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Objective versus projective measurement of need for achievement: the relation between TAT and CMPS
Journal of Managerial Psychology
Abstract
In entrepreneurship research, self-reporting using questionnaires is often used as a replacement for the projective test, the thematic apperception test (TAT). Posits that this study is to examine whether an objective test, Cezarec-Marks personal scheme (CMPS) can be used as a replacement measure for TAT. States that the subjects in the investigation are people in higher education; two measures of the same individuals, over a period of seven months, were carried out, the average age at the first test was 21.3 years, and an analysis of correlation shows no correlation (r(t1) = 0.0556, n = 89, r(t)2 = 0.0733, n = 71) between need for achievement with TAT and need for achievement with CMPS. Confirms the findings of the study that the hypothesis of TAT cannot be replaced by CMPS.
... Subsequently, an alternative test, the Cezarec Marks Personal Scheme (CMPS), has also been proposed and compared with the TAT for measuring achievement [49]. The CMPS includes 11 sub-scales, of which achievement is one. ...
... Some scholars criticize TATs as time-consuming, subjective and difficult to interpret [49], [53]. Moreover, some researchers showed that questionnaires and TAT measures are virtually uncorrelated [54]. ...
Understanding and profiling player motivation complements and extends research on gameflow, player profiling and game artificial intelligence, which helps us design entertaining games. However, automated identification of a player’s motive profile remains an open challenge. An emerging technology that shows promise as a novel technique for identifying cognitive phenomena is electroencephalography. This paper begins with a survey of literature applying electroencephalography to measure cognitive characteristics relevant to player motivation types. Then we present conceptual models that link motivation theory to mental states that can be identified using electroencephalography including emotion, risk-taking and social attitudes. We conclude the paper by examining the research challenges associated with using electroencephalography to validate these models.
... The need for achievement was developed by McClelland (1961) to investigate the motivational bases of human behaviour (Spangler, 1992). The idea of the need for achievement stems from the process of planning and human behaviour in striving for excellence (McClelland et al., 1953;Hansemark, 1997). The achievement need reflects a person's need to strive hard to attain success (McClelland, 1961;Beugelsdijk, 2007). ...
Jay Barney's article in 1986 has provided two very important indicators for the long-term success of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which are entrepreneurship and luck. In SMEs where resources and capabilities are scarce, entrepreneurs need to shoulder the responsibility of ensuring the survival and success of their firms. In addition to that, flexibility in operations and adaptability to changes afford SMEs with a greater possibility to gain from unexpected changes and accidental discoveries. To examine the impact of entrepreneurship and luck on the competitive advantage of SMEs, 356 usable survey responses collected from Malaysian SMEs were analysed. The data were analysed using multiple regression analysis with the results suggesting that both entrepreneurship and luck do play a significant role in influencing the competitive advantage of SMEs. The findings provide an important contribution in the fonnulation of a model of competitive advantage among SMEs. From the findings of this study, policy makers are advised to consider incorporating entrepreneurial traits development in the education curriculum to inculcate these characteristics among our future business leaders. Apart from that, SMEs are encouraged to cultivate a flexible and adaptive organisational structure in order for it to benefit from both endogenous and exogenous luck.
This study aims to uncover the impact of individual- and firm-level factors, measured by personality traits of the owner-managers and firm serendipity-seeking in explaining SMEs performance and the moderating impact of firm size. The results of the study show that firm-level factors are more important in explaining SMEs performance. Firm size is also found to moderate the effect of need for achievement and endogenous serendipity-seeking of the SMEs but the results do not conclude whether individual- or firm-level factors are more relevant to predict the performance of SMEs with different size. The findings could provide an alternative direction of study to the inconsistent results in studying effect of personality traits and SMEs' performance.
