na Na K K P P Matter Matter H

O% H

old new old new old new old new old new old new old new old new old new

Vegetables

Beetroot 24.9 20.0 15.0 11.0 0.37 1.0 0.07 0.02 84.0 66.0 303.0 380.0 32.1 51 12.9 12.9 87.1 87.1

Brussels 28.7 26.0 19.6 8.0 0.66 0.7 0.05 0.02 9.6 6.0 515.0 450.0 78.4 77.0 15.7 15.7 84.3 84.3

Sprouts

Cabbage – winter 72.3 68.0 16.8 6.0 1.23 0.6 N 0.02 28.4 3.0 240.0 270.0 64.1 46.0 9.4 10.3 90.6 89.7

Carrots – old 48.0 25.0 12.0 3.0 0.56 0.3 0.08 0.02 95.0 25.0 224.0 170.0 21.0 15.0 10.2 10.2 89.8 89.8

Celery 52.2 41.0 9.60 5.0 0.61 0.4 0.11 0.01 137.0 60.0 278.0 320.0 31.7 21.0 6.5 4.9 93.5 95.1

Lettuce 25.9 28.0 9.7 6.0 0.73 0.70 0.15 0.01 3.1 3.0 208 220 30.2 28.0 4.8 4.9 95.2 95.1

Mushroom 2.9 6.0 13.2 9.0 1.03 0.6 0.64 0.72 9.1 5.0 467.0 320.0 136.0 80.0 8.5 7.4 91.5 92.6

Mustard and cress 65.9 50.0 27.3 22.0 4.54 1.0 0.12 0.01 19.0 19.0 337.0 110.0 65.5 33.0 7.5 4.7 92.5 95.3

Onions 31.2 25.0 7.6 4.0 0.30 0.30 0.08 0.05 10.2 3.0 137.0 160.0 30.0 30.0 7.2 11.0 92.8 89.0

Parsley 325.0 200.0 52.2 23.0 8.00 7.7 0.52 0.03 33.0 33.0 1,080.0760.0 128.0 64.0 21.3 16.9 78.7 83.1

Parsnips 54.8 41.0 22.4 23.0 0.57 0.6 0.10 0.05 16.5 10.0 342.0 450.0 69.0 74.0 17.5 20.7 82.5 79.3

Peas 15.1 21.0 30.2 34.0 1.88 2.8 0.23 0.05 0.5 1.0 342.0 330.0 104.0 130.0 21.5 25.4 78.5 74.6

Potatoes – old 7.7 5.0 24.2 17.0 0.75 0.4 0.15 0.08 6.5 7.0 568.0 360.0 40.3 37.0 24.2 21.0 75.8 79.0

Pumpkin 39.0 29.0 8.2 10.0 0.39 0.4 0.08 0.02 1.3 0.0 309.0 130.0 19.4 19.0 5.3 5.0 94.7 95.0

Runner beans 33.3 33.0 23.0 19.0 0.74 1.2 0.09 0.02 6.5 0.0 276.0 220.0 25.9 34.0 8.4 8.8 91.6 91.2

Radishes 43.7 19.0 11.4 5.0 1.88 0.6 0.13 0.01 59.0 11.0 240.0 240.0 27.1 20.0 6.7 4.6 93.3 95.4

Swedes 56.4 53.0 10.8 9.0 0.35 0.1 0.05 0.01 52.2 15.0 136.0 170.0 19.0 40.0 8.6 8.8 91.4 91.2

Tomatoes 13.3 7.0 11.0 7.0 0.43 0.5 0.10 0.01 2.8 9.0 288.0 250.0 21.3 24.0 6.6 6.9 93.4 93.1

Turnips 58.8 48.0 7.4 8.0 0.37 0.2 0.07 0.01 58.0 15.0 238.0 280.0 27.5 41.0 6.7 8.8 93.3 91.2

Watercress 222.0 170.0 17.0 15.0 1.62 2.2 0.14 0.01 60.0 49.0 314.0 230.0 52.0 52.0 8.9 7.5 91.1 92.5

Fruits

Apricots 17.2 15.0 12.3 11.0 0.37 0.5 0.12 0.06 N 2.0 320.0 270.0 21.3 20.0 13.4 12.8 86.6 87.2

