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The transformational leadership questionnaire (TLQ-LGV): A convergent and discriminant validation study

Leadership & Organization Development Journal

September 2000
21(6):280-296

DOI:10.1108/01437730010343077

Authors:

Beverly alimo-metcalfe

Real World Group

This paper sets out to provide evidence of the convergent and discriminant validity of a recently developed leadership questionnaire, the Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (Local Government Version) (TLQ-LGV). Evidence is presented, from a random, stratified sample of 1,464 male and female managers, working in local government, that each of the scales was significantly correlated with each of five criterion variables, even when the sample was divided by level, sex, and level x sex. Multiple regression analyses suggested differential patterns of relationships between the scales and the criterion variables among different groups and sub-groups of managers, divided by level, sex, and level x sex. These latter data were interpreted as evidence of the discriminant validity of the instrument.

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An Analysis of the Convergent

and Discriminant Validity of the

Transformational Leadership

Questionnaire

Robert J. Alban-Metcalfe and Beverly Alimo-Metcalfe*

This article sets out to provide evidence of the convergent and discriminant validity of a

recently developed leadership questionnaire to support the assessment and development of

leadership in organizations, the Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ). The TLQ

was developed on the basis of eliciting constructs of leadership from managers working at

different levels (executive, top, senior, middle) in two large parts of the UK public sector,

using a Grounded Theory approach.

Evidence is presented that eight scales which measure different aspects of transformational

leadership are significantly correlated with each of five criterion variables, even when the

instrument is used in a public sector different from the one in which it was developed.

Discriminant analysis indicated, however, that the relationship between the scales and the

criterion variables is not consistent for the different groups and sub-groups of managers,

divided by level, by sex, and by level x sex. These latter data were interpreted, in the light of

the `range of convenience' corollary of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory, and of the concept

of `substitutes for leadership', as evidence that certain TLQ scales have particular relevance to

certain groups and sub-groups of managers, and thus of the discriminant validity of the

instrument, and further evidence of its construct validity.

Introduction

What has been described by (Bryman 1992) as a

`New Leadership Approach' emerged with

concepts such as `visionary' (Sashkin 1988), and

`charismatic' leadership (House 1977; Conger

and Kanungo 1988), and the development of

`transformational' models of leadership (Bass

1985; Tichy and Devanna 1986) (see Bryman

1996; Hunt 1996, for reviews).

The credit for making one of the first

distinctions between models of transactional

and transformational leadership goes to Burns

(1978), who described as `transactional', those

politicians who traded promises for votes, and

those who were concerned with achieving the

greater good of society, as `transformational'.

Bass later applied these models to organiz-

ational leaders (e.g., Bass 1998a). He suggested

that, by engaging the followers' higher needs,

transformational leaders move followers beyond

their self-interest to work for the greater good,

and, that as they do so, they become self-

actualizing, and become leaders themselves (Hunt

1996). In contrast, a transactional approach to

leadership `occurs when the leader rewards or dis-

ciplines the followers depending on the adequacy

of the followers' performance. Transactional lead-

ership depends on contingent reinforcement, either

positive contingent reward or the more negative

active or passive forms of management-by-

exception' (Bass 1998a, p. 6). Kotter (1990) refers

to transactional leadership as `management' and,

as with other leadership writers, states that both

transformational and transactional leadership are

essential for organizations' effectiveness.

Bass also reviewed evidence that suggests

that:

generally transformational leadership is more

effective and satisfying than transactional

leadership alone although every leader does

some of each. Context and contingencies are

of some importance as a source of variance,

but the fundamental phenomena transcend

organizations and countries. (1998a, p. 1)

In order to measure these two types of leader-

ship, Bass and Avolio developed the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (e.g., Bass and

Avolio 1990a, 1990b). This instrument assesses

the `full range' of leadership styles and

behaviours, through three transformational

* Address for correspondence:

Beverly Alimo-Metcalfe, Nuffield

Institute Centre for Leadership

and Management, University

of Leeds, 71±75 Clarendon

Road, Leeds LS2 9PL, UK.

ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and

350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000

158 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SELECTION AND ASSESSMENT

components (Inspirational/charismatic, Intellectual

stimulation, Individualized consideration); two

transactional components (Contingent Rewards,

Management by Exception (active or passive)); and

'laissez-faire' leadership. Figure 1 provides a brief

description of each of these components.

Independently conducted meta-analyses have

confirmed the significant correlation of MLQ

transformational components `with effectiveness,

satisfaction, and the extra effort perceived by the

followers' (Bass 1998a, pp. 9±10), in both the

public (including military) and private sectors, in

the direction predicted by the model. Indeed, the

MLQ can be regarded as assessing trans-

formational leadership, as articulated in what is

the dominant model of leadership in the USA.

The Need for a New Instrument to

Measure Transformational Leadership

While recognizing and valuing the ground-

breaking research of Bass and co-workers, the

present authors were concerned about (i) the

generalizability of US models of transformational

leadership to UK organizations, particularly

those in the public sector, and, thus, (ii) the

value of the MLQ and other US instruments in

assessing transformational leadership in these

organizations. Concern about generalizability

has also be expressed by other writers, including

some from North America (e.g., Adler 1991; Erez

1990; Hunt and Peterson 1997; Smith and Bond

1993; Smith and Peterson 1988; Smith, Peterson,

Misumi and Tayeb 1989; Triandis 1990, 1993).

Thus, there was concern for the cross-cultural

value of US models of transformational

leadership for UK organizations.

The Transformational Leadership Question-

naire (TLQ) (Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-

Metcalfe 2001), which is the subject of this

article, was developed in order to address this

issue.

Social Distance

It has been pointed out (Bryman 1996) that most

of the `new models' of leadership, such as those

of Bass and Avolio (1990a, 1990b), Conger

(1998); Tichy and Devanna (1986), have

emerged from studies of managers in top

positions, these being in contrast to the Ohio

State studies of the 1950s and 1960s, where the

focus was on the style of first line managers and

lower level managers.

For attributions of `charisma' (House 1977;

Conger and Kanungo 1988), which is a central

Figure 1: Dimensions of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (based on Bass, 1998b).

Source: Based on Bass (1998b).

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Inspirational/charismatic behaving in ways that result in being admired, respected and trusted, such

that their followers wish to emulate; behaving in such as to motivate and

to inspire those around, by providing meaning, optimism and enthusiasm

for a vision of a future state.

Individualized consideration actively developing the potential of their followers by creating new

opportunities for development; coaching, mentoring, and paying attention

to each follower's needs and desires.

Intellectual stimulation encouraging followers to question assumptions, to reframe problems, to

approach old solutions in new ways, and to be creative and innovative

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

Contingent reward approved follower actions are rewarded; disapproved actions are punished

or sanctioned.

Management by exception Involves corrective transactional dimensions; active ± involves a monitor-

(active or passive) ing of performance, and intervention when judged appropriate; passive

involves correction only when problems emerge;

LAISSEZ-FAIRE

a style of leadership that is, in fact, an abrogation of leadership, since there is an absence of any

transaction.

CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF TLQ 159

ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000 Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000

construct of new leadership models, it has been

asserted that social distance is an essential

condition (e.g., Etzioni 1961; Hollander 1978).

Katz and Kahn maintain that, as leaders are

constantly being evaluated by their staff, social

proximity will reveal them to be, `very human

and very fallible and [thus] their subordinates

cannot build an aura of magic about them. Day

to day intimacy destroys illusions' (1978, p. 546).

