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Volatile composition of sweet basil essential oil (Ocimum basilicum L.) as affected by drying method
... The loss of energy during traditional hot air drying is quite substantial. As a result, various approaches have been developed to concentrate on restoring the exhausted air in the process (21). In this type of dryer, a refrigerator is used to recover the latent heat by water condensation. ...
... Significant volatile compounds are lost during the drying and preservation processes. As air temperature and wattage are enhanced, excess loss of volatile compounds occurs in convective hot air and blast drying processes (15,21,36,37). The significant effect relative to other drying methods is the loss of volatile properties of the material (17,22). ...
... Significant amounts of volatile chemicals are lost during the drying process. Few authors have stated that convective hot air drying and microwave drying experienced the maximum loss in VCs (21,36,60). The influence of dehydration on the volatile compounds in various food materials, such as oyster mushrooms, shitake mushrooms, and chanterelle mushrooms, claiming that different drying techniques severely reduced the total concentration of volatiles (38,39,61). ...
Asparagus [Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr.] is a traditional herbal medicine plant commonly used to nourish yin, moisten dryness, and clear fire cough symptoms. Drying is an excellent option to conserve food materials, i.e., grains, fruits, vegetables, and herbs, reducing the raw materials volume and weight. This study aims to evaluate different drying approaches that could increase the value of asparagus, particularly as an ingredient in fast foods or as nutraceutical byproducts. The volatile components of asparagus roots were analyzed by using headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectroscopy under different drying conditions, i.e., natural drying (ND) at ambient air temperature in the dark, well-ventilated room, temperature range 28-32 • C, blast or oven drying at 50 • C, heat pump or hot-air drying at temperature 50 • C and air velocity at 1.5 ms −1 and vacuum freeze-drying at the temperature of −45 • C and vacuum pressure of 10-30 Pa for 24 h. The findings revealed that the various drying processes had multiple effects on the color, odor index, and volatile compounds of the asparagus roots. As a result of the investigations, multiple characteristics of components, therefore, exploitation and comparison of various flavors; a total of 22 compounds were identified, such as alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, acids, esters, heterocyclic, and terpene. The present findings may help understand the flavor of the processed asparagus roots and find a better option for drying and processing.
... Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women and one of the most important causes of death among them. [1] It is a multifactorial disease [2] and various factors contribute to its occurrence. Although the disease occurs all over the world, its incidence, mortality, and survival rates vary considerably among different parts of the world, which could be due to many factors such as population structure, lifestyle, genetic factors, and environment. ...
... After 72hrs incubation, the maximum growth inhibition percent (GI) was 78% in case of Fe100E10 as shown in Figure (3) and Table (2). also all the combination showed synergism effect as appear in Figure (4). ...
Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women. The development of breast cancer is a multi-step process involving multiple cell types, and its prevention remains challenging in the world. Early diagnosis of breast cancer is one of the best approaches to prevent this disease. In some developed countries, the 5-year relative survival rate of breast cancer patients is above 80% due to early prevention. For people presenting without metastatic disease, therapeutic goals are tumor eradication and preventing recurrence. Ocimum basilicum L. (Basil) is a plant that has a place with the family Labiatae, also basil leave have activities intense cancer prevention agents, curbs aging, is an anticancer, antiviral, and has antimicrobial properties. This study aimed to determine effect of nanotechnology with basil as synergism effect on breast cancer cell also showing the side effect of treatment on normal cells. In this work breast cancer cells (MDA and MCF7) was treated with Iron nanoparticle that prepared by Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP) and Ocimum Basilcum L. (Basil) as synergism effect on the cells.
... The most used stabilization technique is drying, a unitary operation through which the moisture is removed from the fresh vegetal structure by a gaseous phase (air), through the simultaneous transfer of energy (heat) and matter. Drying has been applied since ancient times as the main conservation strategy for medicinal and aromatic herbs to preserve them from fermentation, mold, color and organoleptic variations due to enzymatic or non-enzymatic reactions by water activity reduction [3]. ...
... The most common herb drying techniques are based on convective heat and mass transfer. Using drying techniques under environmental conditions is applicable only in the presence of favorable climates, i.e., in sunny and breezy areas such as tropical or in combination with the convective methods), which, compared to the conventional techniques, allows us to: (i) reduce the drying time of basil leaves by 98.5% and 79.5% for Ocimum basilicum [16] and O. gratissimum L. [17,18], respectively; (ii) ensure high microbial quality, offering the lowest contamination by mesophilic bacteria [19]; (iii) guarantee a better aroma quality and excellent sensory data of the dehydrated product [3]; (iv) optimize the sweet basil's drying kinetics without modifying its antioxidant properties and phenol content [11]. ...
Edible herbs are widely used in the human diet due to their pleasant flavors and countless health benefits associated with their components having, mainly, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory therapeutic functions. Since herbs are highly perishable materials because of their high water content, to guarantee products are safe and stable over time, it is necessary that they undergo stabilization operations. The application of microwave-assisted drying, a promising technique in terms of process sustainability, for the stabilization of the aromatic herb, Ocimum basilicum L., was investigated. The activities were carried out by applying different operating conditions in order to evaluate the impact of the time/temperature combination on the final quality of dried basil. The latter was investigated via the chemical characterization of extracted essential oils and tissue damages. Conventional convective processes were also applied to perform comparisons between dried basil products both under production and the quality preservation points of view. Results showed that microwave heating is suitable as a drying method, as expected, due to the well-known interaction between vegetable tissue (rich in water) and the electromagnetic field; and that drying methods have a different influence on the chemical composition of the essential oils extracted from dried products, in terms of the number (ranging from 41 to 18 components in different dried samples) and percentage (until 67% in linalool and 21% in α-trans-bergamotene in different dried samples) of its’ constituents.
... The SPME of the oven-dried O. basilicum L. residues showed 24 volatile compounds with β-linalool (28.86%) and estragole (23.28%) as major components, which is in agreement with the analysis of HD oil from raw material (Table 1) and in line with the reported findings from the investigation of HD from Egyptian sweet basil (Farouk et al., 2017). Linalool was also observed as the major component of basil aroma by Calín-Sánchez et al. (2012). A significant increase was observed in the concentrations of methyl cinnamate (21.11%) and α-cadinol (4.24%) of the oven-dried waste adsorbed on SPME compared with the raw waste extracts of O. basilicum L. (Table 1). ...
... For example, the significant decrease in a key component like estragole from 64.47% in HD oil of the residue to 23.28% in the oven-dried samples extracted by SPME means that sun-drying promoted the estragole biosynthesis in detached shoots, which is in accordance to Hassanpouraghdam et al. (2010). Also, Calín-Sánchez et al. (2012) reported that drying basil, with especially convective and vacuum-microwave methods, decreased at least twice the volatile content. Contents of some sesquiterpenes, like α-cadinol (4.24%), and aroma compounds with a higher boiling point, like methyl cinnamate (21.11%), were higher than raw waste HD oil under continuous heating of extraction or drying. ...
The treatment of postharvest wastes is an integral part of the food value chain. Therefore, Ocimum basilicum L. residues were dried in an oven and a microwave. Volatiles were extracted using hydrodistillation, headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and then analyzed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Thirty volatiles were identified in raw material, with β-linalool, methyleugenol, methylcinnamate, and estragole predominating. Meanwhile, 24 and 18 volatiles were detected in the oven- and microwave-dried samples, with a significant decrease of methyleugenol content. The highest radical scavenging ability and total phenolic content were achieved for microwaved wastes using photochemiluminescence, DPPH, and Folin-Ciocalteu test. Moreover, 8 phenolic acids and 9 flavonoids were identified in the LC-MS/MS analysis, with significant contents of rosmarinic acid and luteolin (1042.45 and 11.68 µg/g of dry matter, respectively) in the microwaved basil. This experiment pointed out that microwaved basil wastes could be re-used in the food, pharmacy and/or cosmetic industries.
... medicinal and aromatic plants (Argyropoulos & Müller, 2014a;Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012;Díaz-Maroto et al., 2003;Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al., 2013;Sellami et al., 2012). It can be concluded that the changes in the proportions of the volatile constituents during drying process depend on several factors, mainly temperature sensitivity of each essential oil components and damage to the leaf tissue, both causing rapid evaporation of essential oil constituents (Argyropoulos & Müller, 2014a;Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al., 2013). ...
... ported by other researchers(Argyropoulos & Müller, 2014a;Asekun et al., 2007;Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012).Karami et al. (2021) also reported that the essential oil content of T. vulgaris was decreased with increasing air temperature in the hybrid dryer. Our results were also in good accordance with those ofMorshedloo et al. (2020), who reported that increasing the drying temperature in oven dryingsignificantly decreased the essential oil content of Dracocephalum moldavica L. Due to the volatility of essential oils, decrease in essential oil content could be accompanied by an increase of drying temperature. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate changes in essential oil content and the main components of mint (Mentha aquatica L.) during thin‐layer drying process. Response surface methodology (RSM) based on radial basis functions was used to model the relationships between drying temperature and different drying time (independent variables) and essential oil content and main essential oil compounds of mint (dependent variables). Results of GC‐FID and GC‐MS analyses showed linalyl acetate, 1,8‐cineol, and linalool are the most abundant constituents of essential oil. Inverse Multiquadrics model was the best model to predict the percentage of linalyl acetate, 1,8‐cineol and essential oil content, whereas Gaussian model was the best to predict linalool. The efficiency of the selected models was acquired with R2 of 0.9658, 0.9514, 0.9568 and 0.9828 for essential oil content, linalyl acetate, linalool, and 1,8‐cineol, respectively.
... [9] It is well known that different drying methods affect both essential oils' yield and chemical composition. [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] Therefore, the objective of this work was to investigate the effects of different drying methods on the yield, the chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the oil obtained from the aerial parts of A. Judaica from Jordan. ...
... Our results indicated that the concentration of the different classes of compounds detected in the different oil samples varied with the drying method, which was in total agreement with the previous studies performed on other aromatic plants. [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] It was also noticed increasing oven temperature without pre-drying treatment reduced significantly the content of OM, increased OS amounts but did not affect the content of both monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (MH & SH, respectively). The content of MH, OM and SH in ShD and SD oils were generally higher when compared to their contents in the oils obtained from fresh sample. ...
Aerial parts of Artemisia judaica from Jordan were subjected to different drying methods, including shade (ShD), sun (SD), oven (OD) drying at different temperatures in addition to microwave drying (MWD). Essential oils extracted from these samples were assayed for their chemical composition and antioxidant activity. GC/MS analysis of the different oil samples revealed qualitative and quantitative differences. All samples contained high concentration levels of oxygenated monoterpenes (41.69%-68.56%) followed by esters (8.32–36.65%). The essential oil extracted from ShD plant material exhibited the strongest DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities while oil samples obtained from the SD method showed the strongest ferrous ion chelating activity (FIC). Cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to identify the effect of drying methods on the essential oil composition obtained from A. judaica. The different essential oils were classified into two clusters corresponding to natural and artificial drying methods.
... Drying, as a method of preservation of herbal raw materials, inhibits the growth of microorganisms and prevents biochemical changes [31]. The drying process can contribute to a decreased amount of essential oil and to changes in its composition, as has been demonstrated in numerous studies on various species: Laurus nobilis L. [32], L. angustifolia [5,33], O. basilicum [34], R. officinalis [35], S. officinalis [36,37], Thymus daenensis [38], Melissa officinalis [39], T. vulgaris [33], Artemisia dracunculus [40], and Mentha. longifolia [41]. ...
... The behavior of volatile substances is affected by drying method and temperature depending on the species from which the plant material is obtained. In most studies conducted, thermal drying provided greater EO retention, which was found with respect to the raw plant materials obtained from different species: O. basilicum [34], M. officinalis [39], Mentha sp. [58], and T. vulgaris [31]. ...