Bananas 6.8 6.0 41.9 34.0 0.41 0.3 0.16 0.10 1.2 1.0 348.0 400.0 28.1 28.0 29.3 24.9 70.7 75.1

Blackberries 63.3 41.0 29.5 23.0 0.85 0.7 0.12 0.11 3.7 2.0 208.0 160.0 23.8 31.0 18.0 15.0 82.0 85.0

Cherries 15.9 13.0 9.6 10.0 0.38 0.2 0.07 0.07 2.8 1.0 275 210 16.8 21.0 18.5 17.2 81.5 82.8

Cooking apples 3.6 4.0 2.9 3.0 0.29 0.1 0.09 0.02 21.0 2.0 123.0 88.0 16.2 7.0 14.4 12.3 85.6 87.7

Eating apples 3.6 3.0 4.7 3.0 0.29 0.1 0.11 0.02 2.4 3.0 118.0 100.0 7.7 8.0 15.7 14.6 84.3 85.4

Grapes 11.7 13.0 5.3 7.0 0.34 0.3 0.09 0.12 1.7 2.0 283.0 210.0 19.0 18.0 20.0 18.2 80.0 81.8

Grapefruit 17.1 23.0 10.4 9.0 0.26 0.1 0.06 0.02 1.4 3.0 234.0 200.0 15.6 20.0 9.3 11.0 90.7 89.0

Lemons 107.0 85.0 11.6 12.0 0.35 0.5 0.26 0.26 6.0 5.0 163.0 150.0 20.7 18.0 14.8 13.7 85.2 86.3

Melon cantaloupe 19.1 20.0 20.1 11.0 0.81 0.3 0.04 0.00 13.5 8.0 319.0 210.0 30.4 13.0 6.4 7.9 93.6 92.1

Nectarines 3.9 7.0 12.6 10.0 0.46 0.4 0.06 0.06 9.1 1.0 268.0 170.0 23.9 22.0 19.8 11.1 80.2 88.9

Oranges 41.3 47.0 12.9 10.0 0.33 0.1 0.07 0.05 2.9 5.0 197 150 23.7 21.0 13.9 13.9 86.1 86.1

Passion fruit 15.6 11.0 38.6 29.0 1.12 1.3 0.12 N 28.4 19.0 348.0 200.0 54.2 64.0 26.7 25.1 73.3 74.9

Peaches 4.8 7.0 7.9 9.0 0.38 0.4 0.05 0.06 2.7 1.0 259.0 160.0 18.5 22.0 13.8 11.1 86.2 88.9

Pears 7.5 11.0 7.2 7.0 0.21 0.2 0.15 0.06 2.3 3.0 128.0 150.0 9.7 13.0 16.8 16.2 83.2 83.8

Pineapple 12.2 18.0 16.9 16.0 0.42 0.2 0.08 0.11 1.6 2.0 247.0 160.0 7.8 10.0 15.7 13.5 84.3 86.5

Plums 12.4 13.0 7.6 8.0 0.33 0.4 0.10 0.10 1.9 2.0 192.0 240.0 15.4 23.0 15.4 16.1 84.6 83.9

Raspberries 40.7 25.0 21.6 19.0 1.21 0.7 0.21 0.10 2.5 3.0 224.0 170.0 28.7 31.0 16.8 13.0 83.2 87.0

Rhubarb 103.0 93.0 13.6 13.0 0.40 0.3 0.13 0.07 2.2 3.0 425.0 290.0 21.0 17.0 5.8 5.8 94.2 94.2

Strawberries 22.0 16.0 11.7 10.0 0.71 0.4 0.13 0.07 1.5 6.0 161.0 160.0 23.0 24.0 11.1 10.5 88.9 89.5

Notes: Old:

Composition of Foods

3rd edition (1930s data)[4]

New:

Composition of Foods

5th edition (1980s data)[3]

N: No data available

Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, K and P were reported to one fewer signiﬁcant digits in the 1991 tables.

[ 210]

Anne-Marie Mayer

Historical changes in the

mineral content of fruits and

vegetables

British Food Journal

99/6 [1997] 207–211

and dry matter decreased signiﬁcantly in

fruits.

What role do the minerals play in human

nutrition?