Self-reporting questionnaires as well as projective tests are frequently used in entrepreneurship and management research that is concerned with the need for achievement. The purpose of this study was to examine whether an objective test such as the Cesarec-Markes Personal Scheme (CMPS) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) have any predictive validity on the entrepreneurial activity of starting a new business. The study had a longitudinal design. Psychological measurement of need for achievement was conducted before the entrepreneurial decision was made. The period between the psychological measurement and the collection of the data for the longitudinal study was 11 years. In summary, the result of the study does not support the hypothesis that the TAT has any predictive validity. On the other hand, the result of the study does support the hypothesis that the objective test CMPS has predictive validity.
In this paper we examine the impact of membership in Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs) on trade between PTA members. Rather than considering the impact of PTA membership on the volume of trade we consider the impact of membership on the structure of trade. For a large sample of countries over the period 1962-2000 we find that membership in a PTA is associated with an increase in the extent of intra-industry trade. In addition, we find that the effect of PTA membership on IIT is larger when a PTA is formed between two developed countries.
Psychology can be distinguished from other behavioral sciences by its emphasis on the behavior of the individual person. Behavior, in turn, is influenced by the way in which the external world is represented in the mind, and by the individual's exercise of choice. The article examines the possibility that relatively enduring attributes of the person might affect entrepreneurial activity, describes the social cognitive processes Involved in constructing representations of the external environment, and suggests which motivational variables affect behavioral choices. Although past research on “the psychology of the entrepreneur” has not been productive, a psychological approach based on persons, process, and choice holds promise for the future.
When 70 undergraduates were instructed to try to reinstate their original state of mind and write the same TAT stories, or when they were instructed not to worry about whether their stories were similar to or different from those written before, test–retest reliability of need for power was substantially higher than the levels usually found for TAT motive and approach levels found with objective personality tests. Under instructions to write different stories, Ss showed chance-level reliability. Results are discussed in terms of bringing implicit test instructions and self-instructions under experimental control. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Contends that both the interpretation of an effect size and the actual estimation of a coefficient of determination are partially theory-dependent. Two theoretical models for the variables cases are considered. In a variety of circumstances where the square of the correlation is used, the required assumptions are not tenable. In the alternate model, the absolute value of the correlation provides a coefficient of determination. The correlation coefficient is recommended for use as an effect-size indicator, because evaluating effect size in terms of variance accounted for may lead to interpretations that grossly underestimate the magnitude of a relation. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Introduces the binomial effect size display, which displays the change in success rate (e.g., survival and improvement rates) attributable to a new treatment procedure. An example of the use of this method is presented. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied 51 technical entrepreneurs, focusing upon the relationships between their motivation and company performance. More specifically, the relationships between the entrepreneurs' needs for achievement, power, and affiliation were related to the performance of the 51 small companies they founded and operated. Results indicate that high need for achievement and moderate need for power are associated with high company performance. The effects of need for power and affiliation on performance seem to be derived through their influence on leadership styles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article reviews the literature on reliability of fantasy-based achievement motivation measures. Homogeneity estimates for such measures are suggested, and some illustrative applications to data are presented. Analysis of both published and unpublished data suggests that homogeneity reliability of these measures rarely exceeds .30 to .40. The use of achievement motive measures to predict school achievement is questioned on grounds of low reliability of the measures. Previous findings in this area are interpretable in terms of failure to control on IQ and/or productivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This report is based on a study conducted on 44 subjects who were applicants for industrial units. The technical committee recommended selection of the applicants on the basis of their entrepreneural potential. A 2 × 2 analysis of variance design emerged on the basis of the committee's judgement (selection or rejection) of each applicant and age of the applicants. Achievement values (vAch) and locus of control of subjects were measured. The results revealed that the applicants selected by the committee showed significantly greater amount of vAch and more internality on the scale of locus of control. The subjects above 35 years in age were found to be lower in vAch combined with less internality than those who were below 35 years of age. Interaction effects did not reach significance for any of these variables. Correlation coefficients of the measures further supported the above results. The implications of these findings are shown in terms of entrepreneural selection and development.