This view is in contrast to the position taken

by other writers (e.g., Bass 1998a and 1998b;

Conger and Kanungo 1987; Willner 1984; Yagil

1998), who view leadership as a function of the

relationship between a manager/leader and her/

his followers. Bass, for example, has stated that

since charisma is a product of interpersonal

relationships, and can be attributed by an

individual to their immediate supervisor/

manager; it is not the monopoly of top leaders

in an organization (Bass 1998a and 1998b).

The distinction as to which `leaders' in an

organization are the subject of leadership

research is a crucial one, particularly in the light

of Shamir's (1995) findings of the different

characteristics attributed to `distant' versus

`nearby' leaders. Distant leaders were charac-

terized as displaying an ideological mission,

communicated through their rhetorical skills, and

as being courageous in their persistence and

determination. Close or nearby leaders were

more frequently admired for their consideration,

openness, sociability, humour and dynamic

presence (Shamir 1995).

Given that the intention in designing a UK

instrument to measure transformational leader-

ship was to produce an instrument that would be

of practical value to managers at different levels,

this study by Shamir, and a later one by Yagil

(1998), were of particular relevance. What we

intended was to investigate what appeared to

distinguish those individuals who had an

extraordinary positive effect on the motivation,

morale and performance of the staff with whom

they worked closely. In order to do so, we set

out to develop a questionnaire based on

constructs of leadership of immediate line

managers (Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe

2001). In so doing, we adopted a Grounded

Theory approach.

Grounded Theory Approach

In arguing for the use of Grounded Theory as an

initial approach to the phenomenon of leader-

ship, Parry (1998) described it as `a research

method in which theory emerges from, and is

grounded in, the data. A grounded theory is

inductively derived from the study of the

phenomenon it represents, such as the leadership

process, the nature of which is the subject of the

derived theory. The grounded theory' (p. 89). He

also argued for complementarity, rather than

competition between qualitative and quantitative

methods, in the interest of `triangulation'.

Gender Differences

In spite of more than sixty years of leadership

research, no serious attempt appears to have

been made, in any of the mainstream research

into the nature of leadership, to ensure that

samples of subjects from whom notions of

leadership were elicited in order to develop a

model, included a significant proportion, if not

equal numbers, of females to males. Since the

early 1990s, however, a number of studies have

found gender differences with respect to aspects

of leadership style preference. These include the

following:

●women are more likely to construe leadership

in transformational terms, men in trans-

actional (e.g., Alimo-Metcalfe 1995; Sparrow

and Rigg 1993);

●woman are more likely than men to describe

the style of leadership they adopt as being

transformational, with men more likely to

describe their leadership in transactional terms

(Rosener 1990);

●women are significantly more likely to be

described by their direct reports as adopting a

transformational style (irrespective of the sex

of their report), with men more likely to be

described as adopting a laissez-faire, or

management-by-exception style (e.g., Bass

1985, 1998a, 1998b; Bass and Avolio 1994;

Bass, Avolio and Atwater 1996; Druskat

1994; Komives 1991).

This imbalance was redressed in the

development of the Transformational Leadership

Questionnaire (TLQ) by including a substantial

proportion of both women and men in the

sample from whom constructs of leadership were

drawn (approximately 50% of each sex), and in

the population among whom the resulting

questionnaire was piloted (n= 394 female;

n= 1061 male) (Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-

Metcalfe 2001).

Cross-Cultural Studies of Leadership

Recent attention has focused on the extent to

which notions of leadership (both trans-

formational and transactional) generalize from

one culture to another. Here, both `emic' or

idiographic, and `etic' or nomothetic approaches

(Berry 1969; Den Hartog et al. 1999; Pike 1967)

have provided evidence of leadership behaviours

that are cross-cultural, and those that are

culturally specific.

Thus, Dorfman et al. (1997) examined the

generalizability of six leadership behaviours and

160 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SELECTION AND ASSESSMENT

Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000 ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000

processes across five Pacific Rim countries. They

found evidence of `cultural universality' for two

transformational behaviours (`supportive' and

`charismatic') and one transactional behaviour

(`contingent reward'). However, a further

transformational behaviour (`participative') and

two transactional behaviours (`directive' and

`contingent punishment') were found to be

culture-specific.

Rao, Hashimoto and Rao (1997) studied the

leadership behaviour of Japanese managers, as

measured by the Profile of Organization

Influence ± POIS/M. What they found was that,

whereas three of the seven strategies identified

by POIS/M ± `assertiveness', `sanctions' and

`appeals to higher authority' ± are used by

Japanese managers, the behaviours that

constitute the other strategies were interpreted

differently. Moreover, the Japanese used some

culturally specific tactics and strategies.

An extensive, international investigation of

the generalizability of concepts of leadership

among a total of 62 cultures (Den Hartog, et al.

1999; House et al. 1999) led to the identification

of 21 lower order and 6 higher order concepts.

Using a combination of emic and etic

approaches, evidence was presented to support

their hypothesis of the generalizability of specific

aspects of charismatic/transformational leader-

ship.

Transformational Leadership

Questionnaire (Local Government

Version)

In developing the Transformational Leadership

Questionnaire (Local Government Version),

Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe (2001)

sought to address the issues and concerns ex-

pressed here. In particular, the subjects involved

in the research were from representative samples

of managers at different levels (middle, senior,

and top) working in one of two major public

sector organizations (National Health Service

and local government), with a proportionate

representation of 48 females and 44 males. They

used the Repertory Grid technique (Kelly 1955)

to elicit constructs relating to leadership, based

on first-hand experience of working with a range

of managers, some of whom had a particularly

powerful effect on their motivation, self-

confidence, self-efficacy, or performance. The

constructs that emerged formed the basis for the

development of a Pilot Instrument, the

Leadership Questionnaire-LG Version

, which

was distributed to a random, stratified sample of

organizations in the UK public sector (NHS and

local government), who were asked to distribute

questionnaires to a suggested distribution of top,

senior and middle level managers, who were

asked to rate their current or a previous

immediate line manager (see Alimo-Metcalfe

and Alban-Metcalfe 2000, for fuller details). The

responses from local government (n= 1464) to

the Pilot Instrument were factor analysed.

(Responses for the NHS will be analysed at a

later date, and will form the subject of a separate

paper.)

This led to the identification of nine factors,

each with a Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient

in the range of = .85ÿ.97. Furthermore,

within each of the factors, the inter-item coef-

ficients all exceeded the r= .30 recommended

by Kline (1986), thus suggesting uni-dimen-

sionality (Cortina 1993).

The TLQ (LG Version) comprises the

following nine scales (see Appendix Table A1):

●Scale 1 ± Genuine concern for others (17 items)

●Scale 2 ± Political sensitivity and skills (6

items) This scale comprises items uniquely

relevant to local government.

●Scale 3 ± Decisiveness, determination, self-

confidence (8 items)

●Scale 4 ± Integrity, trustworthy, honest and

open (9 items)

●Scale 5 ± Empowers, develops potential (8

items)

●Scale 6 ± Inspirational networker and promoter

(10 items)

●Scale 7 ± Accessible, approachable (6 items)

●Scale 8 ± Clarifies boundaries, involves others

in decisions (5 items)

●Scale 9 ± Encourages critical and strategic

thinking (7 items).

Five dependent variables were included in the

Leadership Questionnaire-LG Version

, in order

to examine its validity. Four of these were taken

directly from the MLQ, and a further single item,

relating to stress, was added.

Product-moment correlations between nine

factor scores were in the range r=ÿ.52 to .54,

which suggests that each was measuring a

different aspect of transformational leadership.

A `second-order' principal components analysis

of the nine factors, with rotation to an oblimin

criterion, resulted in the emergence of two

factors, that were provisionally labelled,

`external-orientation' and `internal-orientation'.