Minerals all have several roles in human

biochemistry and physiology and all the

minerals mentioned above are essential in

the diet of humans. Many are co-factors for

different enzymes and we are dependent on

them for energy efficiency, fertility, mental

stability and immunity. Although fruits and

vegetables generally supply a small propor-

tion of total mineral dietary requirements,

the reductions could be important to some

groups so the causes of the reductions need

investigating. It is not clear what is causing

the reductions. There are several possibilities

and these are outlined below.

Are the reductions anomalies of

measurement or sampling?

The earlier analyses of some minerals may

have been inaccurate compared to modern

analytical methods. Elsie Widdowson, how-

ever, notes in the introduction to The Compo-

sition of Foods[3] that “those methods were no

less accurate than the modern automated

ones, but they took a much longer time”. If

this is true, we should be able to rely on the

consistency of the analytical methods. How-

ever, there has been much debate over this

question and no clear conclusion has been

reached.

The methods of sampling fruit and vegeta-

bles were designed to reﬂect the usual choice

of foods at the time of the research. There

could be differences in the methods of sam-

pling. It is not possible to compare the details

of the methods used because the original data

are no longer available. Also, the use of mixed

sources of data for the 1991 edition of The

Composition of Foods[3] is an unknown factor

and possible source of bias. It is not known

whether the ﬁrst edition of the Chemical

Composition of Foods[1] used similar methods

of data compilation.

Food system changes

In the past sixty years the food supply system

has changed considerably. For instance we

now eat more “out of season” and imported

foods grown on a wide variety of soils from

many different countries. Some of the fruits

and vegetables have always been imported

but many of those previously grown in the

UK are also now imported. Storage and ripen-

ing systems have changed. Greenhouse crops

are “brought on” more quickly now and often

grown in soil-less mixes. Could these prac-

tices have changed the composition of fruits

and vegetables?

The varieties of plants cultivated now has

also changed. Nowadays we practise sophisti-

cated plant breeding and have bred selec-

tively for qualities that will suit the demands

of, for example, high yield, post-harvest

handling qualities and cosmetic appeal. Also

we select varieties that will respond well to

the methods of agriculture currently

employed. Speciﬁc breeding to enhance nutri-

tional quality is rare.

Agricultural practices

During the early 1930s agricultural chemicals

were hardly used. Manure and compost were

the main fertilizers used. After the war prac-

tices changed and farmers became more

reliant on the use of fertilizers and other

agrochemicals as well as heavy farm machin-

ery.

Agriculture which relies on NPK fertilizers

and pesticides, that adds little organic matter

to the soil and that alternates between soil

compaction and ploughing, could produce

food depleted in minerals. These practices

affect the structure, chemistry and ecology of

the soil in ways that could affect the availabil-

ity of minerals to plants and hence the min-

eral content of crops. For instance, mycor-

rhizal fungi have a symbiotic relationship

with plant roots in which sugars and miner-

als are exchanged. The fungi are reduced by

high levels of available phosphate and nitro-

gen, low pH, waterlogging or excessive

dryness[5].

Another factor could be the differing levels

of contamination of crops with residues of

pesticides containing high concentrations of

minerals – for example Bordeaux mixture

contains high levels of copper and was widely

used as a pesticide.

In principle, modern agriculture could be

reducing the mineral content of fruit and

vegetables. We need to ﬁnd out if this, or any

of the other explanations described above, are

signiﬁcant factors in practice. Considering

the magnitude of the reductions this matter

deserves urgent attention.

The following questions arise from the

ﬁndings:

• Are the data reliable?

• Is the apparent decline caused by dimin-

ished levels of minerals in the soil, poor

availability, the choice of cultivars or other

changes in the food system?

• To what extent is the decline in minerals of

importance to human nutrition?

• Are other countries experiencing similar

changes?

• Are there similar reductions in other

crops – such as cereals?

[ 211]

Anne-Marie Mayer

Historical changes in the

mineral content of fruits and

vegetables

British Food Journal

99/6 [1997] 207–211

• Are other minerals of equal importance to

human nutrition, such as Se and Cr, also

reduced?

• Are other nutrients – for example, vita-

mins – also reduced?

• Are some cultivars producing crops that

are lower in minerals than others?