In the present study, we investigated the irrigation of L. angustifolia plants and drying temperatures on the yield of dry leaves and lavender essential oil. Plants were irrigated using an on-surface system with drip lines. Plants without additional irrigation were the control object. Each dose of water consisted of 15 mm. The total amount of water used for irrigation in 2016 and 2017 was 90 L·m−2. The plant raw material was dried using two methods: in natural conditions and convectively. Natural drying was performed in a shaded room at a temperature of 20–22 °C for five days. The convective drying process was carried out in a drying oven in a stream of air at 35 °C, flowing parallel to the layer being dried at 0.5 m·s−1. Under the influence of irrigation, there was an increase in the yield of fresh and airdried leaves and a higher content of essential oil (EO) than in the cultivation without irrigation. The EO obtained from irrigated plants was characterized by higher contents of caryophyllene oxide (9.08%), linalool (7.87%), and β-caryophyllene (4.58%). In nonirrigated crops, α-muurolol (19.67%), linalyl acetate (15.76%), borneol (13.90%), γ-cadinene (8.66%), camphor (2.55%) had a higher percentage in the EO. After drying under natural conditions, the airdried herb yield and leaf yield of lavender were higher by 25% and 17%, respectively, as compared to the raw material dried at 30 °C. Higher drying temperatures (30 °C) increased the EO by 18% on average and total phenolic acid (TPA) by 50%. The plant material dried at 30 °C, with a larger amount of TPA, showed higher antioxidant activity (AA) in the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) tests. Linalyl acetate (15.76%) and linalool (7.87%) were predominant in the EO extracted from the oven-dried herb. Drying under natural conditions resulted in a decreased content of linalyl acetate (0.89%), β-caryophyllene (0.11%), linalool (1.17%), and camphor (1.80%) in comparison with thermal drying. Linalool, linalyl acetate, and β-caryophyllene had a higher percentage in the EO extracted from the raw material obtained from irrigated and oven-dried plants, whereas camphor was found to have a larger percentage in the case of the EO from nonirrigated plants. Our study reveals that there are prospects for the practical use of irrigation in lavender cultivation and of the raw material preservation method in order to modify the EO content and chemical composition.
... Australia (Lachowicz et al., 1996) and Iran (Sajjadi, 2006)], cultivar used (Marotti et al., 1996;Viña and Murillo, 2003), drying condition, and extraction method (Carvalho et al., 2006;Calín-Sánchez, et al., 2012). Amaki et al. (2011) reported that 1,8-cineol was the most abundant component of essential oil, when essential oils were extracted without drying and when basil was harvested 70 days after transplanting. ...
... European type of sweet basil, in relation to others, considered to have the highest quality aroma, containing linalool and methyl chavicol as the major constituents 9,1 . After harvest, during the drying process, through oxidation, evaporation, and various physicochemical changes of aromatic volatiles, aroma intensity and quality are lost 10 . Research from Klimankova et al. 4 confirms that fresh basil leaves are characterized by a higher amount of extracted volatile compounds than dried or frozen leaves. ...
This study examines the action of light modifications by different shade nets (pearl, red and blue color nets with a shade index of 50%) in relation to unshaded plants from the open field on the relative effects on changing basil aroma profile and antioxidant activity. The most abundant components were linalool, 1,8-cineole and myrcene. Aqueous extracts were isolated from basil leaves using maceration and ultrasound-assisted extraction. Yield of total extractive matters depends on both the extraction technique applied and the growing conditions used. The highest yield of total extractive matter (30.50 g/100g) was obtained by maceration from open field-grown basil. The highest content of total phenols (106.52 mg GAE/g), flavonoids (19.74 mg RE/g) and antioxidant activity (EC 50-7 µg/mL) was found under a red net. The isolated water extracts are a source of natural antioxidants with potential application in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
... Dried basil products in global market are often described as imparting a hay-like off-odor note (Boggia, Zunin, Hysenaj, Bottino, & Comite, 2015). Many studies on drying effects on the volatile compositions of basil leaves have been performed (Calín-Sánchez, Lech, Szumny, Figiel, & Carbonell-Barrachina, 2012;Danso-Boateng, 2013;Thamkaew, Sjöholm, & Galindo, 2021). However, no systematical investigation regarding the generation of the hay-like offodor in dried basil, including the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the hay-like off-odorant(s) and its reducing strategies have been reported so far. ...
Hay-like off‐odor present in dried basil products results in low consumer acceptance. To understand the hay-like off-odor formation in processing of basil products, identification of hay-like off-odor in thawed, air-dried and spray-dried basil samples was investigated by means of a trained human panel (n = 10) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry–olfactometry. 3-Methylnonane-2,4-dione (3-MND) was identified in all basil samples to be responsible for the hay-like off-odor. To reduce the hay-like off-odor in dried basil products, the effect of light, oxygen, and temperature on the 3-MND formation was studied during thawing, air drying and spray drying processes. In the thawing process, darkness and nitrogen protection significantly reduced the 3-MND formation. With extending thawing time, no significant increase on the concentration of 3-MND was observed after 60 min in the darkness and under nitrogen. In the designed spray-drying setup, nitrogen protection could further alleviate the 3-MND formation whereas the elevated drying temperature (40 - 100°C) boosted the 3-MND formation in air-drying processing. Collectively, these findings indicated that darkness, nitrogen protection and low temperature were considered as critical processing parameters to minimize the generation of hay-like compound 3-MND in dried basil products.
... Besides, uncontrollable fluctuations in temperature lead in many cases to undesired changes in the final product. Food products containing high sugar content may suffer from significant damage to the dried product's chemical composition, flavor, structure, and color (Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012). Thermodynamical parameters are special tools that describe the product's stability and hygroscopic behavior (Zhao et al., 2015). ...
The study evaluated the application of four drying temperatures inside a newly developed hybrid indirect solar dryer in forced convection (at 40, 50, 60, and 70°C) compared to a direct solar dryer (Greenhouse) for the processing of the Moroccan Sefri pomegranate arils. The thermodynamical analysis allows characterizing the physical properties of the arils using some parameters such as optimal water activity, net isosteric heat of sorption, and effective moisture diffusivity. The biochemical analysis studied included total proteins, sugars, vitamin C, and total anthocyanins, hygrometric properties, microstructure modification, and sensory evaluation. Generally, drying led to a reduction in all parameters. However, lower drying temperature processes (indirect convective solar drying at 40°C and 50°C) give the best results for pomegranate arils. Greenhouse dried samples had almost the lower quality in all parameters. The color is more preserved at indirect convective solar drying at 40°C. However, indirect convective solar drying at 50°C was most appreciated by consumers with higher scores on the sensory evaluation test. As the first study of the thermodynamic and biochemical investigation of dried pomegranate arils in Morocco, this work intended to be the first step in developing controlled new high-quality products for the Moroccan market.
... respectively. The most important member of Ocimum genus, are Ocimum americanum L., Ocimum basilicum L., Ocimum hispidulum Schum, Ocimum tenuiflorum L., Ocimum sanctum L. and Ocimum ratissimum L(Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012; Filip, 2017;Jirovetz et al., 2003;Shahrajabian et al., 2020). ...
Inflammation is the body's physiological reaction to a foreign organism such as bacteria,
dust particles, or viruses. Inflammation usually has a positive outcome, but it can also be
prolonged, leading to various disease conditions or aggravating an already existing
disease process. Understanding the role of inflammation in these diseases is critical for
developing new therapeutic strategies. Cytokines secreted from the site of inflammation
play a significant role in modulating the inflammatory response due to their ability to bind
and activate cells via receptor-mediated events. TNF-α, IL-6 are examples of these proinflammatory
cytokines. IL-6 on the other hand may act as an anti-inflammatory cytokine
too.
Present study wishes to highlight the effects of Basil seeds (Sabja) and azithromycin on
the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, its receptor TNFR1A and IL-6 using Raw 264.7.
Azithromycin and Basil seeds (Sabja) both seem to show anti-inflammatory effects which
were tested by checking the antioxidant activity and its compounds were identified with
the help of Gas chromatography technique in case of Basil seeds. Molecular docking of
γ-linoleic acid, an anti-inflammatory compound present in basil seed extract and
azithromycin on TNFR1A receptor was performed to help us understand the gene
expression analysis for TNF-α, its receptor TNFR1A and IL-6 cytokines.
... Verma, Chaves, Irmak, and Subbiah (2021) observed no significant change in the volatile composition of the compounds between the untreated and RF treated (65 s) dried basil leaves, except for camphor which showed about 5-10% drop in the total composition. In another study (Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012), observed about 55% of loss in total volatile composition following hot air drying of sweet basil at 40 • C. From the present study results, it is evident that the dried basil leaves could retain all the major volatile compounds after the RF treatment. Because the aroma of the basil leaves is mostly attributed to the major compounds present in them (Lee et al., 2005), observing no significant change in the volatile composition demonstrates that RF can ensure microbial safety without altering the product quality. ...
Recent foodborne illness outbreaks associated with the consumption of low moisture foods such as spices have emphasized concerns over microbial food safety. In-package RF pasteurization method was evaluated for inactivation of Salmonella enterica in dried basil leaves. Samples were packed in polystyrene bottle provided with a steam venting film and was either positioned vertically (electrode gap = 16 cm) or horizontally (electrode gap = 10.5 cm) for RF treatment. The horizontally placed container achieved rapid heating of dried basil leaves as compared to the vertical placement and achieved more than six log reduction of both microorganisms within 35 s of RF treatment. E. faecium was more heat resistant than Salmonella, indicating its suitability as a surrogate for RF pasteurization of dried basil leaves. Quality analysis revealed no significant (P > 0.05) change in color, total phenolics, antioxidants, and volatile composition of dried basil leaves after RF treatment. Pasteurization of final packaged food product with steam vent minimizes cross-contamination and improves food safety.
... Air drying at low temperatures (40 to 60 • C) helps their preservation (Pirbalouti, Mahdad, & Craker, 2013), however, quality is drastically reduced compared to the original herb (Sledz, Wiktor, Nowacka, & Witrowa-Rajchert, 2017) mainly regarding aroma, appearance and rehydration properties. During the drying process, the alteration of the chemical compounds in essential oils or the formation of new compounds by oxidation or esterification reactions may occur (Calín-Sánchez, Lech, Szumny, Figiel, & Carbonell-Barrachin, 2012;Diaz-Maroto, Perez-Coello, & Cabezudo, 2002). Moreover, tissue structural damage would also occur during drying, even at temperatures as low as 40 • C (Díaz-Maroto, Sánchez-Palomo, Castro, González Viñas, & Pérez-Coello, 2004;Telfser & Gómez Galindo, 2019). ...
Pulsed electric field (PEF) was applied to basil leaves prior air drying at 40 °C. The parameters of the electric treatment were designed in such a way that (i) electroporated the tissue reversibly, provoking a permanent opening of the stomatal guard cells and (ii) electroporated the tissue irreversibly, damaging the cells. Treated leaves lost some volatile compounds due to both PEF treatments, probably related with the direct effect of permeabilization on the secretory cells of glandular trichomes. Upon drying, the irreversible permeabilization treatment showed the highest influence on the profile of volatiles in the dried leaves showing better retention of some terpenoids than the control. The performed statistical analysis allowed to select six compounds that can be used as markers both for the effect of pre-treatments prior dehydration and for the effects of dehydration itself on the volatile compounds of basil leaves.