Except in the case of Factor 2 ± Political

sensitivity and skills, the items that constitute the

scales were derived from the Repertory Grid

interviews with practising managers in local

government or the National Health Service

(NHS), and were supplemented by constructs

from the local government Steering Group for

the research project; in other words, they were

based on Grounded Theory. In order to enhance

the content validity of the Pilot Instrument (as

reflected in the inclusion of a broad range of

CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF TLQ 161

ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000 Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000

leadership constructs), a small number of

additional constructs were identified from the

leadership literature and from existing `robust'

leadership instruments. The rationale for this was

that it might be the case that `Leadership

Thinking' in local government and the NHS

may be limited to current experience and,

consequently, to maintaining the status quo,

thereby excluding elements of `futures thinking'.

Convergent Validity of the TLQ: Local Government

Data

The convergent validity of the TLQ (LG

Version) both for managers at different levels

in their local government organization, and for

male and female managers, is reported by Alimo-

Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe (2001), among

local government employees. For managers as

a whole, statistically significant product-moment

correlations were detected between each of the

nine scales and each of the five criterion

variables; these ranged from r= .42 to .85

(p<.01, in each case). When Ss were divided by

level, the coefficients ranged from r= .40 to .87;

and when divided by sex, from r= .30 to .85

among females, and from r= .47 to .85 among

males (p<.01, in each case). In view of the

possibility of `method variance' effects, caused

by collecting all the data through a single

instrument (e.g., Spector and Brannick 1995), and

`halo' effects, consequent on the use of self-

report data, these results were interpreted as

being consonant with the validity of the TLQ,

rather than as definitive.

Present Study

Significant positive correlations were detected

between each of the nine scales that comprise

the local government version of the TLQ and

the five criterion variables, among local

government managers (Alimo-Metcalfe and

Alban-Metcalfe 2001). Furthermore, preliminary

analyses, using multiple regression, suggested

that different patterns of relationships existed

between eight of the scales and the same

criterion variables, among managers in the

National Health Service (NHS).

The present investigation sets out, therefore,

to examine the convergent and discriminant

validity of the scales derived from the TLQ,

among managers working in the NHS. In the

present study, TLQ Scale 2 ± Political sensitivity

and skills was omitted, since it comprises items

that are unique to local government.

Accordingly, the following two hypotheses

were proposed:

Hypothesis 1: that Scale 1 and Scales 3±9 of the

TLQ are significantly correlated with each of

five criterion variables (concerned with

achievement, job satisfaction, motivation,

satisfaction with leadership style, reduced

stress) among managers working in the NHS.

Hypothesis 2: that differential patterns of

relationships exist between Scales 1 and Scales

3±9 and the criterion variables, among

managers working in the NHS.

Method

In order to determine the convergent and

discriminant validity of the TLQ in a different

organizational setting, the same five criterion

variables were used as in Alimo-Metcalfe and

Alban-Metcalfe (2001). The criteria were direct

reports' perceptions of their managers in relation

to Achievement (`Enables me to achieve more

than I expected'), Motivation (`Increases my

motivation to achieve'), Job satisfaction (`Behaves

in ways which increase my job satisfaction'),

Satisfaction with leadership style (`Leads in a way

that I find satisfying'), and Stress (`Leads in a way

which reduces my job-related stress'), respect-

ively. The TLQ was responded to by n= 1098

managers and doctors in a range of NHS Trusts,

of whom 467 were male, 627 female (Table 1).

So as to determine the relevance to NHS staff

of the items that comprise the TLQ, internal

reliability coefficients and inter-item product-

moment correlation coefficients were determined

for the present sample, with a view to modifying

the content of the instrument, as appropriate

(Table 2). Relationships between the revised

scales and each of the criterion variables were

analysed, first for the sample as a whole, and

then for the managers, sorted: (i) by level of rater

Table 1: Composition of sample, by level and sex

Note: 4 Ss did not state their sex.

Level/sex Male Female

Level 1:

Board/Chief Executive 117 78

(10.7%) (7.1%)

Level 2:

Directorate/Director 76 102

(6.9%) (9.3%)

Level 3:

Senior/Assistant Director 202 264

(12.5%) (16.5%)

Level 4:

Middle/Section-Unit Head 72 183

(6.6%) (16.7%)

162 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SELECTION AND ASSESSMENT

Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000 ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000

(Level 1 (chief executive) and Level 2 (top)

(combined), and Level 3 (senior) and Level 4

(middle) (combined)); (ii) by sex; and (iii) by level

x sex. The decision to combine Level 1 and Level

2, and Level 3 and Level 4, was in order to

ensure that there were at least 100 Ss in each

sub-group for the level x sex analyses.

Results

Internal Reliability of the Scales

Calculation of the internal reliability of the TLQ

scales in the NHS sample yielded coefficients in

the range = .75 to .94. However, in the case

of six of the eight scales, the inter-item corre-

lation coefficients between one or more item was

less than r= .30. This, as Cortina (1993) pointed

out, may indicate that, in spite of having a high

internal reliability coefficient, the scale may

be measuring more than one dimension.

Accordingly, any item with an inter-item

coefficients below the r= .30 cut-off point

recommended by Kline (1986) was eliminated,

and the alpha coefficient was re-calculated.

In total, eight out of an initial 71 items were

removed, and the resulting coefficients ranged

from = .77 to .95; revised scales were

produced (Table 2).

Correlation Coefficients

Product-moment correlation coefficients were

calculated between each of the revised TLQ

scales and each of the criterion variables; (a) for

the sample as a whole; (b) for the sample divided

by level in the organization; (c) for the sample

divided by sex; and (d) for the sample divided by

level x sex.

For the sample as a whole, the correlation

coefficients ranged from r= .44 (Inspirational

networker Stress (reduced) to .82 (Genuine

concern for others Job satisfaction)(p<.01, in

each case) (Table 3).

The scales themselves were also significantly

highly inter-correlated, range r= .50

(Empowering Inspirational networker) to .79

(Genuine concern for others xEncourages critical and

strategic thinking)(p<.001, in each case). High

inter-correlations were also found among the

criterion variables, where the rs ranged from .65

(Achievement xStress (reduced) to .86 (Job

satisfaction Satisfaction with leadership style)

(p<.01, in each case).

When the corresponding coefficients were

calculated for groups of managers grouped by

level, statistically significant coefficients were

also found (p<.001, in each case). Here, the

scale criterion variable coefficients ranged

from r= .48 to .83; there was no evidence of

statistically significant level-related differences in

the size of any of the coefficients.

For managers grouped by sex, there was no

evidence of any sex-related differences, with

coefficients in the range r= .37 to .82, for male

managers; and for female managers, r= .49 to

.83. Coefficients of the same order of magnitude

were found when the sample was divided by

level sex (range r= .34 to .87).

In all cases, the scale criterion variable

coefficients were highly significant, and the

scales and the criterion variables were them-

selves highly inter-correlated (p<.01, in each

case).

Discriminant Analysis

Discriminant analyses of the scores on the

revised scales (Table 2) were conducted on the

data, with each of the criterion variables in turn

(a) for the sample as a whole; (b) for the sample

divided by level; (c) for the sample divided by

sex; and (d) for the sample divided by level x

sex. In each case, the stepwise method was used

since the scales were known to be significantly

inter-correlated, and the `replace missing values

by means' option was selected (Table 4 (a), (b),

Table 2: Cronbach alpha coefficients for revised TLQ (LGV) scales 1 and 3±9

Note: The TLQ-LGV Scale 2 ± Political sensitivity and skills was not included.