The McClelland-Atkinson theory that arousal of achievement fantasy depends upon arousal of the achievement motive is examined critically in light of accrued empirical evidence. The effects of achievement-arousal conditions on fantasy n Ach are shown to be probably nonmotivational. n Ach scores are shown to be correlated with performance measures in about ½ of the studies reported, but the pattern of hypothesis confirmation presents the theory with difficulties. The addition of perceptual and cognitive situational and developmental variables appears to render the empirical evidence theoretically more tractable. It is argued that motivation influences fantasy by processes more complex and less direct than originally thought. (3 p. ref.)
A TABULATION OF THE SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS BETWEEN MOTIVATIONAL IMAGERY AND BEHAVIOR OVER 20 YR. IN SKOLNICK'S (SEE 41:3) STUDY REVEALED (1) THAT THE NUMBER OF SUCH CORRELATIONS IS SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER THAN CHANCE, (2) THAT THIS FINDING IS LARGELY CONFINED TO THE MALE SS, (3) THAT ORDINARY OS DO NOT PERCEIVE PEOPLE AS HAVING TRAITS CHARACTERISTIC OF THEIR IMAGERY TYPES, THOUGH CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS DO, (4) THAT IMAGERY RELATED MORE TO OPERANT ACTIONS IN MALES AND RESPONDENT ACTIONS IN FEMALES, (5) THAT ADOLESCENT IMAGERY SCORES ARE MUCH INFERIOR TO ADULT IMAGERY SCORES IN THE NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS THEY GENERATE, AND (6) THAT ADOLESCENT ACTIVITIES PREDICT ADULT IMAGERY SCORES MUCH BETTER THAN ADOLESCENT IMAGERY PREDICTS ADULT ACTIVITIES, SUGGESTING THAT IMAGERY MAY BE MORE THE RESULT THAN THE CAUSE OF ACTION. THE FINDINGS ARE INTERPRETED IN TERMS OF A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK IN WHICH FANTASY IS CONSIDERED SIMPLY AS 1 TYPE OF BEHAVIOR (E.G., THOUGHT) WHICH IS RELATED TO ANOTHER TYPE OF BEHAVIOR (E.G., ACTION), RATHER THAN IN TERMS OF THE TRADITIONAL PROJECTIVE TEST FRAMEWORK.
An analysis of the occupational position of 55 Wesleyan graduates some 14 yr. after graduation indicated that significantly more of those originally scoring high in need Achievement (n Ach) than of those low in n Ach were found in entrepreneurial occupations. A cross-validation study of students of the classes of 1954 and 1955 confirmed the finding that males with high n Ach gravitated toward business occupations of an entrepreneurial nature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
The results of studies attempting to link achievement motivation and entrepreneurship are reviewed. Despite variability among the studies regarding samples, operationalization of achievement motivation, and its measurement, a fairly consistent relationship between achievement motivation and entrepreneurship was found. This review of the research suggests that the study of psychological traits and motives should be continued, but that these variables should be more precisely operationalized, measured with valid instruments, and included as one dimension in theory-driven, multidimensional research models of entrepreneurship.
Psychoanalysis attempts to represent the underlying dynamics of personality as an interaction of forces. Each force is a need which impels the individual person to pursue a certain course of activity—a course of activity which usually involves a certain kind of object. An inhibited or repressed force with its associated impressions of objects may manifest itself in the guise of a fantasy which the subject can report on, or its presence may be inferred by the analyst on the basis of other phenomena. In the latter case the analyst is apt to speak of it as a repressed unconscious fantasy. Since the exposition of such hidden fantasies is one of the fundamental aims of analysis and since, at best, the customary technio for accomplishing it calls for a long period of watchful waiting, it seems that it would be helpful if a more expeditious method could be devised. For, if
This study pursues a threefold purpose. First, an extensive review of the literature on entrepreneurship is provided. Second, specific personality characteristics are compared in relation to the type of enterprise founded by the entrepreneur. Finally, comparisons are made between independent and franchise entrepreneurs on personality and socio-economic variables.