... The procedures used for drying material plants can influence the essential oil quantity and quality of aromatic species 19 . In fact, there are some previous papers about the effect of drying on the yield and the chemical composition of essential oils distilled from Lamaiceae, such as Ocimum basilicum L., Thymus daenensis Celak, Mentha longifolia L. 20,21 , but to our knowledge, studies on the changes in the quantity and quality of essential oil of Origanum genus depending on drying methods are scarce in the literature. In Calín-Sánchez et al. 4 , the influence of the drying method on the aroma quality of Origanum majorana species was evaluated applying three different dehydration methods: convective drying, microwave vacuum drying and a combination of convective pre-drying and vacuum-microwave finish-drying. ...
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) is mainly cultivated, both as fresh and dried herb, for several purposes, such as ailments, drugs, and spices. To evaluate the influence of some drying methods on the chemical composition of the essential oil of oregano, its aerial parts were dehydrated by convective drying techniques (shade, static oven), microwave-assisted heating (three different treatments) and osmotic treatment. The oils were analyzed by GC-FID and GC–MS. The highest essential oil yield was achieved from microwave and shade drying methods. In total, 39 components were found, with carvacrol (ranging from 56.2 to 81.4%) being the main constituent; other compounds present in lower amounts were p-cymene (1.6–17.7%), γ-terpinene (0.8–14.2%), α-pinene (0.1–2.1%), thymol methyl ether (0.4–1.8%) and thimoquinone (0.5–3.5%). The essential oil yields varied among the different treatments as well as the relative compositions. The percentages of p-cymene, γ-terpinene and α-pinene decreased significantly in the dried sample compared with the fresh sample; on the other hand, carvacrol, isoborneol and linalool increased significantly in the dried materials. The choice of the drying method for obtaining the essential oil therefore appears crucial not only in relation to the higher yield but also and above all in reference to the percentage presence of components that can direct the essential oil toward an appropriate use.
... Conversely, a lower yield of volatile compounds has been observed when the drying temperature increases [69]. Further studies supported this observation for herbs such as kaffir lime leaves, Achillea frayrantissima L. leaves and Artemisia herb-alba L. leaves [70,71]. ...
Herb drying is a common stabilization technique in preserving vital qualities of essential oil yield and bioactive compounds. However, systematic and appropriate drying methods are still not sufficiently investigated. This review focused on drying herbal plants and how drying affects essential oil yield, antioxidant content, antimicrobial activity, health benefits, colour, and aroma of dried goods. Various drying methods are summarized. Preferable drying methods for most herbs are oven and freeze-drying, but this is dependent on the type of heat transfer onto the herb's surface biostructure and constituent volatility. However, herb colour retention requires a faster drying time. Furthermore, antimicrobial and pharmaceutic compounds require a focused study due to their unique properties, which cannot be determined by a general drying method. Because there is no universal drying method, these findings emphasise the importance of comprehensive herb research. However, a specific drying pattern can be observed, enlightening future research and drying innovations.
... Higher temperatures of other types of basil heat treatments, such as drying, affect the sensory quality of basil. It usually elicits a decrease in fresh, floral, and herbaceous odor intensity, while increasing spicy, hay-like, sweet, earthy, and woody intensity [48]. The applied temperature influences the efficiency of extraction by modulating the physicochemical properties of water. ...
Herbs, including basil, are used to enhance the flavor of food products around the world. Its potential is influenced by the quality of fresh herbs and processing practices, wherein conditions of heat treatment play an important role. The aim of the research was to determine the effect of sous-vide heat treatment on the volatile compounds profile, sensory quality, and color of basil infusions. The material used for research was aqueous basil infusion prepared conventionally at 100 °C, and using the sous-vide method (65, 75, and 85 °C). The composition of volatile compounds was identified by GC/MS analysis, the sensory profile was assessed using a group of trained panelists, while the color was instrumentally assessed in the CIE Lab system. No significant differences were found in the intensity of the taste and aroma of basil infusions at different temperatures. Seventy headspace volatile compounds were identified in the analyzed samples, ten of which exceeded 2% of relative area percentage. The most abundant compounds were eucalyptol (27.1%), trans-ocimene (11.0%), β-linalool (9.2%), and β-myrcene (6.7%). Most of the identified compounds belonged to the terpenes and alcohols groups. Our findings show that the conventional herbal infusion was more like a sous-vide infusion prepared at the lowest temperature SV65, while SV75 and SV85 were similar to each other but different from the conventional. However, a smaller number of volatile compounds in the samples heated at higher temperatures of sous-vide were identified. The sous-vide samples showed a higher content of alkanes. The sous-vide method (p ≤ 0.05) resulted in darker, less green, and less yellow basil leaves than fresh and traditionally steeped ones. Long heat treatment under vacuum at higher temperatures causes a pronounced change in the aroma composition.
... While the drying kinetics is defined by a two-term exponential model in the convective dryer, it changes linearly up to a critical point and exponentially above this point in the vacuum microwave. To obtain high-quality dried basil, convective pre-drying (40 °C) and post-drying with vacuum microwave (360 W) were determined as the best option (nearly 250 min) [3]. ...
In this study, drying kinetics of Arapgir purple basil leaves under the isothermal and non-isothermal conditions have been investigated. Effective methods were evaluated by drying freshly collected basil leaves in the sun, isothermal, and non-isothermal systems. Energy efficiency was compared in different drying processes by performing exergy analysis in the drying process. It has been observed that the energy consumed and lost especially in the convection drying system (tray dryer) is very high. In the experiments performed in the PID (proportional integral derivative) system, the lowest efficiency was found in the isothermal process. Accordingly, the most suitable system in exergy efficiency was determined as the non-isothermal PID system. Maximum energy loss and minimum exergy efficiency were found at 45 °C temperature and 3.0 m/s airflow rate in the convection drying process. Exergy efficiencies were found to be approximately 4% in the convection tray dryer, 26% in the PID system under isothermal conditions, and 32% in the PID system under non-isothermal conditions. Optimization parameters in the drying process were determined by the response surface methodology (RSM), and the kinetic models were compared with the help of statistical analyses in the experiments. Midilli and Kucuk model has been found as the most compatible kinetic equation with the experimental data. According to this model results, correlation coefficient (R² > 0.990), sum of squared error (SSE˂0.005), chi-square (χ²˂1·10⁻⁵), and root mean square error (RMSE˂0.003) values have been evaluated.
Graphical abstract
... Therefore, drying time induced a significant variation in essential oil yield, while this effect was temperature dependent. The negative correlation between essential oil content and drying temperature has been earlier reported in other species (Asekun et al., 2007;Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012;Argyropoulos and Müller, 2014a), and has been attributed to the evaporation of essential oil along with moisture during the drying processing. As moisture gradually escapes out of the samples (Fig. 3), it potentially attracts some essential oil components, which are eventually lost and thus not retrieved in distillation performed at a later step (Hamrouni-Sellami et al., 2011;Rahimmalek and Goli, 2013). ...
The potential of artificial neural networks (ANNs) for assessing key herb quality aspects (color features, moisture ratio, essential oil content and major constituents) by considering two drying processing factors (temperature and time) was evaluated. Water mint was employed as model species owing to global popularity and economic importance. Variation in herb quality was induced by employing different periods (0-450 min) and temperatures (50-70 • C) of drying processing. Samples were occasionally imaged (400-700 nm), and then quality features were invasively determined. Green color attenuation was triggered by drying processing duration and temperature. Essential oil content peaked at a shorter time period and at a lower value as drying processing temperature increased. In all drying processing temperature levels, three main components (linalool, linalyl acetate, 1,8-cineole) accounted for more than 77 % of the total essential oil, while five components (α-terpineol, geraniol acetate, hedycaryol, myrcene, neryl acetate) for approximately 15 %. These eight constituents were thus considered in the model. An ANN model was obtained, including an input layer (drying processing temperature and time), 10 hidden layers, and an output layer (12 quality features). This structure corresponds to a 2− 10-12 topology. The presented methodology yielded precise estimations of the quality features under study (correlation coefficients in the range of 0.79 and 0.99). Therefore, the technique under study was proven to be very promising for non-invasive in situ estimations of several critical herb quality features.
... The methods and temperatures used in drying basil directly interfere with the sensory characteristics of the product. Higher temperatures usually imply decrease in attributes of odor such as fresh, floral, and herbaceous, and increase in others: spicy, hay-like, sweet, earthy, woody, and infused (Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012). ...
In recent years, the search for alternatives to the use of synthetic chemical additives in food has led to an increase in research focused on essential oils (EOs). Among the EOs with food applications already described in the literature, the essential oil extracted from basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) stands out, which presents several biological activities. This review was conducted to discuss the basil essential oil (BEO), presenting information on the different extraction methods and their influence on the compounds, in addition to presenting biological and toxicological aspects. The extraction method and the qualitative and quantitative variation of the compounds are highly dependent on factors such as type of cultivar; date, place, and conditions of cultivation; and seasonal variation and harvest. In addition, the main biological activities of basil essential oil are dependent of the chemical constituents, such as estragole, linalool, eugenol, eucalyptol, and bergamotene, and can act in isolation or in synergism.
... After all, sweet basil was a tonic spice. However, this was different from the study of [19] that stated panelists usually like meatballs with a strong flavour. Flavour linking in P3 decreased allegedly because the addition of sweet basil caused the typical flavour of chicken meatballs to disappear and the flavour of sweet basil was more dominant so the panelists did not prefer it. ...
Leaves of sweet basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) are categorized as a tonic spice in culinary and also often used as herbs. The use of sweet basil leaves is usually dried as a spice to give a distinctive flavour to the cuisine. This study aimed to determine the effect of sweet basil leaves ( Ocimum basilicum ) application with different percentages on the physical and organoleptic qualities of chicken meatballs. This study used a Complete Randomized Design with 4 treatments and 5 repetitions. The treatments in this study consisted of different percentages of sweet basil leaves powder at P0: 0%, P1: 2%, P2: 4%, and P3: 6%. After chicken meatballs were cooked and stored at room temperature for 24 hours, then the measurement of physical and organoleptic qualities was carried out. The obtained results showed that the addition of sweet basil leaves had a real effect (P<0.05) on cooking loss, pH value, aroma, flavour linking, and basil flavour of chicken meatballs. However, there was no significant effect (P>0.05) on the water content. It is concluded that the application of sweet basil leaves ( Ocimum basilicum ) at 4% could effectively improve and retain the physical and organoleptic qualities of chicken meatballs for 24 hours.
... Additionally, drying often results in lower antioxidant activity and polyphenolic content, which was presented in a study on Pink Rock Rose [20], which reported a decrease in the bioactive potential as a result of long oxidation and elevated temperatures. Yet, selection of appropriate drying methods and parameters can reduce the negative effects of drying [21,22]. ...
Background:
Filtration of osmotic solution affects selective penetration during osmotic dehydration (OD), and after drying is finished, this can influence the chemical composition of the material, which is also modified by OD.
Methods:
Osmotic dehydration was carried out in filtrated and non-filtrated concentrated chokeberry juice with the addition of mint infusion. Then, this underwent convective drying, vacuum-microwave drying and combined convective pre-drying, followed by vacuum-microwave finishing drying. Drying kinetics were presented and mathematical models were selected. The specific energy consumption for each drying method was calculated and the energy efficiency was determined.
Results and discussion:
The study revealed that filtration of osmotic solution did not have significant effect on drying kinetics; however, it affected selective penetration during OD. The highest specific energy consumption was obtained for the samples treated by convective drying (CD) (around 170 kJ·g-1 fresh weight (fw)) and the lowest for the samples treated by vacuum-microwave drying (VMD) (around 30 kJ·g-1 fw), which is due to the differences in the time of drying and when these methods are applied.
Conclusions:
Filtration of the osmotic solution can be used to obtain the desired material after drying and the VMD method is the most appropriate considering both phenolic acid content and the energy aspect of drying.