• Does soil contamination – past or present –

affect the mineral content of crops?

To answer these questions existing literature

needs to be reviewed and further research

carried out along the suggested lines;

• an analysis of the effect of the latest Com-

position of Foods data on usual diets;

• compilation of a database of historical data

from different countries, different time

scales and different crops;

• detailed and controlled studies of soils and

the effects of methods of agriculture on

plant nutrition and crop mineral content;

• studies of the mineral content of fruit and

vegetables grown using different cultivars

in common use now and 60 years ago;

• regular monitoring of food composition

with details on cultivars, methods of grow-

ing and soils.

References

1 McCance, R.A. and Widdowson, E.M., The

Chemical Composition of Foods, Medical

Research Council Special Report Series No.

235, HMSO, London, 1940.

2 McCance, R.A., Widdowson, E.M. and

Shackleton, L.R.B., The Nutritive Value of

Fruits, Vegetables and Nuts, Medical Research

Council Special Report Series No. 213, HMSO,

London, 1936.

3 Holland, B., Welch, A.A., Unwin, I.D., Buss,

D.H., Paul, A.A. and Southgate, D.A.T.,

McCance and Widdowson’s Composition of

Foods ﬁfth edition, Royal Society of Chemistry

and the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and

Food, HMSO, London, 1991.

4 McCance, R.A. and Widdowson, E.M., The

Composition of Foods third edition, Medical

Research Council Special Report series No.

213, HMSO, London, 1960.

5 Killham, K., Soil Ecology, Cambridge Univer-

sity Press, Cambridge, 1994.

6 Paul, A.A. and Southgate, D.A.T., McCance and

Widdowson’s Composition of Foods fourth

edition, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and

Food and Medical Research Council, HMSO,

London, 1978.

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Full-text available

Mar 2021

Magnesium plays an important role in many physiological functions. Habitually low intakes of magnesium and in general the deficiency of this micronutrient induce changes in biochemical pathways that can increase the risk of illness and, in particular, chronic degenerative diseases. The assessment of magnesium status is consequently of great importance, however, its evaluation is difficult. The measurement of serum magnesium concentration is the most commonly used and readily available method for assessing magnesium status, even if serum levels have no reliable correlation with total body magnesium levels or concentrations in specific tissues. Therefore, this review offers an overview of recent insights into magnesium from multiple perspectives. Starting from a biochemical point of view, it aims at highlighting the risk due to insufficient uptake (frequently due to the low content of magnesium in the modern western diet), at suggesting strategies to reach the recommended dietary reference values, and at focusing on the importance of detecting physiological or pathological levels of magnesium in various body districts, in order to counteract the social impact of diseases linked to magnesium deficiency.

Perennial forages influence mineral and protein concentrations in annual wheat cropping systems

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2021
CROP SCI

Agricultural land management may influence crop nutritional quality. However, few studies have explored potential connections between crop quality with different land management strategies. We analyzed mineral and crude protein concentrations in spring wheat grain (Triticum aestivum L.) samples from a study in Mandan, North Dakota conducted from 2006–2014. The study introduced a perennial forage phase into an annual spring wheat cropping system, in 3–4 replicates, and previously found yield benefits and enhanced soil parameters in the perennial forage treatments. We determined whether integrating a perennial forage phase into continuous wheat would also impact crop nutritional quality by measuring wheat grain mineral and protein concentrations. Crude protein concentration was greater (p < 0.05) when wheat followed alfalfa and increased linearly after 2–5 years of established alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). We observed comparable wheat grain crude protein and mineral concentrations between continuous annually fertilized wheat and unfertilized wheat following perennial forages. Negative correlations (p < 0.001) were observed between wheat grain yield and crude protein, K, Mg, Ni, P, S, and Zn concentrations. Discriminate multivariate analyses showed, with 96% predictive accuracy, that differences in crude protein and mineral concentration were largely driven by year of wheat harvest. Differences between harvest years were likely due to timely precipitation at critical growth stage 3, during spikelet development. Study outcomes highlighted the important role of perennial forages and environmental factors to influence protein and mineral concentration in spring wheat grain. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Genomics Armed With Diversity Leads the Way in Brassica Improvement in a Changing Global Environment