The purpose of this investigation was to find out the factorial dimensions among achievement-related motives. 77 subjects were administered 11 tests which measured achievement-related motives. Four factors were extracted by the principal components analysis from the correlation matrix and the factors were rotated by a normalized varimax criterion. The findings suggested that achievement-related motivation is not a unitary construct. There were three psychological aspects as follows: (1) the motive to achieve (Ms), (2) the motive to avoid failure (Maf), and (3) the personality component of the resultant achievement-oriented tendency (Ms—Maf).
Reinforcement control and achievement motivation measures were given to 29 black individuals engaged in operating small businesses, and their level of business activity was assessed 18 months later. Individuals with a high need to achieve were found to be significantly more active than those whose achievement motivation was low. Activity scores of internal locus of control individuals were significantly higher than those of externals. Internals with a high need to achieve were significantly more active than all others. It was inferred from the data that thoughts are most successfully translated into action when the individual feels in control of his fate and recognizes the steps that are instrumental in reaching goals.
C.C. Gallagher and J. Doyle ar with the Department of industrial managment at the university of Newcasste upon Tyne, England. In this paper the autors areply to criticism made in the previous paper by storey and johnson, in particular the implict argument that small firms do not create as many jobs as has been supposed. they consier most of the criticism to be over-simplifications, at the worst misleading or factually incorrect.They belive that,despite its problems the Dun and Bradstree database is still one of the best sources there is with which to study job generation in Britin whole economy. They see no reason arising out of the critisisms to reverse their orignial conclusion that small firms are important generators of jobs.
Reviews and describes the results of some psychological tests which
have been used with entrepreneurs. The tests have been mainly employed
either to explore the nature of the entrepreneur or to assess so-called
significant entrepreneurial characteristics. Key problems in the
psychological testing of entrepreneurs relate to varying definitions of
the entrepreneur, numerous entrepreneurial characteristics, uncertainty
about the significance of entrepreneurial characteristics, and lack of
rigour in test development. The results of well validated tests
highlight many personality characteristics which could be correlated
with characteristics of small firms and business owner-managers.
However, there have been specific measures of entrepreneurial
characteristics developed in a search for a sensitive discriminating
measure. Unfortunately, many of these tests have been poorly validated
and this fails to supply useful information about the nature of
entrepreneurs. Gives examples to illustrate some problems in
psychological testing and discusses the importance of new approaches.
Chand Perry lecturer at the Queensland institute of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; Rooss macarthur is an insurance broker in Sydeny Australia;Geoffery Meredith is profesor, univeristy of New England Armidnale, New sourth wales, Bert cunningotn lecture sat Grifth university, Brisbane, Austrlaia. The paper describes research into need for achievement and tlocil of control among highely successful "super-enterprise", or other small business owner-manger and the general population. Ranking for need for achievement, internal locus of contorl and chlance of contorl are expected, but result for poeeful other locus of control are unexpected. the relationship between need for achievement and locus of control is discussed.
Ordinary least squares regression estimates were made of two cross-lagged models to assess McClelland's contention that n Ach (need for achievement) is a cause of economic development and not a result of economic development. Results of the analysis suggested partial support for McClelland's contention. However, results indicated that n Ach had a much smaller effect on economic development than originally reported by McClelland. It was concluded that the link between n Ach and economic development has been overstated by McClelland and some of his theoretical opponents.
Achievement motivation and creativity measures of sixty men controlling small businesses were related to the growth-rate of their companies. High scores on either variable were associated with business success; low scores on both were associated with static or declining businesses.