... The Ocimum basilicum L. (basil) is one of the most important members of the Lamiaceae family that belongs to an exclusive medicinal and aromatic family of flowering plants (Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012). The parts of the plant that are used are the fresh flowering branches and seeds. ...
Purple basil leaves dried with natural drying, which was the traditional method, convective drying at 50°C, which was the most common method, and microwave drying at 200, 600, and 1000 W, which were low, medium, and high powers. The drying processes lasted 4320, 195, 48, 25, and 14 minutes for natural, 50°C, 200, 600, and 1000 W, respectively. The most convenient color parameters and chlorophyll concentration to the fresh product were obtained at natural drying. While all drying methods were very close to fresh products regarding protein content; natural drying, 50°C, and 1000 W were found to had the highest concentration regarding P and K. Contrarily, 200 and 600 W were suitable for Ca and Mg conservation. The drying methods in which Na, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn reached the maximum were natural, 1000 W, 600 W, 200 W, and 50°C, respectively.
... Volatile compounds are among the most affected features of biological materials during drying. The effect of different drying methods on essential oil composition and volatile profile was covered in numerous studies, that is, on thyme (Calín-S anchez, Figiel, Lech, Szumny, & Carbonell-Barrachina, 2013), marjoram (Calín-S anchez et al., 2015, and basil (Calín-S anchez, Lech, Szumny, Figiel, & Carbonell-Barrachina, 2012). ...
The main objective of the study is to assess the effect of filtration of osmotic solution on the selective penetration during osmotic dehydration and on the retention of volatile compounds, obtained from mint extracts, in apple cylinders cv. Champion after drying using different methods. For this purpose, osmotic dehydration in filtrated and nonfiltrated concentrated chokeberry juice with the addition of mint extract was performed. Then, the process was followed by convective drying, vacuum‐microwave drying, or combined drying methods. Physical properties were determined such as open, closed, total porosity, shrinkage, and water activity. SPME and GC/MS analyses were performed to assess the changes in carvone contribution in the osmotic solutions as well as apple cylinders. Statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also presented. It was found that even though, filtration did not influence osmotic dehydration kinetics, it led to significantly (p <.05) higher carvone contribution in dried material than in the case of nonfiltrated solutions. Convective drying was significantly (p <.05) better in preserving carvone than other drying methods such as vacuum‐microwave drying and combined drying consisting of convective predrying and vacuum‐microwave finishing drying. Drying methods also affected physical parameters like open and closed porosities. Filtration did not influence drying kinetics but resulted in better retention of carvone in dried apples, especially when convective drying was applied.
Practical Applications
The study might be of special interest to food processing industry, as it presents new developments (filtration of osmotic solution) in osmotic dehydration that allow to achieve higher contents of volatile compounds (carvone) in dehydrated material after drying compared to conventional osmotic dehydration. The study shows how to work with complex osmotic solutions and obtain high quality dried materials. Obtained results demonstrate that filtration of concentrated juice used as osmotic solution can be applied to affect the selective penetration during osmotic dehydration. Addition of herbal extracts to the osmotic solution can further improve the chemical composition of the dried material and lead to higher contribution of volatile compounds. Osmotic dehydration followed by convective drying results in higher retention of carvone in comparison to other drying methods. The methods presented in the manuscript might be used to create other new compositions with high volatile concentration in the biological material after drying.
... In the work of Labra et al. (2004) [36], the farnesene content ranged from 6.97 to 13.53% to the detriment of environmental and genetic factors. In the work of Calín-Sánchez et al. (2012) [37], the concentrations of α-farnesene were affected by convective drying temperatures, presenting higher levels in the extraction of the fresh plant. Table 4 presents the constituents identified in the OE of A. rosaeodora. ...
The study evaluated the chemical profile, antimicrobial activity and toxicity of essential oils (EOs) of C. citratus, O. basilicum and A. rosaeodora. The EOs were extracted by hydrodistillation, the chemical profile was determined using the physicochemical parameters and the chemical composition was obtained by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The toxicity assay followed the Artemia salina Leach bioassay. To perform the antimicrobial activity, the Disc Diffusion technique and the Mueller Hinton Broth Dilution (MH) technique were used. The physicochemical parameters of the EOs showed satisfactory results. The major chemical composition of the EO of A. rosaeodora presented linalool (93.60%), the EO of C. citratus exhibited geranial (43.96%) and EO of O. basilicum found methyl chavicol. All EOs in this study had LC50 between 582 mg L-1 and 282 mg L-1. The antimicrobial activity of EO C. citratus demonstrated inhibition halos for S. aureus of 25 mm and 25 mm for E. coli, EO of O. basilicum exhibited inhibition halo of 18 mm for E.coli and 20 mm for S. aureus and EO of A. rosaeodora presented 11 mm for E. coli and 15 for S. aureus. As the values of MIC and MBC found, the EO of O. basilicum presented a more effective inhibitory action against S. aureus. It was concluded that the observed biological potentials encourage the application potentials in the efficiency of the control of pathogenic microorganisms.
... The same phenomena were also noticed in thyme [45]. Furthermore, increased wattage resulted in an increase in the maximum temperature recorded during VMD, which is consistent with other studies [46]. ...
Coriandrum sativum L. is a medicinal and aromatic plant spread around the world, with beneficial properties that are well recognized. Both coriander seeds and leaves are used for pharmaceutical and flavoring purposes. Even though coriander seeds tend to be more popular, the leaves are receiving a consistently growing interest, especially because of popularization of Mexican, Northern African, and Indian cuisines. This increased attention brings about the necessity for providing the product with guaranteed quality, which will retain its valuable characteristics, even after post-harvest treatment. For this reason, it is highly necessary to determine reliable protocols for cilantro preservation, which usually include drying procedures; in order to identify the optimal drying treatments, a spectrum of drying techniques—convective, vacuum-microwave, and a combination of convective and vacuum-microwave—were evaluated. Cilantro-based dried products were examined from the perspectives of volatile organic constituent composition and sensory quality. After headspace solid-phase microextraction-GC/MS analysis and sensory tests, the results demonstrate that convective drying at 70 °C for 120 min followed by vacuum-microwave drying at 360 W and convective drying at 70 °C were the optimal drying methods for preserving cilantro aroma quality, while convective drying at 70 °C for 120 min followed by convective finishing drying at 50 °C decreased cilantro aroma quality.
... The flavour of BO ice cream was in close agreement with Ramadan et al. (2013), who reported a flavour score of 6.56±0.88 in basil oil enriched ice cream. Calín-Sánchez et al. (2012) reported that sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) oil has an intense, fresh and floral note in the mouth and may have effects on the food products, which is likely to affect on the consumer's perceptions. The result of this study agrees with the findings of Kumar et al. (2013) that ice cream incorporated with 4% holy basil herbal extract has an intense flavour. ...
The frozen dairy products like ice cream act as vehicles
for incorporating natural-bioactive ingredients to provide various
nutritional health benefits. Basil is valued for its medicinal and
therapeutic properties. In the present study, basil oil
microcapsules were incorporated in ice cream. Ice cream mix with
10% milk fat, 12% sucrose, 0.5% stabilizer, and 0.5 % emulsifier
was prepared. Basil oil was encapsulated by spray drying in 1:2
(core to coating ratio) using sodium alginate and maltodextrin as
wall material. Basil oil microcapsules were incorporated at 0.5%
w/v of ice cream mix. After experimentation, it was found that the
sensorial attributes of ice cream incorporated with basil oil
microcapsules were slightly lower than the control ice cream.
The basil oil microcapsules brought considerable variations in
overrun and hardness of ice cream. Furthermore, the ice cream
incorporated with basil oil microcapsules shows high antioxidant
(94.57±0.06% DPPH inhibition) and phenolic content (76.80±0.11
μg GAE/ml) as compared to ice cream incorporated with basil oil
(93.54±0.13% DPPH inhibition and 58.35±0.17 μg GAE/ml total
phenolic content).
... Although researchers have investigated the influence of DLI on secondary metabolite accumulation, there are limited data on how these aroma and flavor profile changes affect consumer preference. Sensory analysis panels have been conducted to determine perceived differences in basil aroma due to radiation source, radiation quality, and temperature during production (Chang et al., 2007;Seely, 2017); to determine perceived differences in drying methods (Díaz-Maroto et al., 2004;Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012); and to characterize basil cultivars (D'Antuono et al., 2007;de Costa et al., 2014;Bernhardt et al., 2015;Tangpao et al., 2018). Although some of these studies connect production practices with consumer preference, recommendations based on radiation intensity are needed. ...
Altering the radiation intensity in controlled environments can influence volatile organic compound (VOC) biosynthetic pathways, including those of terpenoids and phenylpropanoids. In turn, the concentrations of these compounds can have a profound effect on flavor and sensory attributes. Because sweet basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) is a popular culinary herb, our objectives were to (1) determine the extent radiation intensity and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentration influence seedling terpenoid and phenylpropanoid concentrations; (2) determine if differences in phenylpropanoid and terpenoid concentrations influence consumer preference; and (3) characterize consumer preferences to better inform production and marketing strategies. “Nufar” sweet basil was grown with CO 2 concentrations of 500 or 1,000 μmol ⋅ mol –1 under sole-source radiation intensities of 100, 200, 400, or 600 μmol ⋅ m –2 ⋅ s –1 with a 16 h photoperiod to create daily light integrals of 6, 12, 23, and 35 mol ⋅ m –2 ⋅ d –1 . After 2 weeks, concentrations of the terpenoids 1,8 cineole and linalool and the phenylpropanoids eugenol and methyl chavicol were quantified, and consumer sensory panel evaluations were conducted to quantify preferences. Overall, increasing radiation intensity from 100 to 600 μmol ⋅ m –2 ⋅ s –1 increased 1,8 cineole, linalool, and eugenol concentrations 2. 4-, 8. 8-, and 3.3-fold, respectively, whereas CO 2 concentration did not influence VOCs. Contrary to our hypothesis, increased VOC concentrations were not correlated with consumer preference. However, overall liking was correlated with aftertaste and flavor. The conclusion that consumer preference is dependent on flavor can be drawn. However, increasing VOC concentrations to increase flavor did not improve flavor preference. Many consumer sensory preference characteristics (favorable preference for aftertaste, bitterness/sweetness, color, flavor, overall liking, and texture) were correlated with basil grown under a radiation intensity of 200 μmol ⋅ m –2 ⋅ s –1 . This led us to determine that consumers prefer to detect the characteristic basil flavor made up of 1,8 cineole, eugenol, and linalool, which was not as prevalent in basil grown under 100 μmol ⋅ m –2 ⋅ s –1 , but too high in basil grown under 400 and 600 μmol ⋅ m –2 ⋅ s –1 , which led to lower consumer preference.
... 5). A higher amount of EO in oven dried herb, compared to drying in natural conditions, has also been found in the case of basil [Calín-Sánchez et al. 2012], oregano [Di Cesare et al. 2004], lemon balm [Argyropoulos and Müller 2014], mint [Blanco et al. 2002], and thyme [Król and Kiełtyka-Dadasiewicz 2015]. As reported by Argyropoulos and Müller [2014], in the case of drying in natural conditions oil losses may also result, among others, from the destruction of skin cells of plant organs ...
This paper presents the results of a study conducted over the period 2016–2017 which was designed to determine to what extent crop irrigation and raw material drying process determine the content and composition of lavender essential oil. In cultivation with irrigation, a higher yield of fresh and yield of air-dried inflorescences was obtained compared to cultivation without irrigation. The use of supplementary irrigation in lavender crops contributed to an increased amount of essential oil (EO) compared to plants without irrigation. The main components of the essential oil were Linalyl acetate, Linalool, and E-Caryophyllene. In EO obtained from plants cultivated with irrigation, the share of oxygenated monoterpenes (OM) was higher and the share of hydrogenated monoterpenes (HM) was lower than in the oil from plants without irrigation. The EO content in lavender flowers dried at a temperature of 30°C was twice higher than in those dried in natural conditions. In 2016 in which the air temperatures were high and a greater number of sunshine hours was recorded in July and August, plants accumulated more EO than in 2017. Study shows that there are prospects for practical application of crop irrigation in lavender cultivation and of raw material preservation method in order to modify EO content and chemical composition.