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2021

Meeting the needs of a growing world population in the face of imminent climate change is a challenge; breeding of vegetable and oilseed Brassica crops is part of the race in meeting these demands. Available genetic diversity constituting the foundation of breeding is essential in plant improvement. Elite varieties, land races, and crop wild species are important resources of useful variation and are available from existing genepools or genebanks. Conservation of diversity in genepools, genebanks, and even the wild is crucial in preventing the loss of variation for future breeding efforts. In addition, the identification of suitable parental lines and alleles is critical in ensuring the development of resilient Brassica crops. During the past two decades, an increasing number of high-quality nuclear and organellar Brassica genomes have been assembled. Whole-genome re-sequencing and the development of pan-genomes are overcoming the limitations of the single reference genome and provide the basis for further exploration. Genomic and complementary omic tools such as microarrays, transcriptomics, epigenetics, and reverse genetics facilitate the study of crop evolution, breeding histories, and the discovery of loci associated with highly sought-after agronomic traits. Furthermore, in genomic selection, predicted breeding values based on phenotype and genome-wide marker scores allow the preselection of promising genotypes, enhancing genetic gains and substantially quickening the breeding cycle. It is clear that genomics, armed with diversity, is set to lead the way in Brassica improvement; however, a multidisciplinary plant breeding approach that includes phenotype = genotype × environment × management interaction will ultimately ensure the selection of resilient Brassica varieties ready for climate change.

Rise in Potassium Deficiency in the US Population Linked to Agriculture Practices and Dietary Potassium Deficits

Article

Sep 2020
J Agr Food Chem

This paper, for the 1st time, provides evidence that current practices that lead to agricultural crop removal of potassium is unsustainable and likely contributed to the decline in dietary potassium intake and rise in hypokalemia prevalence in the US population. Potassium concentrations in beef, pork, turkey, fruit, vegetables, cereal crops, etc. decreased between 1999 and 2015 based on the examination of potassium values of food items of USDA standard reference. Ratios of potassium input to removal by crops between 1987 and 2014, potassium in topsoil and crop available soil potassium in US farms all declined in recent years. Reported reductions in dietary potassium intake correspond to these decreases in the food supply and to increases in hypokalemia prevalence in US population. Results of this paper suggest new understanding on links between potassium management in agricultural practices and potassium intake deficits are needed for combating increasing hypokalemia prevalence in US population.

Dynamics of mineral nutrients in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruits during ripening: part I—on the plant

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2020

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruits of 9 popular varieties in India were analyzed for changes in the levels of different nutrients (P, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, B, Cu and Mn) at 5 different ripening stages. For this, tomato fruits at different ripening stages (immature, green mature, turning, light red and red ripe) were harvested directly from the plant. Nutrients were estimated in the outer pericarp (devoid of internal pericarp, locular tissue and seeds) of the tomato fruits. Transition of tomato fruits from immature stage to green mature stage showed net decrease in the contents of Zn, Ca and Mn while, all other nutrients maintained their levels. Indicating that tomato fruits at green mature stage can have sub-optimum levels of Zn, Ca and Mn. This finding is of academic and practical relevance as tomato fruits are generally harvested at green mature stage for their postharvest storage, transportation and marketing purposes. Further, comparison of different nutrients at green mature stage in different varieties showed varietal variability with respect to K, Fe, Cu, Mg, Ca, and Mn. Implications of this varietal variability are highlighted on postharvest physiology and ripening-related changes in tomato fruits. The trend by different varieties during the course of ripening and also across the varieties (particularly when red ripe stage was compared with green mature stage) showed net increase for P, K and Fe, net decrease for Mg, Ca and Mn and no significant change for Zn, B and Cu. Besides the difference in the mobility of different nutrients in phloem, obtained results are being discussed in view of 1) continuous availability of nutrients to the fruits by the plant, 2) Internal mobilization of nutrients (within the fruit) and 3) Remobilization and backflow of nutrients (away from the fruit to the stronger sinks).