Revised TLQ±LGV Scales Alpha Number of Number of

coefficient scale items items removed

1 ± Genuine concern for others .95 15 2

3 ± Decisiveness, determination, self-confidence .84 7 3

4 ± Integrity, trustworthy, honest and open .88 9 0

5 ± Empowers, develops potential .91 7 2

6 ± Inspirational networker and promoter .84 8 2

7 ± Accessibility, approachability .78 5 1

8 ± Clarifies boundaries .77 5 0

9 ± Encourages critical and strategic thinking .85 7 0

CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF TLQ 163

ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000 Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000

Whole Sample. For the sample as a whole

(Table 4 (a)), Scale 1 ± Genuine concern for others

was the single greatest predictor of scores on

each of the criterion variables, while Scale 3 ±

Decisiveness. Determination, self-confidence and

Scale 5 ± Empowers, delegates, develop potential

were significant predictors of four of the five

variables.

Also, there were significant relationships

between Scale 4 ± Integrity, trustworthiness, honest

and open,Scale 7 ±Accessibility, approachability

and Scale 9 ± Encourages critical and strategic

thinking and three criterion variables. Scale 6 ±

Inspirational networker and promoter was a

significant predictor of only of Motivation, while

Scale 8 ± Clarifies boundaries was not significantly

linked to any of the criteria.

Sample Divided by Level. When the sample was

analysed by level (Table 4 (b)), for Genuine

concern, for Integrity, for Inspirational networker,

and for Encourages critical and strategic thinking,an

identical pattern emerged as for the sample as a

whole. In other cases, level-related differences

were apparent. For Empowers, the pattern was

identical only in relation to Achievement,

Motivation and Satisfaction with leadership style;

for Decisiveness, only in relation to Motivation

and Satisfaction with leadership style. None of the

three significant whole sample relationships

involving Accessibility persisted when the sample

was analysed by level, while three significant

relationships emerged in the case of Clarifies

boundaries. In the case of Stress (reduced), they

were not level-related.

The only significant level-related difference

was that only among Level 1 and 2 (combined)

managers was Clarifies boundaries linked to

Satisfaction with leadership style.

Sample Divided by Sex. When the data were

analysed by sex (Table 4(c)), a pattern similar to

that for the whole sample emerged for Genuine

concern, and to a certain extent for Integrity and

for Encourages critical and strategic thinking. In the

case of Integrity, there were, however, sex-related

differences in the two achievement-related

criteria, Motivation and Achievement. For Decis-

iveness, relationships with the two achievement-

related criteria were significant only among the

male managers, and reduced Stress, only among

the females; there were no sex-related differences

in relation to Satisfaction with leadership style.

Correspondingly, Empowers was significantly

linked to Achievement and to the two

satisfaction-related criteria, Job satisfaction and

Satisfaction with leadership style only among the

female managers, while there were no sex-

related differences for Motivation.

Single, sex-related relationships were detected

between Inspirational networker and Motivation,

and Accessibility and Motivation, among female

managers; and between Encourages critical and

strategic thinking and Job satisfaction, among

males.

Sample Divided by Level Sex. When the

sample was divided by level sex, an almost

identical pattern emerged for Genuine concern,as

when divided by level and by sex, except in the

case of Level 1 and 2 (combined) female

managers, for whom this scale was not a

significant predictor of reduced Stress; for them,

the greatest predictor was Integrity.

Table 3: Product-moment correlation coefficients between scales 1 and 3±9 and criterion variables, for whole

sample

Note: (p<.01, in each case).

Factor/criterion variable Achievement Job Motivation Satisfying Stress

satisfaction leadership (negative)

style

1 ± Genuine concern for others .75 .82 .80 .81 .70

3 ± Decisiveness, determination, .53 .56 .57 .63 .51

self-confidence

4 ± Integrity, trustworthiness, .56 .67 .63 .72 .62

honesty and openness

5 ± Empowers, delegates, .67 .71 .70 .72 .58

develops potential

6 ± Inspirational networker and .50 .51 .53 .56 .44

promoter

7 ± Accessibility, approachability .57 .66 .62 .69 .58

8 ± Clarifies boundaries, involves .60 .68 .64 .71 .59

others

9 ± Encourages critical and strategic .68 .72 .71 .73 .60

thinking

164 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SELECTION AND ASSESSMENT

Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000 ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000

Also, among male managers at these levels,

Genuine concern was only the second strongest

predictor of reduced Stress. There was no con-

sistency between the four sub-groups in any other

of the scale x criterion variable relationships.

Consistent level-related relationships persisted

between Decisiveness and Motivation, between

Integrity and Stress (reduced) and Satisfaction with

leadership style, and between Empowers and

Achievement, among Level 1 and 2 (combined)

managers of both sexes; and between Empowers

and Motivation, among both male and female

managers at Level 3 and 4 (combined). There

were also consistent sex-related relationships

between Empowers and Achievement, and between

Clarifies boundaries and reduced Stress, among

female managers at all levels; and among male

managers at all levels, between both Integrity and

Empowers, and Motivation.

Discussion

Among the NHS managers, a total of 63 of the

71 items that emerged from analysis of data

derived from managers working in local govern-

ment, emerged as contributing coherently to the

same scales (alpha coefficients all in excess of

Table 4a: Discriminant analysis of scales 1 and 3±9, in relation to criterion variables: Wilk's lambda

coefficients, for whole sample

Note: For entry F,p<.05, in each case

Factor/criterion variable Stress Motivation Achievement Job Satisfying

(negative) satisfaction leadership

style

1 ± Genuine concern for others .53 .35 .38 .32 .32

3 ± Decisiveness, determination, .42 .27 .33 ± .27

self-confidence

4 ± Integrity, trustworthiness, .44 ± ± .26 .28

honesty and openness

5 ± Empowers, delegates, ± .27 .34 .26 .27

develops potential

6 ± Inspirational networker and ± .27 ± ± ±

promoter

7 ± Accessibility, approachability ± ± .33 .25 .27

8 ± Clarifies boundaries, involves ± ± ± ± ±

others

9 ± Encourages critical and ± .27 .34 .25 ±

strategic thinking

Table 4b: Discriminant analysis of scales 1 and 3±9, in relation to criterion variables: Wilks' lambda coefficients, for level 1 and level 2

managers (combined), and level 3 and level 4 managers (combined)

Note: For entry F,p<.05, in each case.

Factor/criterion variable Stress (negative) Motivation Achievement Job Satisfaction Satisfying

Leadership

1 and 2 3 and 4 1 and 2 3 and 4 1 and 2 3 and 4 1 and 2 3 and 4 1 and 2 3 and 4

1 ± Genuine concern for others .49 .53 .35 .36 .40 .41 .34 .40 .33 .35

3 ± Decisiveness, determination, ± ± .26 .28 ± ± ± ± .28 .28

self-confidence

4 ± Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty .43 .43 ± ± ± ± .26 .28 .28 .28

and openness

5 ± Empowers, delegates, develops ± ± .27 .28 .35 .36 .26 ± .27 .28

potential

6 ± Inspirational networker and promoter ± ± .26 .28 ± ± ± ± ±

7 ± Accessibility, approachability ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

8 ± Clarifies boundaries .40 .42 ± ± ± ± ± ± .27 ±

9 ± Encourages critical and strategic ± ± .27 .28 .34 .35 .26 .28 . ±

Thinking

CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF TLQ 165

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.70). That this should be the case suggests simi-

larity in constructs of transformational leadership

among managers in these two public sectors.