... The Ocimum basilicum L. (basil) is one of the most important members of the Lamiaceae family that belongs to an exclusive medicinal and aromatic family of flowering plants (Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012). The parts of the plant that are used are the fresh flowering branches and seeds. ...
In this study, basil leaves were dried using natural, microwave-, and convective-drying methods from an initial moisture content of 90.90 ± 0.1 % to a final one of 8.21 ± 0.12 %. The natural drying was done in a controlled room at a temperature of 25 ± 1 °C and relative humidity of 60 ± 5 %. The microwave-drying processes were performed using 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 W microwave output powers, while 50 °C was used in convective-drying. The drying periods of different drying methods lasted between 16.5 and 1620 min. Consequently, the best drying method regarding drying period, energy consumption, protein amount, macronutrients (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn and B), micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn and B), water-soluble vitamins (ascorbic acid, Vitamin B3 and Vitamin B6), fat-soluble vitamins (beta-carotene, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K), color parameters (L, a, b, C and α) and chlorophyll concentration was determined to be microwave-drying at 700 W.
... Drying is by far the most widely used preservation method, as drying inhibits microbial growth, and is also the easiest way to preserve chemical composition. Different types of drying have been applied for herb processing, such as: shade-drying, sun-drying, hot air drying, freeze drying (Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al., 2013), CO2 drying (Bušić et al., 2014), vibrofluidization (Lima-Corrêa et al., 2017) and convective-pre-drying and vacuum microwave finish-drying (Calín-Sánchez et al., 2012). The quality standard for dried products is freeze drying, which preserves the overall appearance of the original product (Telfser et al., 2019). ...
Common basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), one of the most important aromatic perennial herbs due to its essential oil composition, belongs to Lamiaceae (Labiatae) family. Basil is an economically important herb and it is considered one of the finest aromatic herbs, being widely used as flavor in food industry. Basil samples were characterized in terms of chlorophyll content, total polyphenols, antioxidant activity, and volatile oil content. The fresh harvested leaves and the processed powder from leaves were hydro-distilled for 3 h in a Clevenger-type apparatus. The volatile oil was measured and collected for further GC-MS analysis. As drying technology, freeze-drying was used until the samples reached a loss of 85% from the fresh weigh, with the final dry matter content of 95.86%. Variations for the main constituents of volatile oil: 1,8-cineole, linalool, methyl chavicol, eugenol, α-bergamotene, and α-epi-cadinol were observed after processing.
... It is also called reihan and rehan in Persian and Arabic language, respectively. The most important member of Ocimum genus, are Ocimum americanum L., Ocimum basilicum L., Ocimum hispidulum Schum, Ocimum tenuiflorum L., Ocimum sanctum L. and Ocimum ratissimum L. [1][2][3] Common names of Octimum basilicum is sweet basil, while common names of O. americanum are hoary basil, hairy basil, American basil, lemon basil and spice basil. Common names O. campechianum are least basil, Peruvian basil and spice basil, and African basil, tree basil and shrubby basil are common names of O. gratissimum. ...
Basil (Ocimum Basilicum) is one of the most important crops with essential oils as well as polyphenols, phenolics, flavonoids and phenolic acids. This annual plant belongs to mint family, and indigenous to tropical regions. Basil leaves also has tremendous pharmaceutical benefits and it is common to use in rice, meat, stews and soups. Traditionally, it has been used in kidney problems, as a haemostyptic in childbirth, earache, menstrual irregularities, arthritis, anorexia, treatment of colds and malaria. Basil has been shown positive effects against viral, fungal, bacterial and some infections. Basil leaves have been used in treatment of fevers, coughs, flu, asthma, bronchitis, influenza and diarrhea. Basil Seed Mucilage, commonly known as basil seed gum. Basil seed mucilage can be considered as thickening, stabilizing, fat substitute, texurizer, surface-active and emulsifying hydrocolloid. The most important pharmacological uses of basil are anti-cancer activity, radioprotective activity, anti-microbial activity, anti-inflammatory effects, immunomodulatory activity, anti-stress activity, anti-diabetic activity, anti-pyretic activity, anti-arthritic activity, anti-oxidant activity, as a prophylactic agent and in cardiovascular disease.
... Previous studies have shown the basil major volatile constituents were linalool (3.94 mg/g), eugenol (0.896 mg/g) and 1,8-cineole (0.288 mg/g), which coincided with our findings. Linalool and 1,8-cineole were the main compounds in both vegetative and flowering stages, as also observed in different studies (Di Cesare et al. 2003;Vieira and Simon 2006;Hussain et al. 2008;Calín-Sánchez et al. 2012). Based on PCA analysis, the flowering stage released mainly linalool, myrcene,1,8cineole, β-copaene, α-guaiene, γ-muurolene, valencene, α-bulnesene and γ-cadinene, whereas the vegetative stage released α-pinene, 2-carene, α-terpinene, p-cymene, (Z)-βocimene, γ-terpinene, methyl eugenol and an unidentified sesquiterpene. ...
The use of chemical pesticides as a main pest control strategy has been highly criticised due to environmental pollution and negative effects on natural enemies of pests. In modern farming, it is essential to implement integrated pest management approaches that seek to control insect pests without causing environmental damage, e.g. the use of companion plants. Basil and Mexican marigold are often used as companion plants to attract greenhouse whiteflies, hence reducing damage to solanaceous crops, but the mechanism and role of volatile cues in crop protection strategies are unknown. This study found that both flowering basil and marigold were preferred to tomato by the greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) in Y-tube olfactometer bioassays. PCA revealed that some volatiles were more correlated to one stage than to another. The dominant volatile constituents of Mexican marigold are limonene, dihydrotagetone, (Z)-β-ocimene, α-pinene, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, and those from basil are linalool, 1,8-cineole, eugenol and β-elemene. Among these dominant compounds, 1,8-cineole and (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate elicited strong attraction in greenhouse whitefly at 0.01%, whereas (Z)-β-ocimene and linalool elicited strong repellence at 0.1% and 1% dosages. This suggested that the basil flowering stage attraction is due to 1,8-cineole. These volatiles demonstrated potential as lures or bio-repellents and could be used in a “push–pull” semiochemical approach for greenhouse whitefly management.
Background: Ocimum americanum L., commonly known as Hoary basil, is a wild aromatic shrub traditionally used to treat different ailments. Its leaves, flowers and aerial parts have been widely studied to evaluate its medicinal potential such as lowering blood pressure, treatment of microbial infections, malaria, cold, liver and eye problems. Purpose: This study aims to provide an in-depth review of ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of O. americanum, to evaluate its benefits, challenges and potential future prospects. Methods: All the information about O. americanum was collected from various platforms, including google scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, plants of the world online and Research4Life. The acceptance criteria of the collected information based on the PICOS model. The GRADE approach was used to analyze and evaluate the quality of the collected information. Results: This study showed that O. americanum has tremendous therapeutic potential to be integrated into mainstream medical practice to manage various medical conditions. The inconsistence of the phytoconstituents among the plant parts resulted in a significant variation of pharmacological activities. Plant originality, genetic variability and extraction techniques are among the factors contributing to the variation of phytoconstituents that are responsible for pharmacological activities. Conclusion: This study revealed that O. americanum is a potential medicinal plant for mitigating various medical conditions. However, future study should continue to focus on the bioactive compounds and their mechanisms of action. Additionally, the utilization of the O. americanum for the development of drugs as well as quality evaluation in clinical settings are highly recommended.
Kualitas karkas pada ruminansia seperti sapi, kambing dan domba
maupun non ruminansia seperti unggas memerlukan penanganan pasca panen. Karkas merupakan bagian dari tubuh ayam setelah disembelih dengan cara halal, pencabutan bulu dan melakukan pengeluaran pada jeroan, tanpa kepala, kaki, paru, dan atau
ginjal. Karkas pada konteks ini dapat berupa karkas segar atau pascapanen,
karkas segar dingin dan karkas yang telah dibekukan. Karkas yang berkualitas
dihasilkan dengan pemotongan berdasarkan kaidah atau teknik yang tepat.
Unggas biasanya dipuasakan terlebih dahulu selama 12 jam, dilakukan
penimbangan, dan pemotongan. Penyembelihan dilaksanakan dengan cara
memotong 3 saluran yaitu saluran nafas (trakea), kerongkongan (esofagus)
dan pembuluh darah (vena jugolaris dan arteri carotis). Selanjutnya
pengeluaran darah berlangsung selama beberapa menit dan penimbangan.
Proses scalding dapat dilaksanakan selanjutnya proses pencabutan bulu,
pengeluaran jeroan, pemotongan kepala sampai leher dan kaki.
Pada karkas ruminansia sapi menurut SNI 3932: 2008 bahwa karkas
merupakan bagian dari tubuh ternak yang sehat disembelih secara halal
kemudian dikuliti, dikeluarkan jeroan, dipotong kepala dan kaki mulai dari
tarsus/karpus ke bagian bawah, organ reproduksi dan ambing, ekor dan lemak
yang berlebihan. Dikenal juga konformasi karkas yang berupa jaringan otot
2
skeletal serta kumpulan jaringan lemak sebagai unit komersial dan
berhubungan dengan tulang rangka. Berbagai cara penghitungan jumlah
karkas dalam setiap pemotongan sapi biasanya menghasilkan karkas antara
45% sampai 55% dari bobot hidup seekor ternak. Pada domba berkisar antara
40% sampai 45%. Sebagai contoh apabila kita membeli sapi dengan bobot 450
kg maka akan diperoleh bobot karkas 202.5 kg sampai 247.5 kg. Bobot pada
daging tergantung dari perlakuan sebelum ternak dipotong. Perlakuan yang
baik akan memperoleh berat daging yang maksimal.
Perhitungan kualitas pada karkas kambing dan domba dapat dilaksanakan
pasca pemotongan dengan berbagai metode. Penimbangan karkas dan
menentukan konformasi dapat dijadikan pilihan. Pemotongan domba maupun
kambing dapat dilakukan dengan memuasakan terlebih dahulu selama 17 jam
kemudian dilakukan penimbangan untuk menentukan bobot hidup.
Penyembelihan dilaksanakan dengan cara halal, dikuliti, dikeluarkan darah
dan diambil berbagai organ bagian dalam yaitu saluran pencernaan, kepala,
kulit, dan kaki mulai dari carpus ke bagian bawah sehingga bobot karkas dapat
diketahui.