This book is intended to assist those who wish to develop their own attitudes scales. After introducing the topic of attitude measurement, the method of paired comparisons is discussed together with the associated significance tests. In succeeding chapters, the methods of equal-appearing intervals, successive intervals, summated ratings, and scalogram analysis are described. A method for selecting an initial set of statements to meet the requirements of a Guttman scale, the scale-discrimination technique, and the H- and W-techniques for improving the scalability of a set of statements are considered in the final two chapters. Suggested readings, questions and problems are given at the end of each chapter. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Administered, to 42 male entrepreneurs (Es) and 41 middle/senior managers in Northern Ireland, a questionnaire to measure psychological and entrepreneurial characteristics, which included an achievement motivation scale, an achievement values scale, Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, and the Gordon Personal Profile (GPP). An E was defined as someone who builds an organization from its inception and runs it successfully using a simple administrative structure. Results indicate that new, aspiring Es possessed unique personal characteristics but that after some years of managing one's own business, entrepreneurial qualities diminished; and established Es began to resemble career executives. The established E had an internal locus of control over events, and his business tended to be a central life interest. He was independent from relatives but not to the extent of his managerial counterparts. Although Es did not outscore managers on achievement motivation, they were high achievers. Of the 4 personality traits measured by the GPP, the dominant one was responsibility, while the foremost entrepreneurial values were economic and theoretical. It is concluded that the skills necessary to ensure the growth and development of an enterprise may be different from those required to conceive and launch a business. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the nature and conceptualization of the achievement motive (n Ach), and focuses on the considerable number of different projective and questionnaire instruments and scales within comprehensive personality inventories which have been evolved for its measurement. Convergent validity of the instruments appears to be very poor. Reasons for this are explained in terms of the psychometric characteristics of the instruments and whether n Ach should be conceptualized as a conscious or unconscious variable. Guidelines for the future development of n Ach measures are presented. (4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Contains revised information on the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule published originally in 1954 (see
31: 2006). Includes directions for scoring, interpretation of scores, norms, suggested uses, reliability, intercorrelations of the variables, and validity data. 82-item bibliography. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examines D. McClelland's (1961) theory, as presented in
The Achieving Society, that there exists a causal link between a psychological factor known as need for achievement (nAch) and the economic growth and decline of nations. Attention is directed to McClelland's conception of the nature and origin of nAch and the role nAch plays in the economic growth process. It is argued that the theory is empirically invalid, theoretically inadequate, and offers little value to those interested in promoting economic growth. It is suggested that future theory and research should concentrate on the interaction between psychological and structural factors as they relate to economic growth. This approach would more closely approximate reality by emphasizing factors at individual, national, and international levels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a new edition of the 1953 study establishing the validity of the TAT measure of need for achievement (nAch). Basic problems in the measurement of fantasy and the development of appropriate content analysis procedures, the nature of the achievement imagery index score, and the general development of nAch are examined. A new preface with "hindsight" is also included. (8 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Outlines the basic concepts of research in social psychology and indicates strategies of research design (e.g., experimental design, manipulations, and validity) and methods of assessment (e.g., observation, interviews, and content analysis). Ethical considerations, as well as scientific and social responsibilities, of researchers are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A questionnaire for the measurement of McClelland's concept of achievement motivation is presented. The scale was derived by factor analysis and shows that most of the components of achievement motivation are loaded on a single factor. Norms for several groups are given. Three criterion groups of successful people scored significantly highly on the scale, namely entrepreneurs, professors and managers. The scale is uncorrelated with neuroticism or extraversion, or with any of Cattell's 16 personality factors with the exception of superego strength and surgency.