This should not be surprising, given that, in using

a Grounded Theory approach, care was taken to

ensure that the instruments reflected faithfully

constructs elicited from representative samples

comprising approximately equal numbers of local

government and NHS managers (Alimo-Metcalfe

and Alban-Metcalfe 2001).

That, in the cases of five of the eight TLQ

scales, a total of eight items should emerge as not

necessarily reflecting the same dimensions may

be attributable to inter-sector cultural differences

(e.g., Hunt 1996; Bass 1997). The evidence of

internal reliability and coherence of the scales

suggest the potential value of using them to

explore the convergent and discriminant validity

of the TLQ in organizations in a different public

sector, and in organizations in other sectors.

Table 4c: Discriminant analysis of scales 1 and 3±9, in relation to criterion variables: Wilks' lambda coefficients, for (M) male managers

and (F) female managers, at all levels

Note: For entry F,p<.05, in each case.

Factor/criterion variable Stress Motivation Achievement Job Satisfying

(negative) Satisfaction Leadership

MFMFMFMFMF

1 ± Genuine concern for others .63 .48 .32 .36 .45 .36 .36 .32 .43 .30

3 ± Decisiveness, determination, ± .37 .25 ± .36 ± ± ± .31 .24

self-confidence

4 ± Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty .49 .40 .25 ± ± .31 .25 .26 .32 .24

and openness

5 ± Empowers, delegates, develops ± ± .25 .28 ± .33 ± .27 ± .25

potential

6 ± Inspirational networker and promoter ± ± ± .27 ± ± ± ±

7 ± Accessibility, approachability ± ± ± ± ± ± ± .26 ± ±

8 ± Clarifies boundaries ± ± ± ±

9 ± Encourages critical and strategic ± ± .25 .28 .37 .31 .25 ± ± ±

Thinking

Table 4d: Discriminant analysis of scales 1 and 3±9, in relation to criterion variables: Wilks' lambda coefficients, for managers at level 1

and 2 (combined), males (M) and females (F), level 3 and 4 (combined), males (M) and females (F)

Notes: pdenotes only significant variable; for entry; F,p<.05, in each case.

Factor/criterion variable Stress Motivation Achievement Job Satisfying

(negative) Satisfaction Leadership

1 and 2 3 and 4 1 and 2 3 and 4 1 and 2 3 and 4 1 and 2 3 and 4 1 and 2 3 and 4

1 ± Genuine concern for others M .53 p.48 .40 .40 .47 .30 p.45 .49

F ± .56 .35 .45 .51 .44 .53 .41 .23 .36

3 ± Decisiveness, determination, M ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

self-confidence F ± ± ± ± .29 ± .24 ± ± .27

4 ± Integrity, trustworthiness, M .50 ± .32 ± ± ± .24 ± .36 .34

Honesty and openness F .48 .41 ± ± ± ± ± ± .21 ±

5 ± Empowers, delegates, M ± ± ± ± .37 ± ± ± ± ±

develops potential F ± ± ± .33 ± .38 .24 .50 ± .27

6 ± Networker, promoter, M ± ± ± ± ± - ± ± ± ±

communicator F ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

7 ± Accessibility, approachability M ± ± ± ± .31 ± ± ± ± ±

F.40±± ±± ±± ±±±

8 ± Clarifies boundaries M ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

F±±±±±±± ±± ±

9 ± Encourages critical and M ± ± ± .27 ± .37 ± ± ± ±

strategic thinking F ± ± .24 ± ± ± ± ± .20 ±

166 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SELECTION AND ASSESSMENT

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Convergent Validity

The consistent, statistically significant corre-

lations between each of the scales and each of

five, well-established criterion variables, provide

evidence of the convergent validity of the

instrument in this different `cultural' setting.

Furthermore, this conclusion can be seen to hold

true even when the results were analysed for

managers grouped by level and by sex. These

results are wholly consistent with those obtained

among managers in local government (Alimo-

Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe 2001). However,

as was cautioned there, because of the possibility

of `method variance' effect, owing to use of a

single instrument to collect both the TLQ and

criterion variable data (e.g., Spector and Brannick

1995) and of possible `halo' effects, they are best

interpreted as consonant with the validity of the

instrument, rather than as definitive. Formally,

therefore, there is support for Hypothesis 1.

Discriminant Validity

The psychological significance of discriminant

analyses reported here is (a) that they focus

attention on the way in which the different scales

are particularly relevant to different aspects of

satisfaction, stress and achievement-related outc-

omes, and thus, (b) that they provide evidence

that, in spite of themselves being significantly

inter-correlated, each of the scales measures a

distinct aspect of transformational leadership, and

thus, of the discriminant validity of the instru-

ment. In other words, within the context of being

valid (as evidenced by the correlational data),

each of the scales may have particular relevance

to certain aspects of how a manager may tend to

feel or act. This particular relevance may be

described as the scale's `focus of convenience'. In

Personal Contract Theory (Kelly 1955), this term

is defined as, `a set of events which its user finds

can be most conveniently ordered within its

context' (Bannister and Mair 1968, p. 19), in

contrast to the `range of convenience' which is `a

broader set of events which the construct can

deal with, if sometimes less effectively' (ibid.). In

the present context, the focus of convenience of a

particular scale refers to those aspects of job-

related behaviour or feelings to which that scale

is most relevant. In some cases, the focus of

convenience of a scale relates to an aspect of

behaviour or feelings among a group or sub-

group of managers. To suggest that a scale does

not have a particular focus of convenience does

not have implications for its range of con-

venience. The range of convenience of a scale is

the wider range of feelings and behaviours,

among a wider range of groups and sub-groups

of managers, for which the scale still has

relevance (as evidenced by the correlational data).

Thus, the correlational data suggest that each

of the five aspects of job-related behaviour or

feelings is within the range of convenience of

each of the nine scales. On the other hand,

stepwise discriminant analyses identify those

variables (scales) which, in combination, account

for statistically significant amounts of variance,

and thus identify the focus of convenience of

certain scales and combinations of scales.

There are underlying reasons for not expecting

either the product-moment or the discriminant

analysis data to be identical for the different

groups and sub-groups of managers. One, is there

is evidence of the influence of `substitutes for

leadership', that is, personal factors (e.g., high

need for independence, indifference to organiz-

ational rewards, or a professional orientation) and

contextual factors (e.g., work group autonomy, or

routine or programmed work), which can have a

modulating effect on leader behaviour (e.g., Bass

1990; Gronn 1999; Howell 1997; Howell,

Dorfmann and Kerr 1986; Jermier and Kerr

1997; Kerr and Jermier 1978; Podsakoff and

MacKenzie 1997). Recent research by Stordeur,

Vandenberghe and D'Hoore (1999) among nurses

in a Belgian hospital indicated a significant

moderating effect of such factors on the

relationship between MLQ scores and the four

criterion variables, including job satisfaction and

satisfaction with leadership style.

Another, is the observation of Misumi (1985),

in relation to cultural differences, that `Variation

[in perceptions of leadership] occurs because the

same concepts may contain thought processes,

beliefs, implicit understandings, or behaviors in

one culture but not in another', is likely to be

equally true of sub-cultural groups, particularly

in relation to close/nearby leaders.

Thus, when discriminant analyses were

conducted on the data, a differential pattern of

relationships between the scales and the criterion

variables emerged. For the sample as a whole, one

scale was an almost consistent significant pre-

dictor of each of the criterion variables, and this

scale (Genuine concern for others) demonstrated the

greatest single predictive power in each case.