Daging merupakan pascapanen hasil peternakan berupa bahan pangan
dengan kandungan gizi yang tinggi tersusun dari jaringan otot dan lemak yang
melekat tulang. Daging yang baik dipotong secara halal dan memenuhi
persyaratan hygiene sanitasi. Daging ASUH merupakan daging yang Aman
dan terhindar dari bibit penyakit, Sehat dan mengandung zat yang diperlukan
tubuh, Utuh yakni tidak tercampur dengan bagian lainya yang tidak layak
untuk dikonsumsi dan Halal merupakan perolehan hasil produksi ternak yang
tidak diharamkan dan disembelih sesuai syariat islam
Kualitas karkas pada ruminansia seperti sapi, kambing dan domba maupun non ruminansia seperti unggas memerlukan penanganan pasca panen. Karkas merupakan bagian dari tubuh ayam setelah disembelih dengan cara halal, pencabutan bulu dan melakukan pengeluaran pada jeroan, tanpa kepala, kaki, paru, dan atau ginjal. Karkas pada konteks ini dapat berupa karkas segar atau pascapanen, karkas segar dingin dan karkas yang telah dibekukan. Karkas yang berkualitas dihasilkan dengan pemotongan berdasarkan kaidah atau teknik yang tepat. Unggas biasanya dipuasakan terlebih dahulu selama 12 jam, dilakukan penimbangan, dan pemotongan. Penyembelihan dilaksanakan dengan cara memotong 3 saluran yaitu saluran nafas (trakea), kerongkongan (esofagus) dan pembuluh darah (vena jugolaris dan arteri carotis). Selanjutnya pengeluaran darah berlangsung selama beberapa menit dan penimbangan. Proses scalding dapat dilaksanakan selanjutnya proses pencabutan bulu, pengeluaran jeroan, pemotongan kepala sampai leher dan kaki.
Pada karkas ruminansia sapi menurut SNI 3932: 2008 bahwa karkas merupakan bagian dari tubuh ternak yang sehat disembelih secara halal kemudian dikuliti, dikeluarkan jeroan, dipotong kepala dan kaki mulai dari tarsus/karpus ke bagian bawah, organ reproduksi dan ambing, ekor dan lemak yang berlebihan. Dikenal juga konformasi karkas yang berupa jaringan otot
skeletal serta kumpulan jaringan lemak sebagai unit komersial dan berhubungan dengan tulang rangka. Berbagai cara penghitungan jumlah karkas dalam setiap pemotongan sapi biasanya menghasilkan karkas antara 45% sampai 55% dari bobot hidup seekor ternak. Pada domba berkisar antara 40% sampai 45%. Sebagai contoh apabila kita membeli sapi dengan bobot 450 kg maka akan diperoleh bobot karkas 202.5 kg sampai 247.5 kg. Bobot pada daging tergantung dari perlakuan sebelum ternak dipotong. Perlakuan yang baik akan memperoleh berat daging yang maksimal.
Perhitungan kualitas pada karkas kambing dan domba dapat dilaksanakan pasca pemotongan dengan berbagai metode. Penimbangan karkas dan menentukan konformasi dapat dijadikan pilihan. Pemotongan domba maupun kambing dapat dilakukan dengan memuasakan terlebih dahulu selama 17 jam kemudian dilakukan penimbangan untuk menentukan bobot hidup. Penyembelihan dilaksanakan dengan cara halal, dikuliti, dikeluarkan darah dan diambil berbagai organ bagian dalam yaitu saluran pencernaan, kepala, kulit, dan kaki mulai dari carpus ke bagian bawah sehingga bobot karkas dapat diketahui.
Daging merupakan pascapanen hasil peternakan berupa bahan pangan dengan kandungan gizi yang tinggi tersusun dari jaringan otot dan lemak yang melekat tulang. Daging yang baik dipotong secara halal dan memenuhi persyaratan hygiene sanitasi. Daging ASUH merupakan daging yang Aman dan terhindar dari bibit penyakit, Sehat dan mengandung zat yang diperlukan tubuh, Utuh yakni tidak tercampur dengan bagian lainya yang tidak layak untuk dikonsumsi dan Halal merupakan perolehan hasil produksi ternak yang tidak diharamkan dan disembelih sesuai syariat islam.
Solar-operated distillation unit (SDU) was designed and fabricated for extraction of valuable essentials from aromatic crops with a reduced cost of operation without carbon-credits to the environment. It comprised of distillation still, mesh grid frame, packed column, condenser, oil receiver, energy meter, resistive heating elements, and solar panels. This improved SDU can process 20 kg of aromatic crops in a batch type of operation. Resistive heating elements (4.5kW) with controllers powered by the solar photovoltaic panel (5kW) were used to produce the uniform steam generation within 20 min. This produced steam was adequate for continuous distillation (∼3 h) of aromatic crops to collect valuable essentials in an oil receiver. The total power consumed by the SDU in carrying out the distillation operation was calculated (13.5kWh). The extraction studies of Ocimum cultivars (CIM-Shishir, 100 and 102) through SDU and Clevenger-type apparatus (standard set) revealed that the SDU process was yielded improved essential oil (0.36–0.73%). GC-FID and GC/MS analyses divulged that the essential oil obtained through SDU was superior in quality with improved percentage of biomarkers such as linalool (upto 62.8%) and methyl chavicol. Designed SDU has saved about 20 kg of wood per batch as compared to practiced wood-based distillation operation.
Dry-hopping process is the cold extraction of substances found in hops into beer. This method has gained popularity among beer brewers in recent years because it aids in the introduction of intense flavour and aroma into fermented beverages. However, using a large amount of hop material may result in significant losses of spent hops and beer. In this study, test batches of beer hopped with recycled hops were made with varying dosages of recycled material. Beers brewed with recycled hops had lower IBU (international bittering units) and lower concentrations of hop-derived volatiles (such as aromadendrene, α-terpineol, methyl geranate and α-caryophyllene), but they retained the same level of antioxidant activities (assessed by ABTS∙⁺, DPPH∙ and FRAP assays), concentration of phenolic compounds and many yeast-derived volatile metabolites as the model beer (hopped with new hops) and acquired higher notes for taste parameter in the sensory analysis.
Antioxidant activities, total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC) of essential oils (EOs) obtained by four extraction methods and four mineral element compositions of Nectaroscordum tripedale (Trautv.) Grossh edible leaves were analyzed for the first time. The major components in fresh and dried leaf oils were Germacrene-D (35.52 – 62.36%), diphenylamine (20.87 – 6.21%), bicyclogermacrene (3.28 – 5.11%), α-Farnesene (1.42 – 2.26%), dibutyl disulfide (2.19 – 0.35%), E-Caryophyllene (1.53 – 2.38%) and octadecane (2.08 – 0.52%). The highest TPC and TFC were found in decoction (40.40 ± 0.35 and 36.41 ± 0.32 mg QCE/g of dried leaf, respectively). Decoction had also the most pronounced antioxidant capacity (24.17 ± 0.51 %). The highest level of mineral elements was observed for Fe (404.4 ± 2.2 mg/kg). The results indicated that the antioxidant activity of the species may be partly due to the presence of flavonoids. Dominance of sesquiterpenoids and unusual presence of diphenylamine in the EO and the major presence of iron as microelement were the other findings which are suggested to be noticed for further study.
Hazelnut (Corylusavellana L.) is a very important shelled nut in Turkey as well as in Italy, Azerbaijan, and the USA. It is one of the most widely used nuts worldwide due to its nutritional and taste properties. Because of its health-beneficial properties, it has been designated as a functional food. Hazelnut oil comprises well-proportioned aroma, fatty acid, phenolic, and antioxidant profile are responsible for the protection against detrimental elements particularly the free radicals. This chapter gives an outline of the scientific works available on the biochemical (fatty acids, aroma, key odorants, phenolics), antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of hazelnut oil. Owing to its unique health-beneficial, nutritional, and bioactive properties, hazelnut oil has recently found its place on the vastly competitive global edible oil market.
The recurrence of Salmonella in low moisture foods and the implementation of the FSMA rule requires a need to validate legacy and novel processing technologies. In this dissertation, a legacy thermal (extrusion), a novel thermal (radiofrequency (RF) heating), and a non-thermal (chlorine dioxide) technology, were evaluated as intervention technologies for Salmonella in low moisture foods. The twin-screw extruder was performed at different levels of screw speeds, temperatures, moisture contents, and fat contents to understand the impact of processing conditions on Salmonella inactivation in oat flour. At temperature >65°C, the Salmonella population was below the detection limit. At 55°C, Salmonella reduction ranged from 0.0 to 9.0 log CFU/g. A response surface model developed for mean residence time (MRT) showed that temperature had no significant effect, whereas screw speed, moisture content, and fat content had a significant linear effect on the MRT. On replacing the screw speed with MRT in the previously developed microbial inactivation models, the R2 value for Salmonella and Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 increased slightly from 0.83 to 0.85 and 0.84 to 0.89, respectively. As MRT is challenging to measure, a slight improvement in the accuracy of the models does not warrant the use of MRT in the inactivation models. The thermal inactivation kinetics of Salmonella and E. faecium was determined in dried basil leaves using a dry heating method. As the water activity and temperature increased, the D-value of both microorganisms decreased. During RF heating, the inoculated sample was placed in the identified cold spot and was heated for 45, 55, 65 s. Both microorganisms were below the detection limit at 65 s without significantly affecting the quality of dried basil leaves. The results from the chlorine dioxide gas treatment showed that as the gas concentration and relative humidity increases, the D-value of both microorganisms decreases. The results presented in this dissertation can help the food industries in planning in-plant validation studies for improving the microbial safety of low moisture foods. Advisors: Drs. Jeyamkondan Subbiah & Terry Howell Jr.
In industrial green tea processing, people usually use endless chain pressure (ECP) dryers and fluidized bed dryers. ECP dryers have disadvantages including case hardening, uneven dryness, high energy consumption and long drying time, while fluidized bed dryers still have disadvantages of long drying time and high hot air capacity to ensure tea leaves can be fluidized perfectly. Therefore, another alternative dryer is needed that can overcome the problems in the ECP dryer and fluidized bed dryer. This study aims to determine the comparison of drying characteristics between vibrating fluidized bed dryer (VFBD) that have been developed previously with microwave dryers. Drying condition on both dryer was set at 80oC, the airflow velocity at VFBD was 1.09 m/s. Result shows the time needed by the microwave at temperature to dry 500 grams of tea leaves to reach a constant weight is 24 minutes, whereas if using VFBD it takes 85 minute. In VFBD, the constant rate period takes 25% of total drying time, and the rest is critical and falling rate period. While in microwave drying, around 50% of total drying time is constant rate period and the rest is critical and falling rate period. The falling rate period in VFBD requires longer time, which is up to 75% of the total drying time. Highest drying rate in VFBD dryer was 0.08 gr water/gr solid.min, while microwave dryer was 0.14 gr water/gr solid.min.
1) Aim of the study: The main aim of the study was to examine the quality and properties of sweet corn kernels treated by osmotic dehydration (OD) and different drying methods. 2) Methods: Drying kinetics, texture profile analysis (TPA), color and a descriptive sensory analysis were performed in the study. 3) Results: The study found that the use of vacuum‐microwave drying (VMD) as a part of the drying process had a significant impact on the formation of crispy characteristic of the sample. Also, application of osmotic dehydration performed in concentrated apple juice followed by drying resulted in a fruitier, not that crispy but juicier material when compared to non‐OD samples. 4) Conclusions: At the end, VMD was selected as optimal for production of crunchy sweet corn kernels while OD/VMD was recommended for obtaining juicier, less crunchy material with improved taste as a result of OD.
Drying is considered as the most common and fundamental technique for the postharvest preservation of herbs and is regarded as an excellent process to retain bioactive compounds. Past studies suggest that the choice of drying method and the parameters applied can influence the chemical and biological activities of herbs because pronounced differences in chemical content and composition are observed between the dried products obtained at different conditions. This fact has warranted numerous studies over the years to determine the influence of various drying methods on the content of bioactive compounds in functional food. This chapter will discuss the techniques and issues of herbs drying.