Eco-friendly and enhanced colorimetric detection of aluminum ions using pectin-rich apple extract-based gold nanoparticles

Article

Aug 2020
SPECTROCHIM ACTA A

Aluminum ions are very toxic to human health, especially in relation to neurodegenerative diseases. However, conventional methods of detecting such toxic ions suffer from the use of poisonous chemical probes and complex processes. Herein, we report an eco-friendly and enhanced colorimetric method of aluminum ion detection using green-synthesized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) from apple (Malus domestica) extract. The apple extract-based AuNPs (AX-AuNPs) contain abundant pectin different from citrate-based AuNPs. The pectin-rich AX-AuNPs improved the sensitivity of the colorimetric detection of aluminum ions. The detection limit was about 20 μM both in artificial and drinking water-based real samples. Interestingly, it is turned out that the AX-AuNPs were aggregated naturally after the chemical assay because of solution getting decayed. For the environmental perspective, it was great that the lump of AX-AuNP aggregates could easily be removed from the solutions before solution discard. Overall, our results indicate that AX-AuNPs offer a high-selectivity, enhanced colorimetric detection of aluminum ions in a short time (less than 1 min), based on an eco-friend synthesis and disposal manner of AuNPs.

Global Diversity of Dietary Intakes and Standards for Zinc, Iron, and Copper

Article

May 2020
J TRACE ELEM MED BIO

Background The essentiality of trace elements in human diets is well recognized and adequate levels are a critical component of optimal health. To date, public health efforts have focused primarily on macronutrients or trace minerals that are easily analyzed. The goal of this research is to provide assessment of the dietary standards developed for Zn, Fe, and Cu in 100+ developed, marginal, and developing countries. We summarize the current recommendations and changes from the last decade, categorize and provide scientific basis for values established, factors that affect requirements, and current global challenges. Methods The electronic databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane Library were searched using the keywords “trace minerals,” “micronutrients, ““zinc,” “iron,” “copper,” “dietary standards” and “recommendations.” A total of 123 studies published from 1965 to 2019 were included. Results The World Health Organization (WHO) has established dietary standards to address nutrient deficiencies, prevent infections and ensure basic metabolic functions; these are utilized by most developing countries. Developed countries or their alliances have established values similar to or higher than the WHO, primarily for promotion of optimal health and well-being. Transitional countries are more concerned with issues of bioavailability, food security and undernutrition. Globally, Zn and Cu recommendations are lower in women than in men; Fe requirements are higher to compensate for menstrual losses. Important considerations in establishing guidelines for these minerals include bioaccessibility, dietary practices and restrictions, food processing, interactions, and chemical forms. The global challenges of the triple burden of malnutrition, hidden hunger, increased consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity have been associated with Zn, Fe, and Cu deficiencies. Conclusion This research provides public policy and health professionals evidenced-based information useful for the establishment of dietary standards world-wide.

The Skin, Selected Dermatologic Conditions, and Medical Nutrition Therapy

Chapter

Mar 2020

P. Michael Stone

The skin is the interfacing barrier to the external environment. Its integrity is required for protection and health. The cells are continuously being replaced in response to both intrinsic and extrinsic forces. Diet and lifestyle affect the skin health. Genetic makeup, including microRNA, also impacts the degree of skin disease. The incorporation of adequate protein, essential fatty acids, low-glycemic carbohydrates, fermented foods, water, minerals, vitamins, and phytonutrient-rich vegetables modulate the endocrine and immunologic systems of the skin, providing the best opportunity for health. Nutritional requirements for this organ system vary widely depending on its state of health or condition. Common skin ailments are impacted by medical nutrition therapies that can alter the severity of the condition. The application of food and dietary choices, the modified elimination diet, and nutrient or bioactive supplementation may impact the root causes of the skin condition. Dermatologic conditions are common in clinical practice. Common conditions may be a result of underlying metabolic dysfunction (acanthosis nigricans); immunologic epigenetic perturbations (psoriasis and pemphigus); the gut-brain-skin axis dysfunction (acne vulgaris and acne rosacea); genetic or acquired deficiency (zinc and acrodermatitis enteropathica, follicular hyperkeratosis); food-triggered hypersensitivity (dermatitis herpetiformis); a multifactorial imbalance of genetic, environmental, innate, and acquired immune dysfunction (atopic dermatitis); and frank deficiency (pellagra, scurvy). These conditions may respond to targeted medical nutrition therapy. The therapeutic opportunities for each common condition are reviewed.