However, different relationships were evident

among the remaining scales. In no case, did any

of the scales emerge as having an identical

pattern of relationship with the criterion vari-

ables. Among the other five scales, different and

differing patterns emerged. These findings pro-

vide further evidence to support the contention

(Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe 2001) that

each of the scales measures a different aspect of

transformational leadership, a conclusion which is

supported by the other analyses discussed here.

In considering how the criterion (dependent)

variables and the individual scales (independent

variables) are related, it is important to bear in

mind that, in discriminant analysis, the relation-

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ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000 Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000

ships do not reflect unique variance attributable

to the individual scales (as with multiple

regression analysis). Rather, such relationships

reflect the way in which a combination of

independent variables is linked to the criterion.

For this reason, although it is valuable to

consider the ways in which each of the scales

is, or is not, significantly linked to the five

criterion variables, what is more instructive is to

consider the ways in which combinations of

scales are significant predictors of the five

outcome criteria.

Scale 1 ± Genuine Concern for Others

For the sample as a whole, Genuine concern for

others emerged as the single most significant

predictor of five criterion variables. Thus,

Genuine concern emerged as the single greatest

predictor of enabling achievement more than

expected, and of increasing motivation to

achieve; of increasing satisfaction with the job;

and of leading in ways that are satisfying, and

reduced level of work-related stress.

That the relationships involving Scale 1 were

detected should not be surprising given that the

scale includes items that relate to sensitivity to

the needs and feelings of others, and to giving

personal support. These findings are entirely

consistent with the wealth of studies which have

investigated the relationship between leadership

styles, as measured by the traditional `con-

sideration' dimension, and higher levels of job

satisfaction and job motivation (e.g., Wright

1996, for a review), and the relationship between

`consideration' behaviour and reduced stress and

burnout (e.g., Constable and Russell 1986;

Duxbury et al. 1984; Herman 1983; Russell,

Altmaier and van Velzen 1987; Seltzer and

Nemeroff 1988).

When the sample was divided by level, and

also when divided by sex, Genuine concern for

others emerged again, consistently, as the single

most significant predictor of each of the criterion

variables. The results for when the sample was

divided by level sex were almost wholly

consonant with the above findings. The only

exception was Level 1 and 2 female managers,

for whom Scale 1 was not a significant predictor

of reduced Stress. For them, the greatest

predictor was Integrity, trustworthy, honest and

open. For female managers at these levels, the

integrity or otherwise of the person to whom

they are answerable would appear to have the

greatest effect on their level of job-related stress.

Scale 3 ± Decisiveness, Determination, Self-

confidence

Two scales, Decisiveness, determination, self-

confidence and Empowers, develops potential, were

both a significant predictor of each of four

criterion variables, for the sample as a whole. The

predictive significance of this scale in relation to

the two achievement-related criteria can be

interpreted as suggesting that, in general, the

behaviours associated with such characteristics in

a manager, enable achievement (`Enables me to

achieve more than I expected'), and increase

motivation (`Increases my motivation to

achieve'). The constancy that a high score on

this scale implies would lead a manager to be

perceived as predictable ± a prerequisite for

reduced stress ± and thus likely to lead to

satisfaction with the leadership style (cf., Erikson

1950; Rogers 1961).

Consistent results were found for Motivation

and Satisfaction with leadership style, when the

sample was analysed by level, though, the

relationships involving Stress and Achievement

were not replicated. The Scale 3 Motivation

relationship persisted, even when the data were

analysed by level sex. When the sample was

divided by sex, whereas the Satisfaction with

leadership style relationship was replicated, the

other three relationships were found to be sex-

related. Furthermore, among Level 1 and 2

(combined) managers, this scale was a significant

predictor of both achievement-related criteria,

and of Job satisfaction.

Taken together, these results might be

interpreted as supporting the notion of different

implicit leadership theories held by men and

women, in general (Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-

Metcalfe 2001), and by men and women at

different levels.

Scale 5 ± Empowers, Develop Potential

The predictive significance of Empowers, develops

potential in relation to both the satisfaction-related

and the achievement-related criteria is readily

interpretable. Being empowered and having one's

potential developed can be seen to be pre-requisite

for enabling achievement at a high level; and for

managers who can take decisions autonomously, a

source of motivation and of satisfaction. What is

puzzling, however, is the absence of relationships

with reduced stress. Research consistently shows

that control in one's job, autonomy, and

discretion, reduce stress (e.g., Bacharach and

Bamberger 1992; Fox, Dwyer and Ganster 1993;

Quick, Murphy and Hurrell 1992; Sauter, Murphy

and Hurrell 1990; Sparks and Cooper 1999). The

clue as to why, in this study, Scale 5 does not

significantly predict reduced stress may be that an

important condition of increasing autonomy is

clarity of role and objectives (e.g., Saunter,

Murphy and Hurrell 1999).

A major study of stress among health service

staff in the British NHS (Borrill, et al. 1996) found

that,

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``whilst some 25% of those who report

experiencing little ambiguity . . . are classified

as `cases' by the GHQ-12 (i.e., experiencing

dangerously high levels of stress), among those

who report quite a lot of role ambiguity. . .

almost 50% are classified as cases. It is clear that

among NHS staff the experience of work

demands, role ambiguity and role conflict is

strongly associated with the possibility of their

being identified as a case of the GHQ-12. The

same is true of the other four measures . . .

namely, social support, feedback, influence

[which would relate to our Scale 5] . . . and

professional compromise.'' (pp. 38±39).

When the sample was divided by level,

Empowers, develops potential continued, as would

be expected, to be significantly related to the

same criterion variables (except Job satisfaction,

among Level 3 and 4 (combined) managers. This

last finding may be attributable to the strong

predictive power of Scale 1 ± Genuine concern for

others, among this group of managers.

Sex-related differences were, however, evident,

with Empowering being a predictor of Achievement

(`Enables me to achieve more than I expected'),

and both satisfaction-related criteria, only among

the female managers, but of Motivation (`Increases

my motivation to achieve'), among both females

and males. When the data were analysed by level

x sex, this scale was a consistent predictor of

Motivation only among male managers at all

level, and of Achievement among female managers

at all levels, and among both male and female

Level 1 and 2 (combined) managers.

What this appears to suggest, is a general

development need of managers at higher levels,

to examine the way in which they empower,

delegate, and develop potential. This is

particularly relevant in the `new climate' that is

developing ± albeit patchily ± in the NHS in the

era post the era of the government's

`modernisation agenda', with its emphasis on

greater empowerment of staff at all levels and

wider delegation of responsibility.

Scale 4 ± Integrity, Trustworthiness, Honest and

Open

The pattern of relationships for the whole sample

for this scale and for Scale 9 ±Encourages critical

and strategic thinking persisted, even when the

results were analysed by level, and by sex,

though in the case of the Integrity scale, additional

sex-related relationships were detected. The

statistically significant relationships, for both

scales, are intuitively to be expected. For a

manager to have integrity, and to behave in ways

that reflect trustworthiness, honesty and open-

ness, can only be expected to reduce job-related

stress. Likewise, showing the range of behaviours

that this scale implies, is likely to lead to

satisfaction ± satisfaction with the way the

managers leads, and satisfaction with the job in

general.

Quite why, only among male managers,

Integrity should also be a significant predictor

of Motivation ± a relationship which persists,

even when the sample was analysed by level 

sex, and among female managers, of Achievement

± a relationships which only persists among the

higher group of managers ± is not clear. Both of

these latter results may point to a general

development need, relating to the way executive

and top level managers behave, or at least in the

way that they are perceived to behave, by their

subordinates, and a differential effect of their

behaviour on male and female staff.