The current microbial reduction techniques have low consumer acceptance or may have an adverse effect on the quality of spices and herbs. This requires a need for an alternative decontamination method that can effectively reduce the microbial load and minimize the food quality losses. Radio frequency (RF) heating is a dielectric heating method that has been proven effective to pasteurize various low-moisture foods. The present research was designed to evaluate the efficacy of RF heating for the reduction of Salmonella in dried basil leaves, evaluate the suitability of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for Salmonella, and assess the quality of dried basil leaves post RF treatment. Dried basil leaves inoculated with a Salmonella cocktail or E. faecium were conditioned to a higher moisture content such that the moisture content of the treated sample post RF treatment fall within the typical range. The inoculated samples were packaged in the teabag and placed in the identified cold spot (top center) of a laminated paper tray filled with uninoculated sample. Samples were subjected to RF heating for 45, 55, and 65 s during which the cold-spot temperature reached 65, 80, and 100°C, respectively. The results showed that at 55 s, Salmonella and E. faecium population decreased by 4.8 and 2.7 log CFU/g, respectively. Both microorganisms reached below the detection limit (>6.5 log CFU/g reduction) at 65 s of RF heating. Therefore, the quality analysis of the dried basil leaves was performed with the samples treated with RF for 65 s. The results showed that the RF heating had no significant effect on the quality parameters (color, total volatiles, total phenolics, and antioxidant activity) of the dried basil leaves. Therefore, RF processing results in rapid heating of the dried basil leaves enhancing food safety with insignificant impact on quality. Furthermore, the food processing facility may use E. faecium as an appropriate surrogate for Salmonella when conducting an in-plant validation study.
The present review focuses on the various Ocimum species, often referred to as the “king of the herbs.” The botany of more than 50 species of herbs and shrubs belonging to this genus is thoroughly reported, along with traditional uses and cultivation techniques. Since basil is a rich source of natural compounds, details on the several chemical constituents of essential oil, plant parts and derived food and medical products, such as monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, phenylpropanoids, anthocyanins, and phenolic acids, as well as their effect on sensory qualities are included. Furthermore, particular emphasis is given to the application of biotechnology for the clonal micropropagation of basil lines with improved traits and the use of basil tissue culture for the derivation of valuable compounds, such as antioxidant phenolics and essential oil components.
Dried basil leaves were irradiated with two different doses of gamma rays and with microwaves. Comparison with a blank sample was performed by capillary gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) which identified 47 peaks. Linalool and estragol showed the greatest increases with γ-radiation and dropped with microwaves. The composition of essential oils was different, except for a few compounds which increased or decreased regardless of the treatment. Gamma radiation caused the most evident changes in the composition profiles. A sensory test confirmed significant differences between the extracts. The panellists preferred the gamma treated sample, while the microwaved sample was the least appreciated.
Total antioxidant capacities of 133 Indian medicinal plant species sampled from 64 families were assessed by ABTS, DPPH and FRAP assays, and their total phenolic contents measured by Folin–Ciocalteu assay. These species exhibited a broad range of antioxidant activities, varying from 0.16 to 500.70 mmol TEAC/100 g DW in the ABTS assay. The antioxidant activity values similarly varied with the DPPH and FRAP assays. Significant and positive linear correlations were found between total antioxidant capacities and phenolic contents (R = 0.89–0.97), indicating that phenolics were the dominant antioxidant constituents in the tested medicinal plants. Preliminary identification of the major phenolic compounds from 83 selected medicinal plants by reversed-phase HPLC revealed phenolic acids, tannins, flavonoids, curcuminoids, coumarins, lignans, and quinines. The fruit of Terminalia chebula, pericarp of Punica granatum and gall of Rhus succedanea showed very high levels of hydrolysable tannins, and the gum of Acacia catechu presented very high levels of catechin and epicatechin in addition to tannins. Major phenolics in many of the medicinal plants were identified for the first time (e.g., Euphorbia lathyrus, Ipomoea turpethum, and Picrorrhiza kurroa). This systematic investigation of a large number of Indian medicinal plants proved important for understanding their chemical constituents and functionality in Ayurvedic medicine, and contributes to the search for natural sources of potent antioxidants.
A b s t r a c t . Oregano was dehydrated by three methods: freeze drying, convective drying and vac- uum-microwave drying (VM). Freeze drying was conducted at temperature of -60 °C and under pressure of 65 Pa. The temperature of heating plate was 30 °C. Convective drying was performed at three tempera- tures: 50, 60 and 70 °C. Hot air velocity was 1 m s -1. In VM dehydration the pressure in drying chamber was changing from 4 to 6 kPa and three microwave power levels were applied: 240, 360 and 480W. The decrease in moisture content of oregano dehydrated in convection was described by an exponential func- tion, while in VM method by a linear function in th e first drying period and by an exponential functio n in the second period. Moisture content at the critical point which divides drying curves into two periods was about 1.4 kg kg -1dm regardless of the drying temperature used. The s tudy revealed that the increase in drying temperature (convective dehydration) and in microwave power (VM) resulted in decreasing of drying time. Freeze drying was the least destructiv e method of drying because of the antioxidant activ ity. The most harmful method was convective drying at temperatures of 60 and 70 °C. It was observed that higher phenolic content in dried oregano may be reached by reduction of temperature in convective method or by increasing the microwave power in V-M method. K e y w o r d s : oregano, drying kinetics, antioxidant act ivity, polyphenols
Research on the kinetics of convection drying of vegetables has shown that the first period of drying exists, and non-linear changes in water content of the vegetables occur. The non-linear changes in the water content result from shrinkage of the drying materials. A mathematical, non-linear theoretical model for the first period of drying contains a coefficient N, the value of which depends on the surface shrinkage of the dried material. Up to now, the value ofN has been determined by a process of trial and error. In this paper, a method is presented for determining the value of the coefficient N analytically for cut vegetables. Models for the coefficient N for bodies having the shape of either a cuboid or a circular cylinder are formulated. For cut vegetables, the value of the coefficient N can also be determined by the Monte-Carlo method, using a reversed distribution function of the coefficient N treated as a random variable, and established on the basis of its empirical distribution. This method can be useful in practical applications. The proposed models were verified empirically for cut vegetables, such as garden beet and carrots.
Aroma compounds in the extracts of basil leaves (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme leaves (Thymus vulgaris L.) were identified by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The major aroma constituents of basil were 3,7-dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol (linalool; 3.94 mg/g), 1-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl) benzene (estragole; 2.03 mg/g), methyl cinnamate (1.28 mg/g), 4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol (eugenol; 0.896 mg/g), and 1,8-cineole (0.288 mg/g). The major aroma constituents of thyme were 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol (thymol; 8.55 mg/g), 4-isopropyl-2-methylphenol (carvacrol; 0.681 mg/g), linalool (0.471 mg/g), α-terpineol (0.291 mg/g), and 1,8-cineole (0.245 mg/g). Twelve aroma constituents of basil and thyme were examined for their antioxidant activities using the aldehyde/carboxylic acid assay. Eugenol, thymol, carvacrol, and 4-allylphenol showed stronger antioxidant activities than did the other components tested in the assay. They all inhibited the oxidation of hexanal by almost 100% for a period of 30 days at a concentration of 5 μg/ml. Their antioxidant activities were comparable to those of the known antioxidants, α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT).
The influence of the drying method on volatile compounds of Origanum vulgare was evaluated. The drying methods tested were convective (CD) at 60°C and vacuum-microwave (VMD), as well as a combination of convective pre-drying and VM finish-drying (CPD–VMFD). The volatile compounds of fresh and dried oregano were extracted by steam-hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC–MS. Oregano drying kinetics was described by a simple exponential model for CD and CPD–VMFD, while VMD kinetics consisted of two periods: linear until a critical point and exponential beyond that point. Thirty-four compounds were tentatively identified, with carvacrol, thymol, and γ-terpinene, being the major components. The total volatiles concentration of fresh oregano (33.0gkg−1) decreased significantly during drying, independently of the method used (CD: 10.2gkg−1, CPD–VMFD: 13.1gkg−1, and VMD: 27.9gkg−1). The final conclusion was that VM dehydrated Polish oregano was of better aromatic quality than that dried using hot air.
Microwave vacuum drying of banana slices was investigated experimentally. This type of drying procedure is preferable to conventional drying techniques in order to avoid product degradation due to high temperatures encountered in convective drying. The drying process was examined by introducing pulsegenerated microwave power in banana samples. The material temperature was monitored. Temperature peaks in the last stages of drying indicated that drying could be favoured if temperature was maintained below a maximum level, so that the final product should not be burned by hot spots during microwave drying. This procedure produced dehydrated products of excellent quality as examined by taste, aroma, smell and rehydration tests.
Vacuum microwave drying of carrot slices was compared to air drying and freeze drying on the basis of rehydration potential, color, density, nutritional value, and textural properties. Vacuum microwave dried (VMD) carrot slices had higher rehydration potential, higher α-carotene and vitamin C content, lower density, and softer texture than those prepared by air drying. Carrot slices that were air dried (AD) were darker, and had less red and yellow hues. Less color deterioration occurred when vacuum-microwave drying was applied. Although freeze drying of carrot slices yielded a product with improved rehydration potential, appearance, and nutrient retention, the VMD carrot slices were rated as equal to or better than freeze dried (FD) samples by a sensory panel for color, texture, flavor and overall preference, in both the dry and rehydrated state.
Whole garlic cloves, halved and sliced were subjected to vacuum-microwave (VM) drying at three microwave power levels: 240, 480 and 720W. The process of drying was described by a sigmoid function. Slicing the cloves prolonged the time of drying. An increase in microwave power resulted in increased drying rate. The temperature of garlic samples measured in a vacuum flask amounted to 50°C till the moisture content of 0.6g/g dry matter. Further drying of garlic was associated with temperature increase to about 70°C. Decreasing moisture content, till 0.6g/g dry matter, was accompanied by decreasing relative volume of the dried material. On exceeding this value no further change in volume of the slices was observed, though for whole cloves and halves a marked increase in volume was observed. Lowering of moisture content below 0.6g/g dry matter and increasing microwave power caused an increase in garlic cloves compressive strength. Increasing the degree of the material subdivision and microwave power resulted in increased water absorption capacity. Drying the garlic samples with the VM made the color brighter, shifting it towards red and blue, compared to fresh garlic cloves. The best retention of volatile oils was observed for garlic slices dehydrated with microwaves at 720W.
A headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) method coupled to gas chromatography–ion trap mass spectrometry (GC–ITMS) has been developed and applied for profiling of volatile compounds released from five Ocimum basilicum L. cultivars grown under both organic and conventional conditions. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC–TOFMS) was employed for confirmation of identity of volatiles extracted from the basil headspace by SPME.
Linalool, methyl chavicol, eugenol, bergamotene, and methyl cinnamate were the dominant volatile components, the relative content of which was found to enable differentiating between the cultivars examined. The relative content of some sesquiterpenes, hydrocarbons benzenoid compounds, and monoterpene hydrocarbons was lower in dried and frozen leaves as compared to fresh basil leaves.
A sensory analysis of the all examined samples proved the differences between evaluated cultivars.
Ten Italian cultivars of basil were studied to establish a possible relation between morphological characteristics and essential oil composition. The morphological parameters were recorded at the beginning of the flowering stage and the essential oils, obtained by hydrodistillation, were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Among the cultivars, four phenotypes were distinguished on the basis of leaf size, shape, and color and plant height, weight, branching, and leafing. The composition of essential oils, all characterized by a high content of linalool, included three chemotypes: “linalool,” “linalool and methylchavicol,” and “linalool and eugenol”. Two chemotypes each had their own suite of morphological characters, whereas two groups of cultivars, with different morphological parameters belonged to the same chemotype. Keywords: Basil cultivars; Ocimum basilicum L.; morphological characteristics; essential oil composition; chemotypes
Steam-distilled leaf and flower oils of Ocimum basilicum L. and Ocimum rubrum L. were subjected to qualitative and quantitative study using one- and two-dimensional tlc, glc, and ir techniques. Many constituents were identified, linalool and methyl chavicol being the most prominent. The physicochemical constants of the investigated oils were also measured.