This study attempts to identify an objective test to understand the psychological nature of the successful entrepreneur. Successful entrepreneurs are defined as those who started a business, where none before existed, established for at least five years with at least eight employees. Previous research into the personal characteristics that predict entrepreneurial success is claimed to be unsatisfactory because the projective tests have laborious procedures, require technical training to interpret, and focus on the individual's need for achievement. The present study is based on the assumptions that (1) an objective system of evaluation structured so non-psychologists could administer it was needed, and (2) many other factors than need for achievement could be measured. Five tests were identified that appeared to fit the need for an objective, valid test in a simple format with ease of administration and interpretation. The assessment program utilized these established tests and structured interviews. These were administered to sixty individuals, equally divided by race into blacks and whites, of which all but four were men. Five hypotheses are investigated. Found that racial differences for entrepreneurs were not evident, and that (compared to men in general) entrepreneurs score higher on need for achievement, independence, and effectiveness of leadership, and are low on scales reflecting need for support. Concludes that the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey, the Gordon Survey of Interpersonal Values and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule successfully differentiated entrepreneurs from others, could therefore serve as objective indicators of entrepreneurship, and should be tested in further research studies. (TNM)
The new theory of motivation by Atkinson and Birch (1970), based on conceptual analysis of a change in activity, has been programmed to allow computer simulation of effects of differences in motivation on the stream of operant behavior. Simulation of conditions that exist when people who differ in strength of achievement motive write imaginative stories in response to a sequence of pictures shows that construct validity does not require internal consistency as traditionally supposed. The theoretically deduced differences in total time spent imagining achieving (instead of something else) can postdict input differences in motive strength (i.e., construct validity) even when there is little or no internal consistency reliability as indicated by Cronbach's (1951) alpha computed from theoretically deduced time spent imagining achievement in response to particular pictures. This general point has already been amply documented in 25 years of productive empirical research using TATn Achievement. Now a definitive theoretical refutation of the repeated psychometric criticism of the method is provided. Those who have been moved to dispel fantasies about fantasy-based measures of achievement motivation (Entwistle, 1972) are invited, instead, to examine the shallow theoretical foudation of our traditional myths of measurement.
After briefly reviewing McClelland's original study demonstrating the association between need Achievement imagery scores in schoolbooks and rates of economic growth in different countries, the present study attempted to examine this same relationship using more comparable measures of national product and examining growth over a series of time periods between 1950 and 1977. The results failed to evidence any association between national need for Achievement level and rate of economic growth. The reasons for this failure are briefly discussed and the meaning of ‘national’ motivations is reconsidered.
Seventy-one entrepreneurs and 62 non-entrepreneurs were given tests of Locus of Control and Risk-taking Propensity, as well as nAch. Significant differences were found and led to a clarification of the concept of entrepreneurship.
This article examines the prevalence of five psychological attributes in a sample of established entrepreneurs. These attributes are need for achievement, locus of control, risk-taking propensity, tolerance of ambiguity, and Type A behavior. These characteristics are widely regarded as hallmarks of the entrepreneurial personality.The focus of the study is twofold: 1) Do these attributes distinguish entrepreneurs (founders) from small business managers (nonfounders)? 2) Does the presence of these “entrepreneurial” attributes relate to the financial performance of the firm?Survey questionnaires were completed by 239 members of the Smaller Business Association of New England. Founders in this sample score significantly higher than nonfounders for three of the five dimensions: need for achievement, risk-taking propensity, and tolerance of ambiguity. Both groups manifest an internal locus of control: that is, they share a perception that they can influence events in their lives and are thereby free from external forces such as destiny or luck. In terms of Type A behavior, founders and nonfounders alike score 60% above the midpoint on the Type A scale. Such Type A persons tend to be competitive, restless strivers who constantly struggle against the limitations of time.The relationships between psychological attributes and financial performance are few, but suggestive. Among founders, internal locus of control relates to a low liquidity ratio. Among non- founders, high tolerance of ambiguity associates with high return on assets (ROA), and high need for achievement