Scale 9 ± Encourages Critical and Strategic Thinking

As with Scale 4, the fact that Encourages critical

and strategic thinking should be a predictor of

three of the criterion variables, among the

sample as a whole, is readily interpretable. That

this finding should be fully replicated when the

sample was divided by level, and almost fully

when the sample was divided by sex, is also to

be expected. For staff to be encouraged by the

person to whom they are answerable to think

critically and strategically can be expected to

lead to high levels of achievement, motivation,

and job satisfaction.

However, the level sex analyses would

suggest that this last finding may best be

interpreted in the light of different influences

among male and female managers at different

levels. Thus, the level sex data relating to

Scale 9 would suggest that (as with Empowering),

the manner, and circumstances under which, critical

and strategic thinking is encouraged, are of

central importance. This would certainly merit

further investigation.

A study by Church and Waclawski (1995)

might help to illuminate the findings. They

investigated the impact of personality orientation

on the process by which managers displayed

enabling behaviours. Having divided a sample of

319 senior managers into four groups by

personality orientation (adopting the Myers-

Briggs Type Inventory and Kirton Adaptor-

Innovator instruments), they compared the

groups with respect to their degree of `enabling',

as perceived by subordinates and the behaviours

they adopted in enabling. While there were no

differences between the groups of managers in

terms of enabling, nor in the amount of enabling

experienced by their subordinates, there were

differences in the specific behaviours adopted to

enable their staff. For example, among the group

of managers they refer to as the `inventors', who

were characterized as more introverted and

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ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000 Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000

creative, ideas-orientated individuals, the degree

of enablement experienced by their subordinate

related to their ability to maintain a challenging,

motivating environment. For another group of

managers, named `motivators', who were highly

enthusiastic and extraverted, the more they

encouraged their subordinates to take risks, and

to try out new solutions and approaches, the

more the subordinates felt enabled. Whether

these factors influenced the outcomes of the data

reported here, cannot be judged. What was not

included in the Church and Walawski study was

the personality orientation of the subordinates.

Further research could investigate the relation-

ship between the personality of the subordinate,

and that of the manager, in relation to a range of

outcome effects of leadership behaviour.

Research on implicit leadership theory, and

substitutes for leadership could provide a useful

background.

Scale 7 ± Accessibility, Approachability

The pattern that emerged between Accessibility,

approachability and three of the criterion

variables (Motivation and both satisfaction-

related criteria) for the sample as a whole, is

also in line with what might be intuited. That a

manager should be accessible and approachable

by her/his staff is, in common with the

behaviours implicit in previous scales, a

prerequisite for increasing both motivation and

satisfaction. However, that the significant whole

group relationships should not persist, either

when the results were analysed separately by

level, or by sex, is surprising. The level sex

data only point to level sex interaction effects.

Thus, all that can be concluded on the basis of

the present evidence is that the precise form that

accessibility and approachability take, or the way

in which it is communicated, may be guiding

factors in any investigation.

Scale 6 ± Inspirational Networker and Promoter

For the sample as a whole, Inspirational networker

and promoter emerged as being relevant only to

one criterion variable, Motivation (`Increases my

motivation to achieve'). This relationship

persisted when the sample was analysed by

level, but held true only among female

managers, as a whole. That a significant Scale 6

Motivation relationship should exist is entirely

as would be predicted (e.g., Hunt 1996). The

significant links between Inspirational networker

and Satisfaction with leadership style, are also

readily interpretable; what is not obvious, is why

they should only be found among Level 1 and 2

(combined) males, and Level 3 and 4 (combined)

females. In view of the centrality of some of the

behaviours measured by this scale, further

investigation of its predictive value would

certainly merit attention.

Scale 8 ± Clarified Boundaries

When the sample was analysed as a whole, this

scale did not emerge as a significant predictor of

any of the criterion variables. It did, however,

emerge as a significant predictor of reduced

Stress among Level 1 and 2 (combined) and Level

3 and 4 (combined) managers, when analysed

separately, and of Satisfaction with leadership style

among the higher level managers. Analysis of

the results for level sex, suggests that the

principal source of variance is among female

managers at higher and lower levels.

The literature suggests that empowerment,

coupled with clarification of boundaries, should

lead to decreased stress and increased satis-

faction (e.g., Saunter et al. 1990). It may be the

case that, in terms of outcomes, there is much

overlap between Scale 8 and Scale 5, such that the

effect of Scale 5 shows strongly (and at the

expense of Scale 8) in the achievement-related

and satisfaction-related effects, and that the

converse is true for Stress. Certainly, the

interaction between these two scales would

merit further investigation. Here, one may, once

again, be guided by the research (e.g., Sauter et

al. 1990; Quick et al. 1992; Fox et al. 1993) which

suggests that, for a manager, enabling greater

autonomy and job control among her/his staff,

predicts lower levels of perceived work-related

stress. However, there is also the need to

emphasize that autonomy is only efficacious if

combined with clarity of role and objectives

(e.g., Offerman and Hellman 1996).

Inter-relationships between the Scales

What is also worthy of comment is that,

although Genuine concern for others is (a) highly

correlated with each of the other seven scales;

and (b) the single greatest predictor of each of

the criterion variables, the remaining scales each

possesses an independent level of predictive

capacity. The discriminant analyses, then,

provide further evidence that the scales show

statistically significant, as well as psychologically

significant, levels of independence from each

other.

Criterion Variables

Considering each of the criterion variables, for

the sample as a whole, the combination of three

scales ± Genuine concern,Decisiveness, and Integrity

± emerged as significant predictors of reduced

Stress. The results for when the sample was

analysed by level suggest that the relevance of

Scale 8 ± Clarifies boundaries should also be

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Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000 ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000

recognized. The question may be asked, Do

perceptions of managers' closeness and presence

in their team, reflect a greater sense of

cohesiveness? A recent investigation of levels

and sources of stress among staff in the NHS

(Borrill et al. 1996; Borrill et al. 1998) found that

the more cohesive the team to which an

individual belongs, the lower the level of stress.

High scores on each of these scales would seem

relevant to such cohesiveness.

Again, for the sample as a whole, the two

achievement-related criteria were each predicted

by a total of five scales. For both criteria, the

scales were a combination of, Genuine concern,

Determination,Empowers, and Encourages critical

and strategic thinking, plus Inspirational networker

for Motivation, and Accessibility for Achievement.

For Motivation, the same scales were equally

relevant to both higher and lower level

managers, and to a certain extent, to both male

and female managers, in general. In the case of

Achievement (`Enables me to achieve more than I

expected'), some level-related and sex-related

differences were evident.

For the sample as a whole, six scales were

significant predictors of Job satisfaction, and the

relationships were all as might have been

predicted; the scales which were not significant

predictors were Decisiveness,Inspirational net-

worker and Clarifies boundaries ± each of which

may be regarded as task-orientated. Several,

though not all, of the positive relationships

persisted even when the data were analysed by

level, and by sex. Satisfaction with leadership style

was predicted by five scales. Of these, four ±

Genuine concern,Integrity,Empowers, and

Accessibility, were in common with Job

satisfaction; one, Decisiveness, was unique to

Satisfaction with leadership style. Of these, the

majority persisted, even following separate

level-related and sex-related analyses of the data.

Hence, Hypothesis 2 was also supported.

Furthermore, taken as a whole, the results also

provide evidence of the construct validity of the

TLQ, even when used in a different organiz-

ational setting. However, the psychological

significance of these patterns of relationships

lies, not just in differential patterns of

relationships, but in that the characteristics and

behaviours measured by the scales act together,

`in concert'. Only by acting in ways that bring

about beneficial change among individual

members of staff as individuals, will the growth

and development of the organization be effected.