Rosemary, a hard stemmed herb, is characterized by an aroma similar to pine. Twenty-five components of Indian rosemary oil have been identified by GC and GC-MS analysis. Fresh rosemary volatiles contained 75–80% oxygenated terpenes which included, a character-impact compound, verbenone, in a high concentration of 5.7%. Fresh rosemary leaves were subjected to convection (45C) and microwave (175, 385 and 595 Watts) drying and the attended effect on flavor components is reported. Despite faster drying and good color retention, the microwave drying was not useful to dry and preserve the herb due to heavy loss of volatile oil during drying.
The yield, quality and composition of essential oils from sweet basil plants grown in Israel have been investigated. It has been found that at the same phenological stage the content of essential oil in the plant increases towards the autumn. The oil content increases as the plant develops and reaches its maximum in the full bloom stage. The presence of two chemotypes (A and B) of Ocimum basilicum L. plants was established. The variation in composition of the oil during the period of bloom was investigated for both chemotypes. Up to 25 % of the total of basil oil of type A and 50 % of type B oil were extracted from distillation water by the poroplast column technique. This secondary oil, of pleasant odour, contains mainly the most polar compounds, such as eugenol, linalool and cineol.
The effect of drying treatment on the aroma characteristics of rosemary (Rosmarinus Officinalis L.) was studied using the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) with a trained panel and by Free Choice Profiling (FCP) analysis with a consumer group. Differences between samples were observed after applying Principal Component Analysis to the QDA data and Generalized Procrustes Analysis to the FCP data. The highest differences were found between fresh rosemary samples and dried samples. However, dried samples (obtained by oven-drying at 45C and commercial samples purchased at the markets and stored for 6 months) showed significant differences in their sensory characteristics. Odor detection thresholds of the fresh rosemary leaves were calculated in water and in potato sauce, and significant differences were found.
A large sample of fresh basil, Ocimum basilicum L., was dried at 45°C for 12 hours and stored. After three, six and seven months, qualitative and quantitative analyses of the essential oil were performed by steam distillation and GC-MS. The principal components found in the essential oils were: methylchavicol, eugenol, linalol and 1,8-cineole: the content of methylchavicol and eugenol decreased drastically after drying and storage, while that of linalol and 1,8 cineole increased over the same period. The losses of total essential oil after drying were 19%, 62% and 66% at three, six and seven months storage respectively. Several types of reaction seemed to take place during drying and storage.
Vacuum to lower boiling temperature and microwaves for energy transfer can provide very rapid dehydration at low temperatures. Tomato sections were dehydrated in a batch convection air dryer (AD), a 16 kW vacuum microwave (VM) dryer, or by 1 of 3 combination processes. Drying rate of the 100% VM process was 18 times that of the 100% AD process. Only a slight falling rate effect was noted in VM drying AD and VM in sequence allowed the operator to choose any process time between 0.8 and 14.75 h. In this instance the least energy consumption occurred in the 100% VM process. Lowest energy cost was found for the 70% AD / 30% VM process. These results are expected to be strongly dependent upon the scale and design of dryers. Tomatoes finish-dried by VM exhibited a puffed structure associated with faster rehydration.
Color, texture and water activity of microwave-vacuum dried cranberries were evaluated and compared with the corresponding properties of hot-air dried and store-bought cranberries. The microwave drying was done both in the pulsed and continuous modes. The microwave-vacuum dried cranberries were redder and had a softer texture than those dried by the conventional hot-air method. The storage stability of the product dried by microwave-vacuum method was comparable to that of conventionally-dried cranberries. The microwave operating conditions have an effect on the quality of the dried cranberries.
The influence of drying on the aroma compounds, from a chemical and sensory standpoint, and on the structural integrity of basil (Ocimum basilicum L) was evaluated. The drying methods tested were oven drying at 45 °C, air drying at room temperature and freeze-drying. The volatile compounds of fresh and dried basil were extracted and concentrated by simultaneous distillation/extraction and analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. In all, 27 volatile components were identified, linalool being the major component, followed by eugenol. The total quantity of volatiles of fresh basil decreased considerably during oven drying and freeze-drying, whereas air drying of basil at room temperature brought about only small losses of volatile components. The cell damage produced on basil leaves during drying was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. From a sensory standpoint, fresh basil was described as having a fresh, herbaceous and floral odour, while the dried samples had a mentholated, spicy, hay-like and earthy odour. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry
Drying of garlic cloves was done using microwave-convective technique, using microwave power of 10–40 W, air temperature of 40–70 °C and at air velocity of 1–2 m/s. The effective moisture diffusivity varied from 1.29 to 31.68 × 10−10 m2/s. A third order polynomial relationship was found to correlate the effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) with moisture content. The Deff increased for the same values of drying air temperatures and velocities as the applied microwave power was increased. However, Deff decreased at all temperatures and applied microwave power with increase in air velocity. The activation energy in the microwave-convective drying ranged between 4.08 and 10.50 kJ/mol, which was much lower than the convectionally heating activation energy values for moisture diffusivities for most vegetables.
Mint (Mentha cordifolia Opiz ex Fresen) was subjected to microwave vacuum drying and hot air drying, respectively. For microwave vacuum drying, three microwave intensities i.e. 8.0 W g−1, 9.6 W g−1 and 11.2 W g−1 were applied with pressure controlled at 13.33 kPa. For hot air drying, two drying temperatures of 60 °C and 70 °C were examined. Lewis’s, Page’s and Fick’s models were used to describe drying kinetics under various drying conditions. Effective moisture diffusivities were determined to be 4.6999 × 10−11, 7.2620 × 10−11, 9.7838 × 10−11, 0.9648 × 10−11 and 1.1900 × 10−11 m2 s−1 for microwave vacuum drying at 8.0 W g−1, 9.6 W g−1 and 11.2 W g−1, hot air drying at 60 °C and 70 °C, respectively. The microwave vacuum drying could reduce drying time of mint leaves by 85–90%, compared with the hot air drying. In addition, color change during drying was investigated. Lightness, greenness and yellowness of the microwave vacuum dried mint leaves were higher than those of the hot air dried mint leaves. From scanning electron micrographs, the microwave vacuum dried mint leaves had a more porous and uniform structure than the hot air dried ones. From rehydration test at 30 °C, rehydration rate constants of the dried mint leaves by the microwave vacuum drying at 9.6 W g−1 and 11.2 W g−1 microwave intensity were significantly higher than those by the hot air drying at 60 °C and 70 °C (p ⩽ 0.05).
A new approach to the evaluation of the efficiency of drying equipment is considered. The approach employs dynamic efficiency criteria that are calculated from time-distributed parameters (for batch drying) or space-distributed parameters (for continuous drying) rather than average or input-output data. This approach, in addition to comparing the operation efficiencies of various dryers, allows one to analyze how the efficiency changes during the drying. Sample efficiency evaluations using the dynamic criteria are performed on the basis of experimental data for various types of dryers (fluidized-bed, freeze, and microwave vacuum dryers) and various materials (DSSK-65 rubber, mannitol, lactose).
The influence of the drying method on volatile compounds of Rosmarinus officinalis was evaluated. The drying methods tested were convective (CD) and vacuum-microwave (VMD), as well as a combination of convective pre-drying and VM finish-drying (CPD–VMFD). Rosemary drying kinetics was described by a simple exponential model for CD and VMD, while VMFD kinetics consisted of two periods: linear until a critical point and exponential beyond that point. Volatile compounds of rosemary samples were extracted by steam-hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC–MS. Thirty-four compounds were tentatively identified, with α-pinene, bornyl acetate, camphene and 1,8-cineole being the major components. The total volatiles concentration of fresh rosemary (135 g kg−1) decreased considerably during both CD (87.2 g kg−1) and VMD (61.9 g kg−1). CPD–VMFD was the best option for drying rosemary because the time required was relatively short (30 min), and the aroma quality was good according to both instrumental (100 g kg−1) and sensory analyses.
This is the first report to identify the presence of chicoric acid (cichoric acid; also known as dicaffeoyltartaric acid, which is a caffeic acid derivatized with tartaric acid) in basil leaves. Rosmarinic acid, chicoric acid and caftaric acid (in the order of most abundant to least; all derivatives of caffeic acid) were identified in fresh basil leaves. Rosmarinic acid was the main phenolic compound found in both leaves and stems. Chicoric acid was not detected in sweet basil stems, although a small amount was present in Thai basil stems. Other cinnamic acid monomers, dimers and trimers were also found in minor quantities in both stems and leaves. Basil polyphenolic contents were determined by blanched methanol extraction, followed by HPLC/DAD analysis. The characterization of the polyphenolics found in the basil extracts were performed by HPLC/DAD/ESI–MS/MS and co-chromatographed with purchased standard. The influence of inoculation with an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), Glomus intraradices, on plant phenolic composition was studied on two basil cultivars,‘Genovese Italian’ and ‘Purple Petra’. Inoculation with AMF increased total anthocyanin concentration of ‘Purple Petra’ but did not alter polyphenolic content or profile of leaves and stems, of either cultivar, compared to non-inoculated plants. In the US diet, basil presents a more accessible source of chicoric acid than does Echinacea purpurea, in which it is the major phenolic compound.
Spices and aromatic herbs have been used since antiquity as preservatives, colorants, and flavor enhancers. Spices, which have long been the basis of traditional medicine in many countries, have also been the subject of study, particularly by the chemical, pharmaceutical, and food industries, because of their potential use for improving health. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated how these substances act as antioxidants, digestive stimulants, and hypolipidemics and show antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anticancerigenic activities. These beneficial physiological effects may also have possible preventative applications in a variety of pathologies. The aim of this review is to present an overview of the potential of spices and aromatic herbs as functional foods.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) was dried using conventional hot air or the recently developed vacuum-microwave dryers. The effect of the drying method on the relative abundance of major flavor volatiles, rehydration rate, color, and structural integrity of the plant was evaluated. Dynamic headspace analysis of volatiles present in fresh or dried basil revealed that linalool and methylchavicol (estragole) were the two major headspace volatile compounds of the plant sample. Vacuum-microwave dehydrated basil yielded approximately 2.5 times the linalool and 1.5 times the methylchavicol of the air-dried samples. Furthermore, the vacuum-microwave-treated samples yielded more volatiles than fresh basil, due to chemical reactions during drying. Air-dried samples of basil had darker and fewer green hues than those prepared by vacuum microwave. Vacuum-microwave-dried samples had a higher rehydration rate, whereas the potential of the plant material to rehydrate was hindered in air-dried samples. This is likely attributed to the dramatic and pronounced structural collapse of the air-dried cells as revealed by the scanning electron microscope.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves were dried using a microwave oven at atmospheric pressure or two traditional methods: air-drying at 50 degrees C and freeze-drying. The microwave-drying was carried out at different powers and times on raw basil leaves, while for air and freeze-drying techniques, both raw and blanched leaves were used. The raw and dried basil was analyzed for selected aroma compounds by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry-selected-ion-monitoring, the chlorophyll a and b by HPLC and the color by a reflected-light colorimeter. For dried samples microwaved for 1 min at 270, 2 min at 440, 1 min at 650, and 1 min at 1100 W, the percentage retentions of the characteristic volatile compounds (eucalyptol, linalool, eugenol, and methyl eugenol) were higher than in the samples dried by traditional methods, with the exception of freeze-dried unblenched basil. Microwave drying allowed a larger retention of chlorophyll pigments than air-drying and freeze-drying (with or without blanching) and preserved the color of the raw basil. Microwave drying requires a much shorter treatment and implied the simultaneous blanching of the material.
- Á Calín-Sánchez
Á. Calín-Sánchez et al. / Food Research International 48 (2012) 217–225