associates with a high liquidity ratio. A test for curvilinearity reveals a “threshold effect” : in three instances, a psychological attribute associates with corporate performance only to a certain point. Beyond this optimal level, the psychological pattern appears to become dysfunctional and financial returns falter. In the founders, for example, moderate risk-taking is associated with increased ROA. However, the ROA of these firms decreases when risk-taking becomes excessive. In similar fashion, founders may see their firms' ROA flourish if this attribute is present to a moderate extent. When too pronounced, the profitability of the firm may decline. The same pattern exists between tolerance of ambiguity and growth rate in the nonfounder group. Excessive ambiguity tolerance may lead to a lack of response mechanisms for dealing with environmental change. In assessing the leadership of established ventures, it might be prudent for bankers, investors, and entrepreneurs themselves to pay heed to the mix of these characteristics
Examines the motivation for achievement as a psychological factor that shapes economic development. Refuting arguments based on race, climate, or population growth, the book instead argues for cultural customs and motivations - especially the motivation for achievement - as the major catalysts of economic growth. Considering the Protestant Reformation, the rise of capitalism, parents' influences on sons, and folklore and children's stories as shaping cultural motivations for achievement, the book hypothesizes that a high level of achievement motivation precedes economic growth. This is supported through qualitative analysis of the achievement motive, as well as of other psychological factors - including entrepreneurial behavior and characteristics, and available sources of achievement in past and present highly achieving societies. It is the achievement motive - and not merely the profit motive or the desire for material gain - that has advanced societies economically. Consequently, individuals are not merely products of their environment, as many social scientists have asserted, but also creators of the environment, as they manipulate it in various ways in the search for achievement. Finally, a plan is hypothesized to accelerate economic growth in developing countries, by encouraging and supplementing their achievement motives through mobilizing the greater achievement resources of developed countries. The conclusion is not just that motivations shape economic progress, but that current influences on future people's motivations and values will determine economic growth in the long run. Thus, it is most beneficial for a society to concentrate its resources on creating an environment conducive to entrepreneurship and a strong ideological base for achievement. (CJC)
• After 1, 4, or 6 hours of food deprivation 81 Ss wrote out brief stories about 7 pictures. Two judges analysed the stories for 23 characteristics related to the hunger drive, agreeing in a large percentage of cases. With increase in hunger, "there was no overall increase in the percentage of Ss showing food imagery or food themas, but there was a decided increase in the percentage showing food deprivation themas, characters expressing a need for food, and activity successful in overcoming deprivation, but not always instrumental in getting food. On the other hand, as hunger increased, there was a decided decrease in the amount of goal activity (eating) and in friendly press, favorable to eating." A composite need food score differentiated reliably the 3 deprivation groups. "No outstanding difference in sensitivity to reflecting hunger was discovered for the various pictures used provided the picture was enough related to hunger to produce a sufficient number of food-related responses to show a differential… . It is suggested… that the amount of need deprivation and of instrumental activity present in stories is a better index of the strength of a need than is the amount of goal activity." (see 22: 4252). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• After 1, 4, or 6 hours of food deprivation 81 Ss wrote out brief stories about 7 pictures. Two judges analysed the stories for 23 characteristics related to the hunger drive, agreeing in a large percentage of cases. With increase in hunger, "there was no overall increase in the percentage of Ss showing food imagery or food themas, but there was a decided increase in the percentage showing food deprivation themas, characters expressing a need for food, and activity successful in overcoming deprivation, but not always instrumental in getting food. On the other hand, as hunger increased, there was a decided decrease in the amount of goal activity (eating) and in friendly press, favorable to eating." A composite need food score differentiated reliably the 3 deprivation groups. "No outstanding difference in sensitivity to reflecting hunger was discovered for the various pictures used provided the picture was enough related to hunger to produce a sufficient number of food-related responses to show a differential… . It is suggested… that the amount of need deprivation and of instrumental activity present in stories is a better index of the strength of a need than is the amount of goal activity." (see 22: 4252). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Scoring Guide for the Miner Sentence Completion Scale - form T
- J B Miner
Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society
- J.W. (Ed.) Atkinson