Conclusion

Overall, the results support the hypotheses (a)

that each scale is significantly correlated with

each of the five criterion variables used; and (b)

that the eight scales that comprise the TLQ

measure different aspects of transformational

leadership.

Thus, the product-moment correlations

indicated that the eight scales are all consonant

with their validity, even when the managers

were sub-divided by level and sex. What

emerged from the discriminant analyses was

firstly that, for the sample as a whole, the eight

TLQ scales differ from each other in the extent

to which they are significant predictors of the

five criterion variables, in other words, they

differ in their `focus of convenience'.

Genuine concern for others emerged almost

consistently as the greatest single predictor. The

use of the stepwise method meant that the

predictive value of combinations of scales could

be determined.

Thus, there is evidence that the eight

remaining scales demonstrated a statistically

significant, but differential, level of predictive

validity in their own right and in combination.

This constitutes further evidence of the validity

of distinguishing between different aspects of

transformational leadership as measured by the

TLQ, even though the scales themselves share

variance in common.

Second, that, by and large, the pattern of

relationships between scales and criterion

variables persisted when the sample was divided

by sex is not surprising given the lengths taken

to ensure that the TLQ was free from gender-

bias. It is, nevertheless, reassuring that such

overall consistency should be evident. Where

sex-related differences were detected, these were

mostly associated with differences in level, and

were interpretable with reference to sex-plus-

level-related influences, and the possible effects

of `substitutes for leadership' factors.

Third, while there was much consistency

between the sample analysed as a whole and

when divided by level, a number of interpretable

level-related differences were detected. Since a

close/nearby concept of leadership was adopted,

and this was reflected both in eliciting initial

constructs and in the nature of the ratings

provided by the respondents (i.e., of their current

or previous boss), and in the stratified samples

used to construct the TLQ, these differences

cannot readily be dismissed as artefacts. Rather,

the eight scales should be regarded as having

particular relevance to the job-related percep-

tions of managers at different levels in their

organization ± their own, unique `focus of

convenience'. Here, there often appeared to be

a dichotomy between top managers versus those

at senior and middle level. Furthermore, where

sex-related differences were reported, they were

also level-related.

Fourth, that the different patterns of

relationships between the scales and criterion

CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF TLQ 171

ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000 Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000

variables among the different groups and sub-

groups of managers are psychologically inter-

pretable, is consonant with the construct validity

of the instrument.

These findings would also appear to justify

the researchers' aims, first, to investigate the

effects of culture, gender, and social distance, in

relation to models of transformational leadership

in a country other than the USA, from which

most respected leadership models emanate; and

then to develop an instrument of practical value

to the assessment and development of leader-

ship. Given the differences in the dimensions

identified in the TLQ, compared with those in,

for example, the MLQ, it would seem important

to consider the implications of these differences

for multinational organizations, and for UK or

US organizations seeking to select and develop

individuals with leadership qualities.

In relation to the assessment of leadership in

organizations, the authors have expressed

concern as to the focus of selection processes

for management positions (particularly at senior

levels) on transactional competencies, and the

frequent absence of attention to transformational

characteristics. Research in the USA has pro-

vided substantial evidence of the superiority of a

combined transformational and transactional

approach, compared with one that is a simply

transactional (e.g., Bass 1998a). The present

findings offer some validation for the association

between adopting a transformational style and

the resultant higher satisfaction-related and

achievement-related outcomes, and less job-

related stress.

Recent appraisals of the current state of

leadership research have remarked on the dearth

of research into the effect of context on

leadership. The present study provides some

areas on which to focus.

Criticisms and Further Investigation

The conclusions to be drawn from these analyses

must be interpreted in consideration that, even

though a representative range of organizations

was used, the sample was derived from only one

part of the UK public sector (NHS), albeit the

largest organization in Europe. At the same time,

it should be recognized that the public sector

involved was different from the one in which the

instrument was developed. The research is

limited in that each of the five criterion variables

was assessed on the basis of self-perceptions,

that each variable was measured using a single

item, and that there is the possibility of `method

variance' and `halo' effects, at least in the

correlational data.

The next stages of the research will include (a)

examining the factorial structure of the TLQ,

using confirmatory factor analysis; (b) ident-

ifying dispositional and other personal correlates

of the different aspects of transformational

leadership, particularly in relation to `substitutes

for leadership'; (c) analysing data for various

raters participating in the 360-degree feedback

process, based on the TLQ; (d) investigating

private sector constructs of leadership; (e)

developing a New Model of Transformational

Leadership; (f) cross-cultural studies of trans-

formational leadership.

While this study has examined the validity of

a new Transformational Leadership instrument,

and provided supportive evidence, the authors

would urge that more qualitative research be

conducted on constructs associated with leader-

ship in (i) different organizations; (ii) different

sectors (public and private); (iii) different

countries, and (iv) at different organizational

levels. The intention here was not to replace a

grand US model of transformational leadership

with a `grand UK-based model'; rather, to start

from a Grounded Theory approach, to identify

further the nature of the `leadership phenom-

enon' in different cultural and organizational

settings, and to contribute to an on-going

debate.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the Local Govern-

ment Management Board (now the Improve-

ment and Development Agency), in particular

Carole Barrie, Ian Briggs and Stephanie Goad,

and the University of Leeds, for co-funding this

research. They are also grateful to two

anonymous referees for their helpful comments

and suggestions.

172 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SELECTION AND ASSESSMENT

Volume 8 Number 3 September 2000 ßBlackwell Publishers Ltd 2000

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Orientation: It is scientifically questionable whether a predominantly Western construct and instrument could be used in the culturally diverse South African context. The sound measurement of transformational leadership in a multicultural context with the Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ), developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990), is studied from an etic perspective.Research purpose: Our study aimed to investigate the TLQ in terms of its construct validity. The instrument was developed outside the South African and the broader African and context; our study thus adopted an etic approach.Motivation for the study: The psychometric properties of the TLQs are examined through a contextual lens (the South African context), building on the previously conducted work of Podsakoff et al. (1990) and Podsakoff et al. (2012).Research approach/design and method: This research employed a typical empirical paradigm using a cross-sectional design and quantitative analysis. The sample comprised 3805 respondents. A multi-factorial model was explored and confirmed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The results support the original conceptualisation of the overall construct, but with an adjusted factorisation.Main findings: Two factors of transformational leadership were confirmed, namely leadership focused on organisational, group and individual transformation and leadership focused on creativity and innovation. Good psychometric properties, in terms of good fit and acceptable levels of convergent and discriminant validity were reported for a two-factor model.Practical/managerial implications: The adapted TLQ was found to be valid on structural (factorial) as well as external levels, and it was found to be reliable. The results suggest that transformational leadership could be used with confidence within the South African context.Contribution/value-add: Our study established a valid measure of transformational leadership from an etic approach. The necessity for our study originated from the diverse nature of the South African workforce. Participants from both the private and public sectors were included in our study.

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The outbreak of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has triggered the massive adoption of digital products and services in Indonesia, forcing established organizations to accelerate digital transformation and adaptation of their digital enabled business model to stay relevant. This article investigates how established firms achieve digital business model innovation (DBMI) and the role of transformational leadership (TL) as a key antecedent. Based on the cross-sectional survey data from 124 public listed firms in Indonesia, this study reveals that established firms in the uncertainty’s situation require Transformational Leadership, and TL indirectly influence DBMI through organizational readiness and ITeDC. We also found that despite the direct impact of organizational readiness on DBMI, partial mediation through IteDC can be a plausible mechanism. We contribute to the business model literature by offering a more integrated view of the antecedents concerning established firms’ DBMI.

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